ASSESSMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND HYDRAULIC LOSSES OF WOLAIYTA

SODDO TOWN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

MSc THESIS

WUBISHET ALEMU ENNA

JUNE, 2021
ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA
ASSESSMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND HYDRAULIC LOSSES OF WOLAIYTA
SODDO TOWN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

WUBISHET ALEMU ENNA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE

ENGINEERING, WATER TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE, SCHOOL OF GRADUATE
STUDIES, ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN HYDRAULIC
ENGINEERING

JUNE, 2021
ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA
DECLARATION

I, Wubishet Alemu Enna, declare that this master thesis is my original work and accomplished
by my own words by taking comments and corrections from my principal advisor. The thesis has
not been presented and submitted at any institutions and university to obtain a degree. In
addition, with this, I further entirely declare that supportive materials used in this work are
formally acknowledged in citation and list of references section.

Wubishet Alemu Enna __________________ ______________

Name Signature Date
 ADVISOR’S THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

WATER TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Assessment of Water Supply and Hydraulic Losses of
Wolaiyta Soddo Town Distribution System”, submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science with specialization in Hydraulics, the Graduate
Program of the Faculty of Hydraulic Engineering and has been carried out by Wubishet Alemu
Enna Id. No.PRAMIT/2033/10, under my supervision. Therefore, I recommend that the student
has fulfilled the requirements and hence here by can submit the thesis to the faculty for defense.

Bogale GebreMariam (Ph.D) __________________ __________________

Principal Advisor Signature Date

i
 THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

WATER TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

Name of the Candidate: Wubishet Alemu Enna

Graduate Program: MSc in Hydraulic Engineering

Thesis Title: Assessment of Water Supply and Hydraulic Losses of Wolaiyta Soddo Town
Distribution System

Date of Thesis Oral Defense Presentation: July 17, 2021

This is to certify that the candidate has orally presented the thesis entitled above, and the present
version of the thesis has incorporated all comments and suggestions given during review process.
Therefore, we recommend that this final version can be considered as a reviewed thesis in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science to the respective graduate
program.

Approved by:

Candidate: Wubishet Alemu Enna Sign……………Date …………….

Principal Advisor: Bogale GebreMariam (Ph.D.) Sign……………Date…...………...
External Examiner: Andinet Kebede (Ph.D.) Sign……………Date …………….

Internal Examiner: Getachewu Bereta (Ph.D.) Sign……………Date……………..

Faculty Case Handler: Mesfine Amaru (MSc) Sign: ………..… Date…………….

Checked by:
Faculty Dean: Melkamu Teshome (MSc) Sign……………Date……………..
AWTI, SGS Dean: Dagnachew Daniel (PhD) Sign……………Date………….....
SGS Director:Abera Uncha Utallo (Ph.D.) Sign……………Date……………..

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Before anything, I have great thanks and praise to the almighty of GOD for his mercy and grace
upon me during all my works and in all my life.

I would like to express gratitude from my heart to my principal advisor Dr. Bogale GebreMariam
who supported and guided me whole heartedly devoting his precious time. He encouraged me
since at the beginning of thesis work by providing critical and productive advices. I thank him
not only for academic guidance, but also for teaching me the habit of punctuality and devotion.

I would like to express my deepest thanks for Soddo Town Water Supply Sanitation Service
(SWSSS) office and staff members for giving necessary data to accomplish my thesis on this
manner.

I have great thanks and acknowledgement to Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) for giving this
educational opportunity as sponsorship.

Finally, I also wish to acknowledge my family and friends for their support, prayer and
understanding throughout the completion of this thesis. I wish all the best for all the parties
involved in assisting me to make an end to my thesis.

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ACRONYMS

AWWA American Water Work Association

BH Borehole

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DEM Digital Elevation Model

EPA United State Environmental protection Agency

EFDRE Ethiopian Federal Democratic Republic

GIS Geographical Information System

GS Galvanized Steel

HC Household connection

IWA International water association

ILI Infrastructural leakage index

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MoWR Ministry of Water resources

NRW Non-revenue water

OPI Operational efficiency performance indicators

PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride

PWS Public Water System

QA Authorized consumption

QAL Apparent losses

QBA Billed Authorized Consumption

QI System input volume

QL Water losses

QRL Real losses

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QUA Unbilled Authorized Consumption

RUPI Region Urban Planning Institute

SWSSS Soddo Water Supply and Sanitary Service

UARL Unavoidable Annual Real losses

UARL Unavoidable Annual Real Losses

UFW Unaccounted for Water

UN United Nations

UPVC Unplasticised poly-vinyl chloride

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USEPA United States Environmental Protection agency

WDS Water Distribution System

WB Water Balance

WHO World Health Organization

WSSS Water Supply and Sewerage Services

YCO Yard Connection Own

YCS Yard Connection Shared

YTC Yard Tap connection

YTU Yard Tap Users

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ADVISOR’S THESIS APPROVAL SHEET ................................................................................. i

MOCK THESIS APPROVAL SHEET ........................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii
ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................ iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xi
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................xii
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................ 3

1.3 Objective of the Study ................................................................................................. 4

1.3.1 General Objective ...................................................................................................... 4

1.3.2 Specific Objectives .................................................................................................... 4

1.4 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 5

1.6 Scope of the Study....................................................................................................... 5

1.7 Overview of the Thesis ............................................................................................... 6

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 7

2.1 Overview of Water Supply Coverage ......................................................................... 7

2.2 Urban Water Demand.................................................................................................. 8

2.2.1 Types of Water Demand............................................................................................ 8

2.2.2 Factors that Determine Water Consumption ............................................................. 9

2.2.3 Hydraulic loss Parameters ....................................................................................... 11

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2.3 The Benefits of Water Loss Control Program ........................................................... 12

2.3.1 Assessing and Reducing Water Distribution System Leakage ............................... 12

2.3.2 Top-Down Annual Water Balance .......................................................................... 13

2.3.3 Component Analysis of Real Losses ....................................................................... 14

2.3.4 Unavoidable Annual Real Losses............................................................................ 14

2.4 Water Meter Inaccuracies.......................................................................................... 14

2.5 Water Audit Performance Indicators......................................................................... 15

2.6 America Water Work Association Water Audit Software ........................................ 16

2.7 Earlier Hydraulic Analysis Methods ......................................................................... 17

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................... 19

3.1. Description of the Study Area ................................................................................... 19

3.1.1. Location ................................................................................................................... 19

3.1.2. Population ............................................................................................................... 20

3.1.3. Climate .................................................................................................................... 20

3.1.4. Commercial services ............................................................................................... 21

3.1.5. Existing Water Supply Service and Source ............................................................. 21

3.1.6. Water Production and Consumption ....................................................................... 30

3.1.7. Institutional and Water Commercial Demand ........................................................ 34

3.2. Materials .................................................................................................................... 34

3.3. Data Source and Its Categories ................................................................................. 37

3.3.1. Water Production and Billing Data ........................................................................ 37

3.3.2. Cadastral Information ............................................................................................. 38

3.3.3. Population and Other Document ............................................................................ 38

3.4. Water Supply Coverage Analysis ............................................................................. 38

3.4.1. Level of Connection per Family .............................................................................. 38

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3.4.2. Average daily per capita consumption .................................................................... 39

3.5. Technical Performance Analysis or Variability Study .............................................. 39

3.6. Water Losses Analysis .............................................................................................. 40

3.6.1. The AWWA Water Audit Software ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.6.2. Validity Scoring of the AWWA Water Audit SoftwareError! Bookmark not defined.

3.6.3. Water Loss Component ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.7. Calculation and Analysis of Important Performance Indicators ............................... 42

3.7.1. Operational Efficiency Performance Indicators (OPI) ........................................... 43

3.7.2. Technical Performance Indicators .......................................................................... 43

3.8. Demand Estimation ................................................................................................... 45

3.9. Accuracy Evaluation and Sampling Water Meter ..................................................... 50

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .............................................................................. 55

4.1 Domestic Water Supply Coverage ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2 Level of Connection per Family................................................................................ 55

4.3 Average Daily per Capital Consumption .................................................................. 56

4.4 Correlation between Water Consumption and Population ........................................ 57

4.5 Technical Performance Variability with Design Document ..................................... 58

4.6 Type of Water Consumption ..................................................................................... 61

4.7 System Water Losses ................................................................................................ 62

4.8 Water Loss Analysis.................................................................................................. 62

4.8.1 Real Loss ................................................................................................................. 63

4.8.2 Authorized consumption .......................................................................................... 63

4.8.3 Unauthorized Consumption ..................................................................................... 64

4.8.4 Estimating Apparent Losses .................................................................................... 64

4.8.5 Customer Metering Inaccuracies ............................................................................ 64

viii
4.9 Evaluating Important Performance Indicators .......................................................... 66

4.9.1 Operational Efficiency Performance Indicator (Opi) ............................................. 66

4.9.2 Technical Performance Indictors ............................................................................ 67

4.10 Available Pressure Heads/Network Simulation Results ........................................... 69

4.11 Remedial Measures and Strategies for Identified Problems ..................................... 74

5. CONCULISSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................. 77

5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 77

5.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 78

6. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 80
APPENDIX-A: Checklist for customers of the town .............................................................. 84

Appendix-B: 2020 the annual water production, consumption, and losses ............................. 86

Appendix-C: Existing source of water ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

APPENDIX-D: Water audit software reporting worksheet ..................................................... 87

Appendix-E Water CAD analysis result .................................................................................. 90

Appendix E-1 Network Table (Node) For the Existing System Based On Present Consumption90

Appendix E-2: Network table for the existing system based on present consumption ........... 96

APPENDIX-F: ....................................................................................................................... 103

APENDIX-G: ......................................................................................................................... 104

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2-1 WATER CONSUMPTION USAGE TARIFF (BIRR PER M3) FOR SWSSS ........................... 10
TABLE 2-2 THE AWWA/IWA WATER BALANCE TABLE ............................................................... 11
TABLE 3-1 TOWN POPULATION PROJECTION (2008-2030) ............................................................. 20
TABLE 3-2 BUSINESS INSTITUTIONS IN STUDY AREA ..................................................................... 21
TABLE 3-3 STUDY TOWN EXISTING BORE HOLE DATA. ................................................................ 23
TABLE 3-4 SHOWS SPRING SOURCES OF STUDY AREA. .................................................................... 24
TABLE 3-5 EXISTING SERVICE RESERVOIRS ................................................................................... 26
TABLE 3-6 EXISTING DISTRIBUTION LINE IN STUDY AREA WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM .................... 28
TABLE 3-7 MODES OF SERVICES BY PERCENTAGE ......................................................................... 29
TABLE 3-8 TRENDS OF WATER SUPPLY SERVICES CONNECTIONS IN THE TOWN (2017-2019).......... 30
TABLE 3-9 WATER PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TOWN (2017-2019) .................................... 31
TABLE 3-10 WATER CONSUMPTION CATEGORIES OF STUDY TOWN (WSO, 2008) .......................... 32
TABLE 3-11 WATER PRODUCTION 2016-2018 ............................................................................... 33
TABLE 3-12 SHOWS POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY MODE OF SERVICES. ....................................... 46
TABLE 3-13 BREAKDOWN OF PER CAPITA WATER DEMAND BY PURPOSE (2010-2030) ................ 47
TABLE 3-14 INDICATES ADJUSTMENT OF CLIMATE FACTORS. ....................................................... 47
TABLE 3-15 ADJUSTMENT DUE TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ............................................... 48
TABLE 3-16 METER ACCURACY TEST FOR STUDY TOWN WATER UTILITY ................................... 52
TABLE 4-1 CALCULATED RESULT THAT SHOW LEVEL OF CONNECTION PER FAMILY IN EACH
KEBELS ............................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4-2 LEVELS OF CONSUMPTION...................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
TABLE 4-3 SUMMARIES OF LOSSES IN DIFFERENT TOWN BESIDES TO STUDY AREA ...................... 63
TABLE 4-4 SHOW THE RESULT OF AWWA WATER BALANCE TABLE ANALYSIS IN M3/YEAR. ...... 65
TABLE 4-5 POPULATION AND DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND PROJECTION OF STUDY AREA ............ 68

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 3-1 LOCATION MAP OF THE STUDY AREA .............................................................................. 19

FIGURE 3-2 SHOWS THE LOCATION OF SOURCES AND RESERVOIRS ................................................. 27
FIGURE 3-3 SHOWS THE PUBLIC DEMAND OF THE STUDY TOWN ..................................................... 34
FIGURE 3-4 FLOW CHARTS THAT SHOWS OVERVIEW THE RESEARCH PROCESS ............................ 36
FIGURE 4-1 SHOWS CONNECTION PER FAMILY .............................................................................. 56
FIGURE 4-2 SHOWS PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF THE STUDY AREA .......................................... 57
FIGURE 4-3 SHOWS THE CORRELATION POPULATION AND WATER CONSUMPTION ........................ 58
FIGURE 4-4 SHOWS THE SERVICE COVERAGE OF THE STUDY TOWN. ............................................ 59
FIGURE 4-5 SHOWS THE CONSUMPTION LEVEL OF THE STUDY AREA ............................................ 61
FIGURE 4-6 SHOWS THE GRAPH OF PRESSURE VALUE DURING PEAK AND LOW DEMAND TIME ... 71
FIGURE 4-7 SHOWS THE NETWORK LAYOUT OF THE STUDY AREA ................................................ 72
FIGURE 4-8 SHOWS THE WATER LOSSES THOUGH BREAKAGE ...................................................... 73

xi
ABSTRACT

Gaps in provision of adequate water supply to rapidly growing urban population in developing
country are increasing dramatically. As a result, demand for additional water sources and
infrastructure is growing. Wolaitta soddo Town is one of the towns faced with problem of water
shortage as well as water loss. In this study, an attempt is made to evaluate both the water
supply coverage and the water loss with the available secondary data those were published and
unpublished document, annual report, project design document. The focus of this study is to
evaluate the town distribution coverage of the water supply and evaluating the total water loss at
the town level as well as pressure evaluation in the system. Water production that is only
available for the entire town and the water consumption as aggregated from individual customer
meter readings were used to evaluate the total water loss at town level. Moreover, records of
some sample meters that get water from the same reservoir and are located in different ground
elevations were evaluated so as to get some notion for any loss from customer meters. The total
water loss derived from the water balance at town was compared using different performance
indicators. Moreover identifying pressure in distribution system was done by using Water
CADV8.0 software. Opinions of local experts that were obtained through discussion during
fieldwork have been also used to support the quantitative analysis qualitatively. Finally, a
methodology was suggested to better identify the loss and remedial actions to be taken by the
water authority to reduce water loss were recommended. According to the analysis average per
capita consumption was 24l/per/day, connection per family was 23% and the total water losses
in the system were 25.24%. From analysis part, water demand and supply of the study area were
not balanced and the present water supply network services of the town is not sufficient for all
residents, some part of the system contains pressures above and below the maximum and
minimum limit that were adapted in the distribution system and it needs adujestment. Also the
annual water loss of Wolaiyita Soddo town in terms of percentage was greater than the
acceptable level which is 10% that cannot be removed. The infrastructure leakage index value
was obtained to be 0.87 and less than an ideal value of 1 that indicates the real loss in the system
close to unavoidable.

Key words: Wolayita Sodo, water supply, water losses, water audit software, performance
indicators.

xii
 INTRODUCTION

Background
Clean water is essential for the survival and well-being of human kind. Therefore, the
governments, NGO‟s and all other stake holders are working to the maximum of their capacity
to achieve sustainable development goal to provide the world’s population with safe drinking
water supply and hygiene. However, still there is strong need in many parts of the world for
sufficient, quantity and quality of water.

Based on millennium development goal targets, the urban areas Africa will be accessed for
improved water within 15 years from the year 2000. On the other hand, in African large cities,
only 43% inhabitants have house connection water supply services. Based on the Global water
supply and sanitation assessment (2000), report in developing countries urban population is
expected to grow from 1.9 billion in 2000 to 3.9 billion in 2030, averaging 2.3% per year. On the
other hand, in developed countries, the urban population is expected to increase, from 0.9 billion
in 2000 to 1 billion in 2030 at overall growth rate 1%. This has brought into focus the urgent
need for planned action to manage water resources effectively. Therefore the development,
conservation and use of water, one of the main elements in country‘s overall development.

Today’s awareness and concern of safe drinking water in developing countries is increased from
ever. This awareness focus on water supply sector like adequate water supply coverage, losses
control, infrastructure renew and replacement, observing previous trend and planning for the
future. In sustainable world, sufficient and safe water is made available to meet every person’s
basic needs (WWAP, 2015).

Urban population numbers and water use patterns mainly determine the management of water
supply system. In many developing countries in Africa and Asia, urban water agencies have
great difficulties to provide proper water supply access and sanitation due to rapid urbanization
and insufficient capacity and resources (UN-HABITAT, 2001).

Water supply systems in urban areas are often unable to meet existing demands and are not
available to everyone rather some consumers take disproportionate amounts of water and the
poor is the first victim to the problem (Bereket, 2006).

1
Moreover, managing and reducing losses of water at all levels of a distribution system remains
one of the major challenges facing many water utilities in most developing countries including
Ethiopia (Asmelash, 2011).

According to Global water supply and sanitation assessment report, (2000), the main challenges
in developing countries are shortage of resources to provide access to safe water for their
citizens. Moreover the capacity of the citizens to pay for water that fully recovers the cost is very
limited. For this reason many cities of developing countries are faced with great difficulty to
expand the service and rehabilitating the existing aged pipes. Generally, tariffs in developing
countries are set well below the level needed to cover even operational and maintenance costs.

Provision of reliable and safe water supply services to urban habitat is an essential contribution
to overall economic and welfare advancement. Supplying adequate and potable water and
reduction of loss in urban areas in both developed and developing countries are essential. For
instance, in developing countries the provision of adequate potable water supply for drinking,
cleaning, etc. improves health by reducing incidence of water-related illness such as diarrhea,
cholera. Reducing the incidence of illness will help to reduce demand for imported medicine and
thereby easing balance of payment problem facing least developed countries.

Chala (2011) assessed urban water supply coverage and hydraulic loss of Ambo town with the
objective of evaluating the water supply coverage and hydraulic loss in distribution system by
using different performance indicators. The researcher attempted to analyze hydraulic losses in
order to quantify, the amount of water as a loss from the total production. In his findings, he
found from hydraulic loss analysis the water as a loss from the system input volume is 21.5%.
From level of connection per family, he found also 39%. Since the researcher exclude analysis of
pressure that have significant impact on water supply system.

The other researcher titled water supply coverage and water loss in distribution system by
Shimelis Kabeto in case study of Adis abeba. His intention was to assess the supply coverage
and explore the water loss in city water supply distribution system. The researcher attempted to
quantify the average water supply per person as city level and determine water loss at city and
sub-city level. In his findings, he found the average water loss of city and sub-city level as 39%
and 37.56% respectively.

2
Since the present study is similar to reviewed research for Debre Birahan and Adis Abeba
context in many aspects. But the current study is different in its scope. Unlike the above two
research, it is not limited to only supply coverage and its losses.it includes the condition of
pressure evaluation in distribution system, water meter inaccuracy evaluation, uses important
performance indictor parameters that are help to analyze the gaps in water supply demand and
water loss at same time, which was neglected in the previous reviewed study.

The study area is dominantly known by high population growth and urbanization developments.
Currently the study town has faced water shortage due to the shortfall supply, increasing water
demand and expansion of urbanization. Therefore, assessing the water supply coverage and
water loss using statistical and water audit methods in order to develop strategies for the future is
more urgent than ever.

These studies mainly focus on the status of water supply coverage and losses in study town;
using statistical analyzes technical performance measurement, Water CAD and water audit
software. A statistical analysis was applied to analyze the current water supply coverage of the
entire town. The technical performance measurement was evaluated by benchmarking the design
document and current status of utility. Finally, the study had been identifying the existing
information gap in water supply coverage, technical performance of the system and water loss in
order to generate information to be used as a tool for making sound decisions and interventions
for improvement of the water services.

Statement of the Problem

The shortage and insufficient coverage of water in urban area is the major problem in many
developing countries. The main causes are lack of good management and operational practices,
lack of community awareness creation, using high aged pipes without replacement, lack of
monitoring network activities, urbanization, population growth, and aging infrastructure and
coupled with water loss are a great problem in many town including the study area.

Water shortage and frequent service interruption is not only a consequence of the shortfall
between demand and supply but also as result of lack of controlling NRW and managing
network systems, Water shortage and frequent service interruption is not only as a consequence
of the above reasons but also as a result of unidentified leakage and complicated network
systems (WWAP, 2015).
3
According to the household survey carried out by the socio-economic group of the SWSSS
office, (2020), it was reported that 59.9 percent of the surveyed households have safe water
supply from different sources whereas the rest 40.1 percent do not have safe water supply access.
To this effect these households use unprotected sources such as unprotected spring, hand dug
well and river.

The town water authority has great difficulty to identify where and how much water is lost and
what are the main causes for the loss of water that this research is going to focus. Thus all the
above evidences lead to understand that the study area faces a water shortage in quantity and in
low area coverage additionally water loss was occurs.

Objective of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The main objective of the research is to assess the water supply coverage and hydraulic loss on
distribution system in Wolaitta Soddo town; and identify a method to minimize hydraulic loss
and reduce the water shortage.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives are defined as follows:

i. To evaluate the domestic water supply coverage in terms of per capita and level of
connection.
ii. To determine the loss in the distribution system.
iii. To evaluate the status of Wolaiyta Soddo town water supply distribution system
based on per capita and level of connection.
iv. To assess pressure as a hydraulic parameter of the distribution system by using
water CAD.
v. To recommend water shortage and loss reduction strategies based on identified
problem.

4
 Research Questions
This research was studied to designate the existing water supply distribution system of Wolaitta
Soddo town. The general question for this research was why the study town is facing water
shortages? Besides, what is the coverage and status of service with respect to the design
document; and the water loss from distribution system?

i. What is the domestic water supply coverage in terms of per capita and level of
connection?
ii. What is the status of water supply distribution system based on per capita and level
of connection?
iii. What amount of water is produced and distributed to the network system and how
much water is lost?
iv. What is pressure condition in the water supply distribution system?
v. What are the possible strategies to reduce water scarcity of the town?
Significance of the Study
The paper will be important for study town as well as Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
which have interest with financial and technical support in the area can use the research
outcomes as reference for their objective.

Advance those low water coverage areas Initiate to plan future water demand and loss control
that can alert concerned governmental office. In general, this thesis will be essential for Soddo
Water Supply and Sanitary service (SWSSS) to amend the performance of water distribution
system and to reduce the shortage of water supply by applying remedial measures depending on
the identified causes.

Also the community have benefited indirectly through this research as suggestive finding to
solve water related problem by introducing Modern management system that can improve the
water supply distribution system by revising operational system. Besides to that it can benefit
community by upgrading the existing water supplies system evenly for those low water
coverage areas and Initiate to plan future water demand and loss control that can alert concerned
governmental office.

Scope of the Study

5
The study area is chosen because in most of hydraulic loss and inadequate water supply coverage
is the serious problem in water demand for the consumers. The study includes evaluating
domestic water supply coverage and the total loss by using performance indicators, assessing
pressure and does not include model. Therefore, the scope of the study is concerned to assessing
hydraulic losses and water supply coverage of Wolaitta Soddo town.

Overview of the Thesis

The thesis content consists of five chapters as structured below.

Chapter one contains general background, the problem statement, and the research objectives,
and research interview and scope of the study. Chapter two contains literature reviews related
water supply coverage, water loss, review the works in related to this thesis both local and
others. Chapter three it includes description of the study area and the methodology used in data
collection and preparation including the flow chart. Chapter four contains result and discussions.
Chapter five it includes conclusion and recommendation and the last chapter six about references
that were used in this thesis work.

6
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage

The majority of the world’s population is without access to improved water supply and sanitation
services, mainly in sub- Saharan Africa and Asia (WHO and UNICEF, 2000). Moreover, the
number of people who lack access to improved water supply could increase to 2.3 billion by
2025 (WPI, 2006). Lack of sustainability of the water supply infrastructures being one, most of
the development efforts that have been done so far in most areas are constrained by different
factors (Lockwood, 2002).

It is widely accepted that one of the major challenges of the 21st century is to provide safe
drinking water and basic sanitation for all. Close to one billion people lack access of improved
water sources, and over 2.6 billon people lack access to basic sanitation (WHO/UNICEF,
20010). However, developing countries, like Ethiopia, have suffered from a lack of access to safe
drinking water from improved sources and to adequate sanitation services (WHO, 2006).

Access to adequate water and sanitation is low in many countries in Africa resulting high
incidence of communicable diseases that reduce vitality and economic productivity of the
increasing population growth (Jacobsen et al., 2012). One of the key challenges to the
developing countries is increasing access to safe water supply to the rapidly growing urban
population, consequently, billions of dollars have been invested in pursuit of the goal of
‘Universal service’, but the realization of that goal is still intangible (Wagha et al., 2010).

Water supply coverage provides a picture of the water supply situation of one specific country or
town and helps to compare one country with others and the inter and intra town distribution with
in specific country. The percentage of population with or without piped water connection is a
relevant indicator to compare the coverage of water supply in urban areas.

Although the water supply coverage is better in urban areas while According to (Shimelis, 2011),
the average per capital consumption of the Addis Ababa City was found to be 54.60 l/day in2009
this average per capital consumption is lower while compared with other developing countries
like the southern Africa cities.

7
 Water Demand
Water Demand According to Nemanja (2006), system water demand is the quantity of water that
the treatment plant must produce in order to meet all water needs in the community. Water
demand includes water delivered to the system to meet the needs of consumers, water supply for
firefighting, system flushing and water required to properly operate the treatment facilities.
Additionally, all systems have a certain amount of leakage that cannot be economically removed
and thus total demand typically includes some leakage.

The analysis of demand for water, including realistically forecasting future level of demand, is an
important and critical step in the analysis of water supply projects. In African water utilities the
reliability of services varies the greatly as does the water consumption per capita, from 240 liters
per capita per day in Johannesburg to 7 liters per capita per day in the central African Republic
(Jacobsen, 2013).

Water supply for an urban area must meet needs across all economic sectors. This includes the
needs for drinking, industrial and commercial uses, and for emergencies and primary fire
fighting’s etc. Francis (2010), described it is difficult to estimate the amount of water needed to
maintain acceptable or for minimum living standards. Moreover, different sources use different
figures for total water consumption and for water use by sector of economy. In many developing
countries domestic water consumption is strongly related to the class of property they served.

1.2.1 Types of Water Demand

Urban water demand is highly elastic and responsive to many of the factors including, population
growth and urbanization, weather phenomena, price changes, technological influences and socio-
economic growth. Urban water demand can be break down into residential, commercial,
industrial, institutional, firefighting and UFW (Ravindra, 2005).

A. Residential water Demand: residential water demand is the highest percentage of total water
in urban areas and it fluctuates with the seasons of the year (due to weather effects), days of the
week, and the hours of the day (Arbués et al, 2002). Residential water demand is a function of
several factors, some of which are within the control of water utilities (e.g., price, water
restrictions and rebate programs) and some of which are not (e.g., climate and weather and
demographic characteristics).

8
B. Commercial Demand: The consumption includes water used for commercial buildings and
commercial centers including stores, hotels, shopping centers, cinema houses, restaurants, bars,
airports and bus stations (Arbués et al, 2002).

C. Industrial Demand: The water required by factories, paper mills, cloth mills, cotton mills,
breweries, sugar refineries etc. The water required in the industries mainly depend on the type of
industries which exist in the city. This can depend on present and future costs of water, type of
industry and water use intensity, relative price of alternative sources, quality and reliability of
supply, costs of treatment and disposal of waste water and legal requirements.

D. Institutional Demand: It depends on present and future costs of water, per capita revenue of
local governments, NGOs, number and size of public schools, hospitals etc. This is also known
as public demand and it includes the quantity of water required for various public utility
purposes.

E. Firefighting Water Demand: Firefighting water requirements must recognize alternative non
reticulated supplies if they can be accessed and must be factored into the calculations when
assessing requirements.

For these sources to be suitable, consideration must be given to the provision of fire service
couplings on tanked 12 supplies, preferable flood or ponds, or any other additional sources
because water quality for firefighting is not like water for drinking purpose (Davis, 2000).

F. Unaccounted for Water (UFW): Unaccounted for water is the difference between supply
and consumption in a region for a given period of time. The amount usually consists of leaks,
overflows, evaporation, faulty metering, and other unaccounted for flows in a water supply
(Ravindra, 2005).

1.2.2 Factors that Determine Water Consumption

Income:-household income may influence ownership levels of appliances and fixtures and
therefore affect water usage patterns. Therefore, house hold income indirectly affects the water
demand of the community (Hug and David, 2009).

9
Water accessibility:-is sufficient amount of water, which is required to fulfill metabolic, hygienic
and domestic necessities. In addition to adequacy, affordability of water also has significant
influence on the use of water and selection of water sources. Households with the lowest levels
of access to safe water supply frequently pay more for their water than these households
connected to a piped water system (Chala, 2011). Beside high water cost forces households to
use small quantities of water and alternative sources of poorer quality that represent a greater risk
to health (Public Health Protection, 2000). Additionally, great costs of water may decrease the
volumes of water used by households, which in turn may influence hygiene practices and
increase risks of disease transmission. In addition to recurrent costs, the costs for initial
acquisition of a connection should also be considered when evaluating affordability (WHO,
2010).

Water tariff: - is also the main determining factor of water availability. Basically there are two
types of water tariffs, which are connection tariff and usage tariff. Connection tariff includes
installation and material required for connection while usage tariff depends up on the amount of
water used. The usage tariff is a mixed system i.e. uniform tariff rate for public tap and blocked
tariff with progressive rate tied to consumption for other connection. Table 2:1 shows water
usage tariff for SWSSS.

Table 0-1 Water Consumption Usage Tariff (Birr per M3) For SWSSS

Consumption m3 Price/ m3

1-10 1.85

11-30 2.4

>30 2.75

Public fountains 2.25

(Source: Bill narrate, 2019)

10
 1.2.3 Hydraulic loss Parameters

System Water Balance

Findings of Liemberger and Farley (2004), strongly suggest that discussion on hydraulic losses
must be preceded by a clear definition of water balance components.The water balance
calculation provides a tool for water utility to estimate how much water is being lost due to
number of reasons.

International Water Association (IWA) and the American Water Works Association (AWWA)
finalize standard methods to assist water utilities in tracking their distribution system losses.
These methods are the foundation of water auditing and conservation strategies that are now
being used successfully worldwide.

The AWWA/IWA Water Balance (Table2.2) is the foundation of the methodology and defines
the terms used in water auditing. The water audit determines the type and quantity of water loss.
Performance indicators can then be calculated to measure the level and volume of water losses in
the PWS.

Table 0.2 The AWWA/IWA Water Balance Table

System Authorized Billed Billed metered consumption Revenue

water
input consumption authorized
Billed unmetered
volume consumption
consumption

Unbilled Unbilled meter consumption Non-

revenue
authorized
Unbilled unmetered water
consumption (NRW)
consumption

Water losses Apparent Unauthorized consumption

losses
Metering inaccuracies and

11
 (commercial Data handling errors
losses)

Real losses Leakage from water mains

(physical
Leakage from storage thanks
losses

Leakage from services(up to

revenue meter

Source (EPA, 2010)

In the AWWA/IWA methodology, all water that enters and leaves the distribution system can be
classified as belonging to one of the categories in the water balance shown in Table2.2.

Water Loss Control Program

A water loss control program helps to identify real or physical losses of water from the water
system and apparent losses, the water that is consumed but not accounted for.

Real losses represent costs to a water system through the additional energy and chemical usage
required to treat the lost water. Apparent losses represent a loss of revenue because the water is
consumed but not accounted for and thus not billed. Once a water system identifies these real
and apparent losses through a water loss control program, it can implement controls to reduce
them. This can reduce the need for costly upgrades and expansions due to population growth and
increased demand. By reducing the amount of water lost, the recovered water can be sold to
consumers, generate revenue and meet water demands. In some cases this can reduce the need to
find additional sources. Water loss control programs are often the most economical solution to
increasing demand, especially in the short term.

1.1.1 Assessing and Reducing Water Distribution System Leakage

Evaluating and reducing water distribution system leakage can be achieved through Adapting
International Water Association (IWA) standard methodology of assessing and reducing water
distribution leakage.

12
The IWA recommended definition of real losses is ‘the annual volumes lost from transmission
and distribution systems through all types of leaks, bursts and overflows on mains, service
reservoirs and service connections, up to the point of customer metering’. Real losses can be
assessed by any one of two different methods. Those are ‘Top-Down’ annual water balance and
Component Analysis or a combination of two of these methods. Each of these methods is
outlined in the following sections.

1.1.2 Top-Down Annual Water Balance

Real/physical losses can be accessed through the IWA Best Practice ‘Top-Down’ annual water
balance (Table-2:2), as the volume remaining after volumes of authorized consumption and
apparent losses have been deducted from the system input volume.

In a purely top-down approach to water auditing, the approach used in the AWWA Free Water
Audit Software, apparent losses are quantified first. Next, real losses are estimated as the
calculated residual, this is., total losses minus apparent losses.

Thus, real losses are not measured directly, but rather are a calculated residual, based on a
combination of measured and estimated values. Also, no insight is given to the breakdown of
real losses into its sub-components in the top-down, or initial auditing approach.

Apparent losses are the sum of unauthorized consumption, customer meter inaccuracies, and
systematic data handling errors. For the initial top-down approach, the IWA/AWWA Water
Audit method suggests estimating unauthorized usage as 0.25% of supplied water.

The total volume of real losses is determined by the top-down annual water balance; however
this analysis does not provide any information on the components of this total volume of real
losses. It does not break down real losses into the volume of real losses due to detectable bursts,
(that can potentially be managed through speed and quality of repairs, and active leakage
control) or real losses due to background losses (that can only be reduced by pressure
management or infrastructure renewal).

This analysis also provides no information on the volumes of real losses from the various
elements of infrastructure, which is required to develop appropriate loss management strategies.

13
For these reasons, it is recommended that, if possible, the top-down annual water balance is
undertaken in conjunction with the component analysis assessment methods.

1.1.3 Component Analysis of Real Losses

Annual real losses can also be assessed from first principles using component analysis. This
approach uses numbers, average flow rates and average run-times of different types of leaks and
bursts (background, reported and unreported) on different parts of the distribution infrastructure
(mains, service reservoirs, and different sections of service connections).

Other data required to undertake a full component analysis of real losses include basic
infrastructure data (mains length, number of service connections, length of the privately owned
service line from property boundary to meter); infrastructure condition factor (ICF) for
background leakage; numbers of reported and unreported bursts, and their average run-times
based on utility policies; average system pressure and pressure/leakage relationships (using
appropriate Fixed and Variable Areas Discharge( FAVAD) values.

1.1.4 Unavoidable Annual Real Losses

Real losses cannot be eliminated totally. The lowest technically achievable annual volume of real
losses for well-maintained and well-managed systems is known as unavoidable annual real losses
(UARL). Real losses can be controlled, but (at the current operating pressure) cannot be reduced
any further than the UARL. However, although the UARL represents the minimum level of real
losses that could technically be reached, for most utilities it will not be economic to reduce real
losses to this level. There will be some intermediate economic level of real losses which it is
appropriate for a utility to achieve.

Water Meter Inaccuracies

A fundamental component of water loss accounting is verification of the accuracy of meter
readings. Meter testing procedures and protocols exist to determine the accuracy of meter
readings and a requirement for meter testing is often prescribed as a conservation measure
(AWWA, 1999). The meter error adjustment is an estimate of the systemic error of the meter
readings. According to AWWA the meter adjustment, Me, is expressed as in the following
equation.

14
𝑀𝑒 = (1 + 𝑒)……………………………………………………………………….. (2.1)

Where 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 % error.

This corrected reading is then used as the best estimate of the expected value of the Meter
reading.

Water Audit Performance Indicators

In addition to the standardized water balance, the IWA has developed to investigate and
recommend universal performance indicators, which could and should be used to measure and
compare various components of non-revenue water in differing nature of distribution systems
and utilities (Mutikanga et al., 2010). These indicators are: water resources, personnel, physical,
operational, quality of service, and financial.

The IWA Water Loss Task Force (WLTF) was also initiated as part of the global initiative to
develop PIs for water losses among others (McKenzie & Lambert, 2004), but their work has
mainly concentrated on the physical losses (leakage) in well-managed systems of developed
countries. Little work has been done on the apparent (commercial) water losses component.

According to Liemberger and Farley (2004), the key elements of performance indicators are
investigated and appropriate recommendations have been made in real losses, apparent losses,
total losses and non-revenue water by IWA approach.

The IWA approach of selecting different Performance Indicators (PIs) for different purposes
(financial, operational, and water resources) are a clear step forward. According to Liemberger
and Farley (2004) the selected key performance indicators are discussed below;-

Non-revenue losses: is the main component performance indicators that were selected by IWA
approach. It also related to financial case that indicates that the cost of running the water supply
system of the town and it expressed by percent (%).

Real loss (physical loss) is one component of the key selected performance indicators and it
indicates the water loss in a system input volume expressed by percentage as well as L/services
connection/day for system with 20 or more services/km of main. Additionally, it uses M3/km
main/day for systems with fewer than 20 services/km main.

15
Also it comprise leakage from all part of the system and over flow at storage tanks because of
operational system is pressurized to allow for the effect of intermittent supply.

Apparent losses are the significant component of component of performance indicators that
caused by operational problem and it expressed by M3/service connection/year. Also estimating
apparent losses is rather difficult and subjected to high degree of uncertainty.The main reasons
for these losses are illegal connections, data handling error and meter inaccuracy.

Infrastructure leakage index is the main and essential component of performance indicators that
has influence in water supply system in a given town. It is determined by using the ratio of
current apparent real losses (CARL) and unavoidable apparent real losses (UARL).

America Water Work Association Water Audit Software

Merits of Water Audit software is very crucial software to determine water losses and various
parameters that are related to water supply coverage in the community.it have the following
advantages.

Water audits provide decision making tools to utility managers, directors, and operators. i.e.,
knowing where water is being used in your system allows you to make informed decisions about
investing resources such as time, labor and money. Water audits also allow managers to
efficiently reduce water losses in the system. It also reducing water used at the source may even
result in delaying or avoiding capital investments such as a new well, more treatment technology
or additional water rights. Besides to that Water audits also identify which water uses are earning
revenue for the utility and which water uses are not.

Thus, System personnel can increase revenue by ensuring all appropriate uses are being
accurately measured and billed. This leads to more financial capacity in the water system,
reduced cost per customer and better management of the water resource.

It Creating awareness among water users i.e., customers can see and understand that the utility is
taking proactive steps to manage wasted water and save for the future. In addition to that it is an
effective educational and public relations tool for the water system. In general the main reasons
to apply the AWWA water audit software for this study are it is very user-friendly, with the
ability to easily toggle to and from individual spreadsheets.

16
Also it is designed as a basic “top-down” approach, thereby allowing the user to complete the
primary worksheet quickly with information from readily available records and the availability
of the software i.e. new users can register and download freely the software package.

Besides too that it have ability to automatically calculate Performance indicators and key
statistics thereby preventing mathematical error and Instructions are built into the software; terms
and definitions are clearly explained, logical checks and alerts are included in the software to
notify the users to questionable data entry or results.

Hydraulic Analysis Methods

Water CAD software is hydraulic simulation software, distributed by Bentley Systems. It is best
applicable in complicated networks and grid systems (instead of branched systems), determining
what pipes and which diameters should be used and what improvements and/or extensions the
network needs, determining where to install the tanks, valves and pumps and studying chlorines
behavior and the necessity to establish secondary chlorination points (Arnalish, 2011).

It also makes possible for people with little knowledge of fluid mechanics to make decisions
regarding any given network (especially useful in developing communities where professional
engineers are limited) in addition to its widely usable.

Hydraulic analysis of flows and pressures in a distribution system has been a standard form of
engineering analysis since its development by (Hardy, 1936). Water distribution system
computer models have been in use since the mid-1960s and have evolved into sophisticated,
user-friendly tools that are capable of simulating large distribution systems (Walski et al., 2001).

The parameters that need to be defined for each components are Elevations and the base
demands of nodes,(diameters, lengths and the friction coefficient factors) of pipes as well as By
default Water CAD Considers the pipe material of having a Hazen William friction coefficient
factor,(Base Elevation, the minimum and maximum levels, diameter)of the tanks, the most
important parameter defining the pump operation is the pump curve, Other input needed is the
elevation of the pump and Reservoir elevation.

17
After all the parameters required to run the simulation are entered into the software, the
successful simulation run provides solution for Pressure at every single element in the system,
Flows at every point of time in the system, Velocities in the pipes, Levels in the tanks, Pump
cycles, Water age and constituent concentration.

Generally hydraulic Software is recommended that the up to date Water CADv8.0 software for
an unlimited number of pipes. The hydraulic software Water CADv8.0 simulation was carried
out for the purpose of pressure regime for customers demand, velocity, and head loss and overall
systematically studying and better understands network operation to identify higher and lower
pressure zones. Is case of this study Water CAD was used only for identifying the condition of
pressure in existing distribution system of the town.

18
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

3.1.1. Location
Wolaitta Soddo town is situated at a distance of 395 and 170 km south west of Addis Ababa and
Hawassa respectively. The town’s geographical coordinates are 6054’ latitude North and 37045’
longitude east. Relatively, the study town was located west of the Great Ethiopian rift valley and
at the eastern margin of the south western highlands. The town was established at the foot of
mount Damotta and from this mountain, its altitude descends in all directions. The relief of the
town was mainly characterized by mountains, gorges and plain lands especially towards the
southern direction. The altitude of the town ranges from 1800 - 2100 meters above sea level. The
Figure 3:1 shows the location map of the study area.

Figure 0-1 Location map of the study area

19
 3.1.2. Population
The 1994 Census undertaken by the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) gave the population of
study town as 36,287. This has been adopted as a base for the research. The CSA has established
growth rates at five years interval that can be used for urban population projection of all regions
in the country starting from year 1995 up to 2030. The CSA has also produced three alternative
scenarios with high, medium and low growth rates. Hence, from the three variants set by CSA
for towns in SNNP Region, the median variant has been applied for the projection of the study
town. The following exponential growth rate was used to calculate population based on the 1994
CSA base population.

𝑃𝑡 =
𝑃0 𝑒 𝑟𝑡 ………………………………………………………………………..(3.1)

Where 𝑃𝑡 projected population at time is 𝑡, 𝑃0 is initial population at time 0, 𝑟 is annual growth

rate, and 𝑡 number of years. As part of this study applying the above growth rate in the
exponential model, the urban population of the town was projected up to year 2030 and has
presented in Table-3:1.
Table 0-1 Town Population Projection (2008-2030)

Description 1994 2008 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Annual growth rate

(urban) % _ 4.80 4.60 4.30 4.10 3.90 3.70

Population 36,287 72,781 79,795 98,935 121,445 147,593 177,587

Note: - The 1994: CSA National census figures are used as a base for annual growth rate and
population which were 2.9% and 36,287 respectively).

3.1.3. Climate
The condition of climate in a given environment has an effect on water supply and demand of
water in the town. According to the reality, in high temperate area the consumption and
production level of water increase as the temperature increases. Also the amount of rainfall is
high in the given area the consumption level of water was decreases due to the climate.

20
According to National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia, Wolaiyita soddo town mean
minimum and maximum temperature of the day varies from season to season. For month of
December mean minimum temperature is 7.5°C and mean maximum temperature was 27.2°C.
The average elevation of the surrounding area, together with the precipitation and temperature
records, places Wolaiyita Soddo on the border between the temperate and tropical climate Zones.
The mean annual rainfall has been reported to be 1212mm (WSO, 2019).

3.1.4. Commercial services

There are a number of services rendering commercial activities in the town. These include
Hotels, Bars, Restaurants, Transportation services (Mini-Bus, taxi), Barbers, Bars, Garages, and
Beauty Salons. Table 3:2 shows the business institutions in study town.

Table 0-2 Business Institutions in Study area (WSO, 2019)

Establishment Number Consumption in L/day

Crop trading 116 148

Tej house 19 4,589

Grind mill 33 473

Garage 14 574

Bar 13 459

Butchery 26 374

Tea room 85 1000

Hotel 41 1200

Printing press 2 247

Block production factory 3 986

Flour mill factory 1 478

3.1.5. Existing Water Supply Service

According to the water authority office design report and the data obtained during site visit the
source of water supply system of the study town is borehole (Bh) and springs.

21
The boreholes are Konto 1 and 4 Bhs, Ottona Bh, Wadu Bh, Wareza Gerera boreholes, Ansome
Bh 1 and 2, Bethelem Bh and Geneme Bh.

Konto 1 and 4 and Ottona boreholes were constracted and developed by ethio-china water
supply program in 1990. Also Geneme, Wareza Gereras and Bethelem boreholes were developed
by SNNPR water supply authority office in 2010. The other borehole were drilled and developed
by federal aid fund in 2019. The production yield capacity of Konto 1 and 4, Ottona Bh, Wadu
Bh,Wareza Gerera boreholes, Ansome Bh, Bethelem Bh and Geneme Bh is 7.5 , 6, 5, 30, 12,6
and 7l/s respectively. The total volume of yield form all boreholes were 73.5l/sec.

Water from Konto 1 and 4 boreholes are pumped to treatment plant for disinfection into a service
reservoir of 100m3 capacity located at about 1.3 km from the sources and then boosted to a
reservoir of 400 m3 capacity located at the peak of Konto hill. Also the WADU borehole which
was pumped directly to the nearby users of Wolaitta Soddo University, Dairy Development and
poultry farms and other nearby government offices. The water from WADU borehole has no
treatment system and directly distributed to users, however there has been no complaints on the
quality and taste of the water by users. Water from WADU Borehole was pumped for 16 hrs a
day for pump safety reasons.

Ottona BH water which is located at a distance of 1.5 km. from the center of the town is pumped
to a concrete circular reservoir of 400m3 capacities and then distributed by gravity to consumers
through a 4 inch diameter GS transmission main branched to distribution lines and working for
24 hrs per day. Water from Ottona BH was distributed to Terpeza and Ottona hospital and
surrounding community and occasionally to some of the town.

Wareza Gerera is connected to the existing treatment plant by a 4 inch GI pipe transmission line
for a total length of 4200 meters. Accordingly, the water from Gerera Borehole is to be pumped
to the treatment plant for disinfection before flowing into the existing service reservoir. The
transmission line length connecting the source and the storage reservoir was estimated at 2.7 km.
of 4 inch GS pipes. The summarized Data on existing production boreholes is given in Table3:3.

22
Table 0-3 Yield and pumping hours of boreholes in Wolaiyita soddo town

Borehole Production Pumping hours

yield(
lit/sec)

Konto 1and 4 7.5 24

Ansome Bh 1 and 2 12 24

Ottona Bh 6 24

Wadu Bh 5 16

Wareza gerera Bhs 30 48

Bethelem Bh 6 24

Geneme Bh 7 24

According to the data obtained from SWSSS office the existing springs in the study town are
Likimse spring, tekelehaymanot spring, ottona spring and chire hamessa and Their current yields
are 38l/s, 1.3l/s, 0.8l/s and 2.5l/s respectively. The total volume water that obtained from springs
is 42.6l/sec used by the study town.

Ottona spring, which was close to Ottona borehole; this was directly pumped to the hospital from
a wet well. Also Tekele Haimanot spring supplies the north-western part of the town via 100 m3
reservoir situated at Mariam Church. Likimse spring is used for Abela Worada water supply.
Tekelehaymanot spring was supplied by gravity feeding system. Table 3:4 shows springs in
terms of yield.

23
Table 0-4 Yield of the springs in Wolaiyita Soddo town .

Name Current Comment

Yield
(l/s)

Likimse Sp. 38 Capped; 12 l/s used for Abela worada water supply.
Major overflow

Tekele Haymanot Sp. 1.3 Gravity feed

Ottona Sp. 0.8 Capped; pumped

Chire Hamessa 2.5 capped

The Table, showed the data of borehole and springs regarding to its coordinates, elevation and
yield, year of construction, its internal diameters and total depth of the study area.

Table 4-5 Coordinates of borehole and springs in the study area (SWO, 2019)

s. Name of northing eastin elevatio Year of Tot Yiel Internal casing dia(mm)
No borehole g n construct al d(l/s
ion dept )
h
(m)

1 WG1- 755752 35914 1850 2010 200 10 203

BH 0

2 WG2- 756434 35937 1871 2010 200 6 203

BH 0

3 WG3- 755579 35840 1849 2017 182 13.5 203

BH 0

4 WG4- 756041 35886 1850 2017 200 12 203

BH 6

5 WG5- 755507 35876 1846 2017 180 13.5 203

BH 1

6 WG6- 755237 35844 1844 2017 148 15 203

BH 6

24
7 Ans- 751538 36165 1822 2017 145 16 203
BH1 5

8 Ans- 751019 36150 1821 2017 152 17 203

BH2 4

9 Konto-4- 758237 36019 1884 1990 114 5 203

BH 5

10 Konto-1- 758237 36009 1880 1990 114 5 203

BH 6

11 Bethele 757758 36280 2046 2010 203 6 203

m-BH 4

12 Otona- 758611 36462 2003 1990 114 6 203

BH 3

13 Universit 754909 36179 1865 2019 150 5 203

y-BH 9

Geneme- 758682 36225 2059 2011 250 7 203

BH 1
14
(aroge
areda)

15 Likimse- 752295 36413 1797 2017 20 203

spring 7

16 Damota- 750945 36314 2138 2003 1 203

spring 5
(gravity-
spring)

25
Service Reservoirs

The shapes of the reservoirs were circular with a flat roof and they are constructed in concrete
and it has the treatment plant site. The structures of the reservoirs were in good conditions. The
reservoirs are provided with a valve chamber to accommodate both inlet and outlet valve
requirements.

A water meter was provided on the main line at the outlet of each reservoir to record the total
flow of water to the distribution network. The reading should be recorded on a daily basis, so
that the data can be utilized for future study in estimating the water demand of the town and
losses in the distribution network. According to the water authority report, the raw water pumped
from both booster stations will be treated at R2 main reservoir.

The treated water from the main reservoir R2 was gravitated to zone 4, 5 and 6 by a 100m3 break
pressure tank and directly fed to zone 3 distribution networks by gravity mains whereas demand
for zone 1 and zone 2 will be further boosted to R1 main reservoir which will be distributed to
zone 2 by a 100m3 break pressure tank and directly to zone 1 distribution system from R1 main
reservoir. The elevation level, storage capacity of the reservoirs of town Water Supply system
was indicated. The following Table 3:5 shows the existing service reservoirs.

Table 0-5 Existing Service Reservoirs

zones Reservoir Capacity (m3) TWL(m.a.s.l) Source Remark

Zone-1(R1) 500 2217.3 Bh Main Reservoir

Zone-2 100 2113.6 Bh Break pressure tank

Zone-3(R2) 900 2078.0 Bh Main Reservoir (existing

400m + additional 500m3 )
3

Zone-4 100 2005.9 Bh Break pressure tank

Zone-5 100 1975.0 Bh Break pressure tank

Zone-6 100 1926.0 Bh Existing treatment reservoir

Source: SWSSS office

26
Figure 3:2 indicates the position of sources and reservoirs of the study area.

Figure 0-2 shows the location of sources and reservoirs

Distribution System

According to the water authority design report, the distribution network consists of DCI, PVC
and galvanized steel pipes with a diameter between 1 inch and 4 inch. The distribution network
of the town Water Supply System has an estimated total length of 44,886 meters and showing
area coverage ratio of 20.4 meters pipe to everyone hectare of land. Almost 50% of the
distribution network was composed of 2 inch GS pipes. Detail of distribution network in the
town by pipeline size and length is presented in Table-3.6.

27
Table 0-6 Existing Distribution Line in the Study Area Water Supply System

Diameter Length Type

(Inch) (meter)

4 3,808 DCI

4 2,777 PVC

3 7,962 GS

2½ 2,808 GS

2 22,489 PVC

1½ 3,304 DCI

1 1,738 GS

Total 44,886

Source:SWSSS Office

Modes of Services

The water service offices serve the community in four major modes of services. These modes of
services were adopted in the study area based on the design criteria prepared by the Ministry of
Water Resources (MoWR) in 2006.The mode of services was House connection (HC),Yard
connection own (YCO),Yard connection shared(YCS) and Public tap supplies (PT).

According to the water authority office report the existing modes of services in terms of service
coverage in the study town are shown in Table 3.7.

28
Table 0-7 Modes of Services by Percentage

Mode of Service Percent of population served

HC 5

YCO 12

YCS 7.8

PT 69

Un-served 6.2

Source: SWSSS office

Connections and Public Fountains

There are numerous private hand-dug wells serving as secondary water supply in the town. Most
interestingly, it was observed that hand dug wells are fitted with surface pumps to lift water to
tankers for bathing, cloth washing and other uses in some large hotels and pensions. The water
supply connection has not shown significant growth for the last three years before 2020 due to
the sources inadequacies and low network coverage. However, during this period the town
population, construction in new businesses and residential buildings has been intensified. Table
3.8 shows trends of customers’ connection profiles.

29
 Table 0-8 Trends of water supply services connections in the town (2017-2019)

Consumers connection profiles

Connection type 2017 2018 2019 Average Annual Growth (%)

Private HH connections 2593 2767 2867 5.2

Commercial 180 191 210 8.0

Industrial 15 25 30 43.3

Government 142 165 240 30.8

Public Taps 32 10 4 64.4

Source: SWSSS Office report

Based on SWSSS report, there were more than 356 applicants on the waiting list for a house
connection in 2020. These interests of the applicants were not being met because of shortage of
water and lack of resources. Operation and maintenance activities have been carried out by the
SWSSS up to the water meter. Repairs include works on the main line, public fountain faucets,
public fountain gate valves, and the reservoir. The average number of repairs carried out by the
WSO per month was about 60. The number of complaints the WSO has to deal with each month
has been estimated to be 10-20.

3.1.6. Water Production and Consumption

According to the last three years data before 2020 that were collected from Town Water Supply
Office, the water production was 972m³/day.

The average annual water production and consumption was calculated to be 354,780m³ and
259,891m3, respectively which shows an average loss of 27%. The amount of water produced
and consumed in the study area for the last three years as obtained from the water supply and
sewerage enterprise office is shown in Table 3.9.

30
Table 0-9 Water Production and Consumption Town (2017-2019)

Operation Production Consumption loss loss in

year

(m³)/year (m³)/year m³/year (%)

2017 303,647 236,833 66,814 22.00

2018 401,374 331,034 70,340 17.52

2019 360,229 211,807 148,422 41.20

Average 355,083 259,891 95,192 27%

annual

Source: SWSSS Office

The recorded data of water consumption by mode of connection was not well practiced by the
authority and the actual share of the total consumption of private residential building was an
average of 50% in 2020. The second largest category of consumers are government institutions.
They use almost 35% of the total water consumption. The water consumption of commercial
sector amounts to only 14.1% of the total consumption.

This figure does reflect only a small percentage of the actual demand used by commercial sector
and some of the registered consumers do not receive any water for commercial purpose at all due
to low water pressure. Consumption at public taps are inelastic to the number of operational
units, thus the share of total sales falls between 0.4 to 1.4% with average value of 0.9%.

High consumer groups from connected customer’s database by categories included the following
Water consumption ( Table-3.10) according to consumer categories (WSO, 2008).

31
Table 0-10 Water consumption categories of the study area (WSO, 2008)

User’s name m³/year m³/month % of total

Soddo hospital 13960 581.66 4.1

ETCO 5436 226.5 1.6

Soddo Agr. College 11061 960.87 3.3

Soddo Agr. Department 4522 188.41 1.3

Salihom clinic 5628 234.5 1.7

Soddo Tech. and Agr. vocational 6092 253.83 1.8

Ethiopian Petroleum Agency 2496 104 0.7

Commercial and business users 58101 4841.75 17.3

Other Gov.& institutions 46809 3900.75 13.9

Public taps 3387 282.25 1.0

Private connections 178928 14910.7 53.2

TOTAL 336420 28035 100.0

Source: SWSSS office report

32
Unit costs of water production

The unit cost of water production includes the costs of construction and distribution. In case of
the study area these costs differ from year to year due to variable costs incurred in production
and distribution.

Real costs of production include manpower costs, energy costs, chemical costs, fuel and
lubricant, and office running costs. The unit costs of 1m3 water productions and distribution of
the town Water Service were estimated and shown in Table-3.11.

Table 0-11 Water Production 2016-2018

Cost items 2016 2017 2018

Summary of production costs (birr) 1562314 1052165 1237723

Total annual water production (m3) 303647 401374 360229

unit cost of production per m3 5.15 2.62 3.44

Source: WSWSSS office

Non- Revenue Water

In case of study area, as per data found from the town water supply service, for the last three
years before 2020, Non-revenue water was about 27%. Loss would be minimal at the beginning
of the design period and will increase gradually with time in the expected service life of the new
system unless intermediate leakage detection and subsequent remedial work are carried out by
replacing old pipes and improving of the whole water supply system of the town. According to
water authority office report, a figure for non-revenue water which was expected to vary from 15
to 25% has been adopted at the beginning and end of the design period.

33
3.1.7. Institutional and Water Commercial Water Demand
It was not be reliable to estimate institutional and commercial water consumption from the
existing water supply system of Wolaitta Soddo town where there was uneven distribution of
water in terms of flow and pressure. In addition, in the absence of adequate data, institutional and
commercial demands were grouped together and termed ‘public’ water demand and were usually
expressed as a percentage of the average domestic demand. It was therefore decided to estimate
public demand of the study town as a percentage of domestic demand.

According to the report of the town water authority office, the study area public water demand
was assumed to be 25 percent of domestic consumption, Figure3:3 shows estimated public water
demand by water authority office.

Figure 0.3 The public demand of the study area

3.2. Materials
Among the commercially available hydraulic software, Water CAD version 8.0 was chosen for
identifying only pressure in the systems. It could be used because of flexibility; simplicity of
operation; user friendly outputs and availability of the software at. Besides, the software has
highly versatile and applicable to a variety of networks and adaptable to other programs that it
was chosen for the study.

34
Other Software and materials that were used in the study are: Arc GIS 10.1 for delineating and
locating the study area, Excel Spread sheet for data preparation, analysis and interpretation of
results, AWWA (Water Audit software) for analysis of water balance and performance indictor.

Generally this research consists of analyses of domestic water supply coverage, variability
between design document and actual status; identifying only pressure in the system using Water
CAD software and water balance analysis including performance indictors used by water audit
software.

Finally, the cause for water shortage was tried to be identified using the different factors. Based
on this factor water shortage and loss reduction mechanism strategy were developed.The
domestic water supply coverage of the town has been evaluated by statistical analyses to show its
coverage by charts. It also focused on the volume of consumption and level of water connection.

The variability study was evaluated from technical performance measurement by benchmarking
the design document. The technical performance measurements were service coverage, water
produced and distributed, water consumed, number of connection and system loss of utility.
Water audit software was also used to analyze water loss components using AWWA Free water
audit software v5.0. The analysis performed in Water Audit software it needed Gathering
information, determining flows into and out of the distribution system based on estimates or
metering. Calculating the performance indicators, Assessing where water losses appear to be
occurring based on available metering and estimates. Analyzing data gaps, considering options
and making economic and benefit comparisons of potential actions and selecting the appropriate
interventions.

Also water loss analysis (apparent and real losses) were carried out by using the top down water
balance approach and the efficiency of the system was evaluated using different performance
indicators (PIs). Additionally discussions were made with stakeholders to support the
quantitative analysis and water meter test to quantify the water loss through meters inaccuracy.
In general this study was carried out in three phases. The first phase was desk study
concentrating on literature review and development of data collection instruments.

35
The second phase involved field data collection for three months on the water supply system of
the town and discussions with the local experts of the town water services. In the last phase the
collected data was analyzed and thesis writing was done. The activities in each of these phases
are described in the consecutive sub-sections of this chapter. A broad overview of the research
process is described by the flow chart in Figure-3:4.

Research

Data collection

Design Total water

Interview Cadastral Total water
Document production
Map and consumption
population
Losses due to water
data
meter inaccuracy
Pipe Reservoir and
line pump data
data Domestic water Water balance analysis
consumption
Nodal
demand Domestic water Distribution
in each kebels consumption
Water losses
Water
CAD
Technical
performance Performance
Pressure head
evaluation indicators

Figure 0-4 Overview of the Research Process

Reduction strategies of
water losses
36
3.3. Data Source and Its Categories
Data have been gathered within the first three months period. Water production and
consumption data were collected from the town WSSS in m3/month. The number of population
and its distribution in all kebeles were collected from Central statistical agency of the town
district and the numbers of student data also gathered from Wolaitta Soddo University.

From the town municipality boundaries of the town and kebeles were identified using cadastral
map. Water meter test was also done to quantify the water loss through meters inaccuracy. The
types of data used in this thesis were primary and secondary.

A/ Primary Data

Primary data were accessed by direct observation in field, site surveying and through interviews.
In the study interviews and detail site survey was conducted. Interviews and discussions were
made with concerned people and institutions (Appendix A). Then observations were made on all
critical points like water sources, service reservoirs in the distribution system in order to visually
inspect leakages along the distribution network. Geographical coordinates of the source wells
were also taken using GPS during the field visit.

B/ Secondary Data

This includes various published and unpublished documents, annual reports and project or design
documents. This information include source wells, water reservoirs, mains length of pipes ,
number of service connections, customer meter, average pressure drawings, system input
volumes, authorized and unauthorized consumption, tariff, population data, and other related
data and information. They were collected at different levels and from different sources.

3.3.1. Water Production and Billing Data

. The amount of water Production from each borehole and springs , water consumption from
each individual was obtained from study town Water and Sewerage Service.

Water bills were typically sent to customers on a monthly basis. Total monthly water
production, consumption and loss in m3/month from July2019 to Jun2020 are shown in
Appendix B.

37
3.3.2. Cadastral Information
This information was very crucial to understand the general status and geographic condition of
the study area. The cadastral information of the town was obtained from town municipality and
SWSSS. The data includes information on buildings, parcels and blocks for each Kebeles.

3.3.3. Population and Other Document

Population data for the study area of each kebeles were obtained from Central Statistical Agency
(1994), of Soddo district and besides to these, some crucial documents were collected from the
water authority. It’s very crucial to achieve the objective of the study with well-organized
evidence that related with the reality.

3.4. Water Supply Coverage Analysis

The water supply coverage of the study area was evaluated based on the average per capita
consumption and level of connection per family. Water supply coverage was usually assessed
based on the quantity, quality, level of connection per family, paying capacity of the people,
distance, however the target of this section was not to evaluate all these but to evaluate only the
quantity of water supplied and level of connection that are related domestic water supply
coverage. The average per capita consumption has been derived from the yearly consumption of
each kebeles that has been aggregated from the individual domestic water meters.

Beside to the average per capita water consumption, the distribution of number of domestic
connection per family has been also evaluated. Statistical analysis was used to evaluate the
supply coverage for the study town and Number of population as forecasted to the year 2020 and
number of student in Wolaitta Soddo University has been used to evaluate the average per capita
consumption.

3.4.1. Level of Connection per Family

Level of water connection was an important element in the evaluation of domestic water supply
coverage. In order to compare the distribution of the water connection among the different
kebeles, the total numbers of connections per kebele were converted to connection per family
using the population data and average family size of each kebele. The following expression was
used to calculate connection per family.

38
Connection per family= Total number of connection by kebele………………………….. (3.2)
Number of population by kebele / Family size

3.4.2. Average daily per capita consumption

Coverage of town water supply may be assessed using the amount of water consumed and the
level of connection. For evaluating the amount of water consumption of the town, the annual
water consumption was converted to average daily per capita consumption using the population
and consumption data of town. The volume of water consumed for domestic purpose of each
kebele has been aggregated to all residence of kebele so as to analyze the distribution of water
supply coverage among different kebeles of the town. The average daily per capita consumption
of each kebeles was derived using the following expressions:

Per capita consumption (l/person/day) = annual consumption (m3)*1000l/m3…………. (3.3)

Population number of each kebele*365 day

3.5. Technical Performance Analysis or Variability Study

Simple statistical analysis and numerical computations were conducted and the results were
presented in graphical or tabular formats. For each of the performance indicators the expected
performance targets were set. From this technical performance analyzed the level of quality of
water services delivered by SWSSS were evaluated to support the water utility in make informed
decisions to improve its efficiency and service quality.

The water production was one of technical performance indicator that indicates the total daily
water supplied to the water distribution system (WDS) and it was evaluated by using annual
monthly data and it was compared to the expected bench marking target from the design
document. Also water consumption was one the technical performance indicator of average daily
water consumed by the customers and it was evaluated using equation (3.3).

The other crucial technical performance indicators were service coverage that water connected to
water distribution system (WDS) and number of customers that indicates the percentage house
hold connection in the town. Regarding to the expected bench marking target from the design
document the service coverage and number of customers in percentage those were served by
water authority utility in the town was estimated by using accessed data total population number
of the study area and population number of beneficiaries by utility.

39
The type of water consumption of study area was contains different organization of water utility
and the system water losses that was the difference between water supplied and water sold was
evaluated in the study town.

3.6. Water Losses Analysis

The water loss in the town water supply distribution system was evaluated using top down water
balance method. Detail analysis of the water loss components was done using the AWWA free
water audit software v5.0.

AWWA was selected because of determining water losses and various parameters that are
related to water supply coverage in the community. It also provides decision making tools to
utility managers, directors, and operators. That knows where water is being used in that system
allows making informed decisions about investing resources such as time, labor and money.
Water audits also allow managers to efficiently reduce water losses in the system.

The AWWA water audit software requires that the user input estimates of up to 18 parameters.
The Validity Score for the AWWA method uses two metrics of importance for each of the 18
parameters. Those are an integer score from 1 to 10, and a weight for each parameter based on its
importance. Each of the 18 parameters in the AWWA Version 5.0 software has a scoring system
that provides the user with 11 choices: not applicable and integer scores from 1 to 10.

Once grades were assigned to each input, the audit calculates a composite data validity score
according to (Kenneth et al.2009), equation 3.4 was used to calculate data validity score.

𝐷𝑉𝑆 = ∑𝑖=18
𝑖=1 (𝑆𝑖 ∗ 𝑊𝑖)………………………………………………………3.4

Where 𝐷𝑉𝑆 is composite data validity score, 𝑆𝑖 denotes the user input score for input 𝑖and 𝑊𝑖
denotes the weighting factor for input𝑖.

The standard water balance was the framework for categorizing and quantifying all water uses in
the water audit. It was called a balance because when it was completed, all uses of water in the
system equal the amount of water input by the sources. The standard water balance was really a
series of simple equations.

The System Input category represents all water pumped by the system in a given time period.
This amount of water can be broken down into two additional categories, Authorized Use and

40
Water Losses. Therefore the system loss was calculated by adding authorized use and water
losses. The system input volume in this study was aggregated from the monthly water production
data obtained from the SWSSS of 12 month production data of each month.

Determining the Water Balance Components

A water balance search for to identify all components of consumption and losses in a
standardized format (Thornton et al., 2008).

A clearly defined water balance was discussed as it was the first step in assessing non-revenue
water and managing leakage in water distribution networks.

The Top-Down Annual Water Balance

The IWA developed the top-down annual water balance as a best practice method. The top-down
method requires that bulk and customer water meters were installed and read for the period of at
least one year. Accordingly the following components were determined.

Unbilled authorized consumption (QUA) was determined by means of an appropriate estimate.

First, all consumers were identified. These were households, municipal buildings, parks, water
tankers or slum areas. The authorized consumption (QA) was calculated by adding QBA and
QUA. The total water losses QL then were derived from QI - QA.

Also estimating apparent losses (QAL) was rather difficult and was subject to a high degree of
uncertainty. The system input volume QI was obtained from monthly operating report.

Apparent losses should be broken down into their components to achieve suitable estimate.
Firstly, the number of illegal connections has to be estimated. This can be done either by
consulting past records or by conducting a house-to-house survey with in a sample zone.

Without specific data, Thornton recommends using 1.25% of the system input volume as an
initial approach (Thornton et al., 2008).

Secondly, the losses due to data transfer and handling errors and metering inaccuracies have to
be estimated. According to IWA recommendation, for no detailed appraisal of data handling
error 0.25% was taken.

41
The accuracy of installed bulk meters was determined via field tests, e.g. through volumetric
tests or portable insertion or clamp-on flow meters. An appropriate estimate of the quantities has
to be made if system input volumes were not metered.

Sample surveys can improve appraisals. But this method was very complicated, needs instrument
and not easy to measure. So According to the AWWA manual (M36, 2007), a default value of
1.25% of the system input volume was assumed and this assumption was used in this study as
well.

All customers registered in the billing records (households, commercial and industrial
consumers, etc.) was identified to determine the billed authorized consumption (QBA). Annual
consumption for the town was determined by means of meter readings on the reference date and
by annualizing metered consumption appropriately.

Assessing and quantifying apparent water losses

Apparent losses that are non-physical losses caused by water meter inaccuracies, data handling
errors and from any form of unauthorized consumption (water theft and illegal use) were
quantified based on assumptions and estimates except water meter inaccuracies. According to
(Thornton, 2008), these assumptions were drawn up separately for each of the three main sources
of apparent losses.

Apparent water losses= unauthorized consumption+ water meter inaccuracies+ data handling
errors………………………………………………………………………… (3.5)

Non-revenue water: This volume was described as the water which does not provide any
revenue to the Utility and is given by:

Non-revenue water=apparent loss+ real loss unbilled metered+ unbilled unmetered… (3.6)

3.7. Calculation and Analysis of Important Performance Indicators

The establishment of a standardized water balance provides the water utility with reliable figures
for the amount of real and apparent losses in their water supply system (Lambert et al., 1999).
Different performance indicators (PIs) were calculated and analyzed to determine whether these
losses were comparatively high or low.

42
Since technical performance indictor was one type of relevant performance indicators discussed
in this study (Alegre et al., 2007). Besides to this operational efficiency performance indicators
(OPI) were one of the important parameters (Apparent losses per connection and real loss per
connection) that were discussed in this part deeply.

3.7.1. Operational Efficiency Performance Indicators (OPI)

1/Apparent Loss per Service Connection:-It was important operational indicator in order to
determine the volume of apparent losses per service connection in the distribution system. Also it
was very essential to compare and contrast among distribution system (Sarah, 2006).

Since it was evaluated in the following formula:-

Vapparent
Apparent loss((1/𝑐𝑜𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦)) = …………………………………………… (3.7)
Nc

Where 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 is Volume of apparent loss per day (m3 /day), 𝑁𝑐 is Number of service
connections.

2/Real Losses per Service Connection

The importance of this performance indicator is to calculate competence of water supply system
(Mutikanga et al., 2010). It is expressed by: -

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑙/𝑐𝑜𝑛/𝑑𝑎𝑦) = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙/𝑁𝑐……………………………………………………. (3.8)

Where 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 is the volume of real loss per day (m3 /day).

3.7.2. Technical Performance Indicators

Unavoidable Annual Real Losses (UARL):

Real water losses exist in every large water distribution network and can never be completely
eliminated. A certain minimum amount of real losses will remain, even in newly commissioned
sections of a network (Thornton et al., 2008).

This amount was referred to as the unavoidable real losses, which represents the volume of real
losses that could be reached at the current operating pressure if there were no financial or
economic limitations. Hence, the ratio between the CARL and the UARL represents the potential
for reducing real water losses further.

43
The UARL draws on factors related to the length of the mains, the number of service
connections and the location of customer meters and was valid for the average operating pressure
(Thornton, et al., 2008). Accordingly, for this study Equation 3.7 Was used.

𝑈𝐴𝑅𝐿 = (18 ∗ 𝐿𝑁 + 0.8𝑁𝐶 + 25 ∗ 𝐿𝑃) ∗ 𝑃𝐴……….…………………………………... (3.9)

where 𝑈𝐴𝑅𝐿 [l/day w.s.p.] is Unavoidable annual real losses,𝐿𝑁 [km] is Network length
(without service connection pipes) ,𝑁𝐶 [ - ] is Number of service connections, 𝐿𝑃 [km] is Length
of private service pipes after the property line, L is after the property line up to the customer
meter,𝑃𝐴 [m] Average operating pressure.

Current Annual Real Losses (CARL)

It was useful parameter and that distribute water intermittently. Since the number of days when
the system was pressurized should be considered.it was determined in the following equation for
this study (IWA, 2000):

𝐶𝐴𝑅𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝐿 ∗ 103 /𝑁𝑑𝑤𝑠𝑝 …………………………………………………….. . (3.10)

Where 𝐶𝐴𝑅𝐿 [l/day w.s.p.] is Current annual real losses, 𝑄𝑅𝐿 [m³/a] is Annual real water losses,
𝑁𝑑𝑤𝑠𝑝 [ - ] is Number of days when system is pressurized.

Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI)

It was advanced and essential parameter that was recommended by IWA and AWWA as real loss
performance indictor. But lack of well-organized and qualified data besides to minimum
operating pressures, especially in case of developing countries, were often cited as motivation for
do not using ILI in the cases of the percent of system input to reaper (liamberger and Mckenzie,
2005). It was also the ratio of current annual real loss (CARL) to unavoidable annual real loss
(UARL). It was determined as follows according to (Liemberger and Farey, 2004).

𝐼𝐿𝐼 = 𝐶𝐴𝑅𝐿/𝑈𝐴𝑅𝐿…………………………………………………………….. (3.11)

44
3.8. Demand Estimation

Domestic Water Demand Projection

The values of service level and per-capita consumption are taken depending CSA data and
forecasting population which can put by categories on population.

So after that calculating population we know the interval of categories in each year and after
that the average daily domestic demand of the city is calculated by multiplying the number of
people using a certain connection type with the per capital demand associated with that
connection type. These are expressed as:

𝐷𝐷𝑌 = 𝑃𝑌(𝐻𝐶𝑌 ∗ 𝑃𝐶𝐻𝐶, 𝑌 + 𝑌𝐶𝑌 ∗ 𝑃𝐶𝑌𝐶, 𝑌 + 𝑌𝑆𝐶𝑌 ∗ 𝑃𝐶𝑌𝑆𝐶, 𝑌 + 𝑃𝑇𝑌 ∗ 𝑃𝐶𝑃𝑇, 𝑌). .3.12

Where 𝐷𝐷𝑌 is Domestic demand in year 𝑌, PY is Population in Y year, 𝐻𝐶𝑌 is Percentage of

customers using house connection in Y year, 𝑌𝐶𝑌 is Percentage of customers using yard
connection in Y year, 𝑌𝑆𝐶𝑌 is Percentage of customers using yard shared connection in Y year,
𝑃𝑇𝑌 is Percentage of customers using public tap connection in Y year, 𝑃𝐶𝐻𝐶, 𝑌 is Per capital
water demand of customers using house connection in year, 𝑃𝐶𝑌𝐶, 𝑌 is Per capital water demand
of customers using yard connection in Y year, 𝑃𝐶𝑌𝑆𝐶, 𝑌 is Per capital water demand of
customers using yard shared connection , 𝑃𝐶𝑃𝑇, 𝑌 is Per capital water demand of customers
using public tap connection in Y year.

In projecting the domestic water demand of study area the essential parameters and procedures
were followed those were Determining population percentage distribution by mode of service
and its future projection, Establishment of per capita water demand by purpose for each mode of
service, Projected consumption by mode of service, Adjustment for climate and Adjustment due
to socio-economic conditions.

Population Distribution by Mode of Service

The percentage of population to be served by each mode of service will vary with time. The
variation is caused by changes in living standards, improvement of the service level, changes in
building standards and capacity of the water supply service to expand.

45
Therefore, the present and projected percentage of population served by each demand group was
valued by taking the above stated conditions and by assuming that the percentage for the house
and yard tap users was increase gradually until 2030 while the percentage of tap users will
dramatically reduce as more and more people will have private connections as the living standard
of people and the socio-economic development stage increase. According to the data collected
from the study town water authority office, percentage of population distribution by mode of
services was shown in Table 3:12 below.

Table 0-12 Percent population distribution by mode of services.

Mode of Service Year

2008 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HTC 3.0 5.5 6.2 7.1 8.0 9.1

YTO 10.0 17.5 19.8 22.4 25.4 28.7

YTS 3.8 16.9 19.1 21.6 24.5 27.8

PT 67.0 60.1 54.9 48.9 42.1 34.4

TOTAL 83.8 100 100 100 100 100

Source: SWSSS Office

Per Capita Water Demand

The per-capita domestic water demand for various demand categories varies depending on the
size of the town and the level of development, the type of water supply scheme, the
socioeconomic conditions of the towns and the climatic condition of the area. The per capita
water demand for adequate supply level has to be determined based on the basic human water
requirements for various activities of demand category.

46
According the to design criteria prepared in January, 2006 by Ministry of Water Resources,
Table 3:13 shows the per capita domestic water demand was adopted for Urban Water Supply
System include the study area.

Table 0-13 Breakdown of Per Capita Water Demand by Purpose (2010-2030)

Mode of Service Year

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

HTC 50.0 50.0 50.0 60.0 70.0

YTS 25.0 25.0 25.0 27.5 30.0

YTO 30.0 30.0 30.0 35.0 40.0

PT 20.0 30.0 20.0 22.5 25.0

Source :( Ministry of Water Resource, 2006)

Adjustment for Climate

The water consumption is less in areas where the average rainfall is high and high where rainfall
is very low. Table 3:14 blow shows adjustment factor for climate.

Table 0-14 Indicates Adjustment of Climate Factors.

group Mean annual rainfall factor

A <=900 1.1

B 900-1200 1

C 1200 and above 0.9

Sources: (CSA Statistical Report on Housing Characteristics, 2007)

The average annual rainfall in study town is 1,212mm, thus placing the town into category C. A
factor of 0.9 has therefore been adopted for this study.

47
Adjustment due to Socio-economic Conditions

The majority of the people in study town are driving their livelihood by undertaking small and
medium trade. The major undertakings include small scale and micro enterprise industries,
hotels, retail trading, cereal marketing, flourmills, cloth making (weaving and sewing) and
livestock products marketing etc. Table 3:15 shows the adjustment due to socio-economic
condition.

Table 0-15 Adjustment Due to Socio-economic Conditions

Group description factor

A towns having living standard 1.1

and with very high potential

B Towns having a very high 1.05

potential for development
but lower

C Towns under normal 1.0

Ethiopian condition

D Advanced rural 0.9

Sources: (CSA Statistical Report on Housing Characteristics, 2007)

In view of the above facts, the town is categorized as Group B- towns having a very high
potential for development but lower living standard at present. Therefore, a socio-economic
adjustment factor of 1.05 has been adopted in this analysis.

48
Non-Domestic Water Demand

Institutional Water and Commercial Demand

The water required for schools, hospitals, health centre, government offices and services,
religious institutions and other public facilities is classified as institutional water demand
whereas the water required for restaurants, shopping centres, local drinks, and other commercial
purposes, is classified as commercial water demand. Both water demands are termed as public
water demand.

Such a demand category is expected to be relatively high in a zone town like wolaitta Soddo
where there are many government offices, schools and hotels. In a town where there is ample
supply of water, it is often the case that public service giving institutions like hotels, restaurants,
offices, university, schools, etc. tend to consume large amount of water merely because they are
able to afford better than other demand groups. Connection priority is also given to such
institutions because of their economic and social significance in the town.

It will not be reliable to estimate institutional & commercial water consumption from the existing
water supply system of Study town where there is uneven distribution of water in terms of flow
and pressure. In addition, there is no sufficient data to estimate commercial water demands of the
study town. In the absence of adequate data, institutional and commercial demands are grouped
together and termed ‘public’ water demand and are usually expressed as a percentage of the
average domestic demand. It is therefore decided to estimate public demand of the study town as
a percentage of domestic demand.

Studies in other towns having metered water consumption, shows that public consumption
amounts to about 10 to 25 percent of domestic consumption depending on the size of the town
and type and extent of commercial and industrial activities. For Study town, public water
demand is assumed to be 25 percent of domestic consumption.

Industrial Demand

As per the urban water supply design criteria of the Ministry of Water Resource, small scale
industrial enterprises will not be categorized separately but have been included in the allowance
for institutional and commercial demand.

49
In addition, the future water demand for heavy industries is not considered in this study due to
their excessively high water requirement resulting high investment cost. Heavy industries, if any,
are expected to have their own water supply system.

Fire Fighting Demand

The volume of water required for firefighting is determined based on different factors among
which fire incidence, duration, water flow in distribution system, density and size of buildings
and building construction materials are the main (Larry W., 2004). Based on these factors, there
are different methods developed to determine the firefighting demand for a certain location. The
criteria set by Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Water Resource for
firefighting demand estimation is to increase the capacity of service reservoirs dedicated for the
area by 10.

The annual volume required for fire fighting purpose is small. However, during periods of need,
the demand may be exceedingly large and in many cases govern the design of distribution,
storage and pumping requirements. In this case the fire fighting water requirements is considered
to be met by stopping supply to consumers and directing it for this purpose. This demand is taken
care of by increasing the volume of storage tanks by 10 %.

3.9. Accuracy Evaluation and Sampling Water Meter

Flow Metering

Water meters were installed at the outlet of the boreholes and there were water meters at the
reservoir inlet or outlets. These flow meters were crucial to control the flow of water at inlet or
outlet as well as to reduce loss effect in the system.

Sampling Water Meter

In the study area there were Different types and sizes of water meters were installed in the
distribution system during the lifetime of the project. Some of the locations that the water meters
installed were Aroge Arada, Gola near the hill mauntain of damotta, Otona, mehal, Konto and
Wadu. The size of water meters includes 1/2, ¾ and 1-inches in diameter. Sample of meters from
each size were tested for accuracy in the installed testing bench within the authority office
compound.

50
The total sample size for this study was 122 households from different meter size category.
Stratified random sampling technique was used to draw samples from the entire households in
the town. The percentage accuracy of each size of sampled meter was calculated from the result
and the losses due to meter error were calculated based on it.

Customer metering inaccuracies was defined as the discrepancy between the amount of water
actually consumed and the amount of water reportedly consumed due to under or over registering
meters (Devan, J. et al, 2012). This type of error can be beneficial or detrimental to the utility,
although typically meters tend to under-register more often than over-register. A general
expression for estimating this metric is:-

𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉(1 − 𝐴) ……………………………………………………………..(3.12)

Where 𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 were apparent losses due to meter errors (m3/year), 𝑉 is billed metered
consumption (m3/year), and 𝐴 was average meter accuracy.

Average meter accuracy:

After all meter testing records were taken, the information regarding to accuracy was adjusted
into spreadsheet format and prepared by size of meter for easy investigation. For all categories of
meter size, a simple average was intended. Table 3:16 was shows the sample of water meters that
were used for meter accuracy test of the study town.

51
Table 0-16 Meter Accuracy Test for Study Town Water Utility

Meter size (inch) Number of samples Total number in the system

1/2 110 12,454

3/4 9 890
1 3 86

Source: SWSSS Office

Depending on the sample test from table 3:11 above the average meter accuracy for the system
was determined according to (Devan, J. et al, 2012) using the 3.3 equation.

𝑁𝑖
𝐴 = ∑𝑋𝑖 ∗ ∑𝑁𝑖………………………………………………………………… (3.13)

Where 𝐴 is weighted average accuracy for the system, 𝑋𝑖 Estimated average accuracy for each
size of meter 𝑖, 𝑁𝑖 Number of meters in service for each size of meter𝑖.

Analysis of hydraulic performance

The hydraulic modeling software Water CAD V8i” simulation was carried out for the purpose of
pressure regime for customers demand, velocity, and head loss and overall systematically
studding and better understand network operation. These Software capabilities include graphical
editing; image, CAD and GIS background support; steady‐state and extended‐period simulation;
rule‐based controls; pressure dependent demands; GIS interface for import/ export of data and
results; automatic nodal demand allocation; pipe length‐based demand loading, ground elevation
extraction from shape files and CAD drawings, pressure zone management.

Design Velocity

A velocity range was established for design purposes for two reasons. On the one hand, a certain
minimum velocity required to prevent water stagnation causing sedimentation and
bacteriological growth in the conduits. On the other hand, the maximum velocity respected in
order to control head losses in the system as well as to reduce the effects of water hammer and
scouring (MoWRD, 2006). In case of this study the minimum and maximum velocity was
adopted were 0.2 and 2m/sec respectively.

52
Design Pressure

Pressure as a design parameter is only relevant for pressurized pipelines. Consumer connections
on transmission lines are rare, so the water pressure can be kept low, provided that the hydraulic
grade line is positioned above the pipe over its entire length and for all flow rates. A minimum of
a few meters water column is also required to prevent intrusion of pollution through damaged
parts of the pipe or faulty joints. In fact, minimum pressure in distribution system should be 15 m
and maximum pressure 70 m was used in this analysis according to World Bank guide line
(MoWRD, 2006).

Steady state Analysis

The model has been performed in steady state run for the average daily demand, which is the
demand at every node not changing throughout 24 hours of a day. The software simulates
Steady-State hydraulic calculation based on mass and energy conservation equations principle.
But steady state analysis is not applicable for city water supply system and in case of this study
extended period simulation was adapted because of its fluctuation.

Extended Period Simulation

The system conditions have been computed over twenty-four hours with a specified time
increment of one hour and starting model run time. The software simulates non steadyState
hydraulic calculation based on mass and energy conservation principle. The model can be
simulated for every one-hour time setup in the twenty-four hour duration was adapted in this
analysis.

Assigning base demands to each node

Base demand was investigated by using the data, total number of beneficiary in each node
multiplied by daily consumption and divided by total number of population in the Town. Each
node was assigned a demand manually. In the Properties Editor of the nodes, under the Demand
option, the user can click on the ellipsis (...). Then a window opens which shows demand in (lps)
and demand pattern. The value of the base demand was entered under the demand column for all
the nodes. Also Hazen-William friction factors were adopted for this study and it is classified by
line sizes and age and degree of attack.

53
Data Entering

The input data needed to perform the analysis by the Water Cad Technique comprise the demand
in the nodes, their elevations, pipes lengths, diameters, materials, reservoirs and their elevations,
demand patterns, valves with different types and their control; pumps in the system, they can be
modeled depending on their operating curves.

All the data have been entered into the skeletonized water distribution network using dialog box
type of data entering. Also the gathered data have been entered in to the sketched water CAD
software. The ground elevations of reservoirs, tanks, nodes, pumps, valves and other locations
have been interpolated and entered by superimposing a topographic map on a map of the
network throughout the system.

54
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

. Based on discussion with customers of the town, domestic water supply of the town does not
satisfy the demand of the users and it needs amendment in its level of services to enhance the
status of its coverage.

4.1. Level of Connection per Family

It was an important element on the one hand for evaluating the level of water coverage..
Currently in study area there are seven kebeles and the total number of connections water meters
are 13,488. To compare the distribution among different kebeles, the total numbers of connection
per kebele were converted to connection per family using the population data of each kebele.

Based on census of the 2007, average family size is 4 in urban areas for SNNPR .This is used for
calculating the average number of connection per family.

The result from finding shows that the level of connection in each kebeles was too minimum as
well as the average connection per family. The average connection per family of the town was
found to be 0.23 or 23 percent and it shows that more than four families were sharing one water
connection or water tap. In other words it means that more than sixty persons have used one
water connection. According to Ministry of Water Resources (2006), a maximum level of
domestic water supply connection per family was 1 or 100% (as best practice), which means one
connection for one family. Therefore, the average level of connection per family of the town is
lower and technically lower connection level mean that the price of water is higher and that is
burden to the public. The Figure 4.1 implies that the level of connection per family in each
kebeles of the study town.

55
 Connection per familly
0.45
connection per family in kebele (%)

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Kebeles in town

Figure 4-1 Connection per Family

4.2. Average Daily per Capital Consumption
To analyze the distribution of the water coverage in the town, the volume of water consumed for
domestic purpose has been aggregated to all seven kebeles. In order to compare the distribution
of water among kebeles, the annual consumption data were converted to average daily per capita
consumption relating with number of populations.

Depending on the data obtained from SWSSS, in 2020 the total water produced to meet the
consumers demand was 1, 717894.92m3/year and the annual water consumption was
1,276,029.00m3/year. The analysis shows that the average daily per capita consumption of the
town was found to be 24l/person/day.

According to Wallingford (2003), minimum quantity of 25liter/person/day domestic water

supply was categorized as basic level of service which was higher than the average domestic
consumption of the town of Wolaitta Soddo. On the other hand, according to the (UN-Habitat,
2003), 25 l/per/day taken as a basic need to be provided.

Unlike the level of domestic connections, there were significant variations of per capital
consumption among kebeles. Out of the total 7 kebeles, 6 kebeles were getting water less than
this basic service (25 l/per/d), whereas only one kebeles’ per capital consumption greater than
the basic service. Also the level of per capita consumption in some kebels were higher even
though their level of connection per family was low or moderate as it indicated in Figures 4.2.

56
The main reason for this gap was the existence of various institutions like university, business
centers and schools, especially in kebele 06, kebele 04 and kebele 02. Because of all this reason
the per capita consumption of the town was low and needs amendment of the services.

per capita consumption of study area

50
consumption (l/per/day)

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
kebeles in Soddo town

Figure 4-2 Per Capita Consumption of the Study Area

4.3. Correlation between Water Consumption and Population
It is necessary to evaluate consumption with population. This has been evaluated using the
correlation between the water consumption and number of population. Plotting water
consumption by number of population graphically illustrates R-squared values for regression
models ( Figure 4:3).

57
Figure 4-3 Correlation of Population and Water Consumption
Figure 4:3 scatter plot for volume of water consumption and number of population as shown in
the above shows the coefficient of determination (R2) was 1, which indicates that the regression
model accounts for 100% of water consumption was explained by population size.

4.4. Technical Performance Variability with Design Document

Technical performance variability with design document comparison is very important to
understand the variation between the design and the reality in the ground regarding to
performance level. In order to measure the technical performance of water utility in terms of
service coverage, water production and water consumption, metering level and non-revenue
water (WSP-Africa, 2009) are discussed in the following parts.

Service Coverage

Service coverage of water in the town was the main technical performance indicators that can
help to determine whether supply and demand were balanced or not. It was evaluated by taking
the ratio of total number of beneficiaries from water utility and total number of population in the
town. According to the finding of this research, the percentage domestic water supply coverage
of study area was 74.3 % which was less than the SWSSS Water Supply Coverage achievement
planed in 2020 to be 100% as well as when compared to the MDG targets of urban Water Supply
Coverage.

58
Therefore it was lower than the expected one in the achievement plan and it was indicated that
the current water supply coverage was not sufficient regarding to dramatic change of population
in the town. According to the utility annual report, from 2014 ,2015 and 2016, the coverage were
72.5%, 67% and 62% respectively.

The reason for decreasing was that during this year, there was no any expansion for water
supply sources and components, whereas population growth and water demand were rapidly
increasing. Figure 4:4 was shows the service coverage of the town including the current status of
the study area.

Figure 4-4 The Service Coverage of the Wolaiyta soddo Town.

Production

To evaluate the production of annual water supplied to the water distribution system expressed in
population obtaining service per day. The main source of water production of study town water
supply system was ground water, spring and different well fields in different places in study area.

59
Based on the data collected from the design document of SWSSS the production and supplied of

water to fulfill the demand of water in study area of the town in 2020 was 4,874.3m 3/day, But

the actual average daily production supplied to the system was 4,706.00 m3/day as well as the
consumption was 3,495.97 m3/day in 2020.

This result indicated that the water demand was greater than the consumed water by the
community and the daily water production was not satisfactory. Also this shows that there was
significant water loss existence in water supply system.

Therefore in the town there were considerable water losses that need reduction strategies even if
the production levels have potential to satisfy the daily demand of the town.

Water Consumption

Based on the analysis the average daily per capital consumption of the Wolaitta Soddo town was
24 litter/person/day. Regarding to this research, the analysis of the bill data carried out the
average daily water consumption was about 24 litter/person/ day was shows that, which was less
than the expected benchmark of 45liter/person/ day of the design document as well as the
minimum standard. Therefore the daily per capita consumption of study town was does not
satisfied the demand of the town as well as the basic service standard.

60
4.5. Type of Water Consumption
According to the data and bill analysis of SWSSS the water consumption type of the study town
categorized into four parts depending on the economic development of the town in general. This
was private, public taps, government and other institution (like university, colleges, health
centers, NGOs etc.) and commercial and business centers.

From the information and data collected from SWSSS, in the study town the total number of
Customer who has signed a contract with the office and utilizing the service has 13,621 in
number and 13,488 active water service connections. From these total numbers of customers
12,471 constitute private connection, 42 are public connection, 1,002 connections were
commercial connections, and 106 were government and other institution. The type of customer
in 2020 also represented by the following Figure 4.5.

Shows 4-5
Figure the Consumption Level of the Study Area

1.

61
4.6. System Water Losses
It means that the water has been produced and was lost before it reaches the customers. As part
of this study, the system water loses in the study town to be higher than the recommended
benchmarking target of 10%. According to the report of water audit software the loss of study
area was 25.24% in 2020. It was medium and this result has nearly similar with the actual losses
(25.72%). According to (Mckenzi et al, 2006), the system efficiency was good (acceptable) if
above 75% of water produced reaches the consumer. Therefore the study Town water supply
system regarding to water losses was not acceptable because of it was above the acceptable limit.

4.7. Water Loss Analysis

Annual water production and bill water consumption of different schemes are indicated in
Appendix B. The accuracy of water audit was directly influenced and dependent on the accuracy
of input data. The result of validity score was 55 out of 100 and system input volume in this
analysis was 1,980,564 m3/year. Based on the data obtained from SWSSS, the consumptions of
water in the town were metered billed and unmetered including the water used by the utility for
operation purpose. Since the total amount of water that have metered and billed were found that
1,246,437.00 m3/year.

According to the detailed review of the AWWA (2007), M36 Manual on water audits and water
loss, and the associated version 5.0 software; the total amount of water losses consisting real and
apparent losses was 25.24% of the system input volume. This amount was lower when it
compared with the average loss for developing countries (35%) based on (Kingdom, 2006). It
also not the same with the result of the study of adama town (Hussen, 2010) which was 31%,
Debre markos town (Mebet, 2007) which was 39.68% and axum town (Asmellash, 2011) which
was 39.1%.

The main reasons for this different loss of water were the current way of supply and distribution
of water. Particularly, in case of this study Wolaitta Soddo town, the average annual loss was
much less than the listed town.

However it was much higher when it compared with the minimum unavoidable loss according to
IWA (10%). Therefore it was concluding that the water loss in the study town was greater than
the acceptable limit and it need the reduction strategies.

62
The Table 4:3 summarized the losses of different Ethiopian Towns to valuable information.

Table 4-1 Summaries of Losses in Different Town besides To Study Area

Towns Loss (%)

Adama 31 ( Hussen, 2010)

Debere markos 39.68 (Mebet,2007)

Axum 39.1(Asmellash,2011)

Wolaitta Soddo town 25.24 (This research)

4.7.1. Real Loss

This type of water loss was the volume of water lost because of leaks, bursts and overflows on
mains, service connections and service reservoirs, until the point of customer metering.
Regarding to this study the volume of water lost in the above mentioned cases as real loss was
found to be 396,424 m3/year out of 1,717,893.92 m3/year water have produced. In other word the
total real loss from the supply distribution system was 24.94%.

This analysis shows that there was high amount of real loss that have caused because of lack of
well-organized or ordered infrastructure, existence of high pressure that lead to breakage,
leakage through hydraulic structures, existence of gaps in water meters accuracy.

Also based on the information that was obtained from the customers though the interview shows
that lack of on time maintenance count as the main cause. Since we were concluded that more
than 99% of water was lost as real loss from water supply system of the study town.

4.7.2. Authorized consumption

Authorized consumption consists billed authorized consumption and unbilled authorized
consumption. The authorized consumption includes billed metered consumption, billed
unmetered consumption and water exported. Also unbilled authorized consumption includes
unbilled unmetered consumption and unbilled metered consumption.

63
In case of this study the billed authorized consumption and unbilled consumption were
1,284,261m3/year and 21,474 m3/year respectively. These results were indicated that the amount
of billed authorized consumption was higher than that of unbilled consumption. Therefore in the
study town billed authorized consumption more dominant than the other.

4.7.3. Unauthorized Consumption

It was happened to more or less extent in most system worldwide, however in reasonably best
organized systems it does not more than 1% of the system input volume (ERDF, 2012). It
consists of apparent losses that were related with unwise use of fire service connections and fire
hydrants, illegal connections, meters vandalized and corruption of people who record the
measurement (developing countries). In the case of study area it was not main sensitive issue
unlike leakage. Therefore 0.25 % was assumed for the analysis which gives value of 4,295
m3/year.

4.7.4. Estimating Apparent Losses

Estimating the amount of apparent loss was essential for the analysis of water loss in the
distribution system. In case of developing countries, the IWA recommends utilizing 0.25% of the
billed metered consumption as an initial estimate for the way of data handling error until
obtaining more detailed appraisal. Based on this, using a default value of 0.25% was used for this
study, since the apparent loss of study town was estimated as 7,505 m3/year it covers the 0.3% of
the total annual water. Therefore the value from the estimation, it understood that the apparent
loss had significant value which had to be reduced parallel when it is compared to the real loss.

4.7.5. Customer Metering Inaccuracies

It was the main cause of water losses in water supply system because of water meter problem
and poor system of costumer meter reading. Regarding to this study the sample of the customer
meter size was taken to check the meter accuracy. Here, the size of meter was 1 inch, ½ inch and
¾ inch and the result of average meter accuracy found to be 97.2%, 87.5% and 87.72%
respectively. This shows that the total volume of water loss due to meter accuracy in the
distribution system was 4,964 m3/year. Since the apparent loss of water was approximately 0.3
% of the system input volume for the 2020 year. This result was not the same when it compare
with the result of the study in different towns like axume by (Asmelash, 2010) which is 3.35. But
it is too lower than that of Deber Markos town by (Mebet, 2007) which is 14.57%.
64
This variation was happened because of good meter testing and replacing of customers meter
during their report in the over and under registration. However, the study area was still needs
amendment because of high yearly water losses due to meter inaccuracy. Therefore the water
meter inaccuracy was one of the causes for water loss in study area and it was significant. In
general the following Table 4:4 was shows the summary output of water balance analysis by
using water audit software.

Table 4-2 Result of AWWA Water Balance Table Analysis in m3/year.

System Authorized Billed Billed metered consumption Revenue

water
input consumption=1,313965 authorized 1,28426
volume consumption
Billed unmetered 1,292491
1,717894 1,29249
consumption

8,231

Unbilled Unbilled meter consumption Non-

revenue
authorized 0.00 water
consumption (NRW)
21,474 Unbilled unmetered 425,403
consumption

21,474

Water losses Apparent Unauthorized consumption

losses
403,929 4,295
(commercial
losses) Metering inaccuracies and
Data handling errors (3,211)
7,505

Real losses Leakage from water mains

65
 (physical (not broken)
losses)
Leakage from storage
396,424
thanks(not broken)

Leakage from services(up to

revenue meter)

4.8. Evaluating Important Performance Indicators

Assessing the performance of the system was very crucial in the ensuring that water service
provider understands the drivers and status of performance of the system being operated.

If the status was low the system has low quality, limited service expansion, operation
inefficiency and corruption, there by further eroding public support.

4.8.1. Operational Efficiency Performance Indicator (Opi)

1/ Real Loss per Service Connection:-

According to some literature comparison of water loss between different areas was
recommended to be done using the water loss per service connection per day.

In the case of this study the real loss per connection of the town water utility was
79.73L/connection/day. However, the water utility of the study town regarding to the real loss
per service connection was lower when it was compared with other town in Ethiopia like Axum
(Asmelash, 2010) which was 116.14 L/connection/day. Therefore it was indicated that the
distribution system of study town water utility was less susceptible for burst and leakage relating
to other town.

2/Apparent Loss per Service Connection

In general understanding OPI was very essential to know what level was achievable, what kind
of strategies used to reduce apparent losses as well as utility can differentiate which type of loss
needs year-to-year amendment to evaluate their level of resource allocation based on their
production results. Also the analysis of apparent loss per service connection in no difference or it
is the same with that of water loss analysis per service connection.
66
Regarding to this study the apparent loss of the study town was 1.5L/connection/day. This result
shows that it was too lower than that of Axum town which was 12.2L/connection/day in
(Asmelash, 2010), Deber Markos town which was 46.52 L/connection/day in (Mebet, 2007) and
others. Therefore, apparent loss in study area was negligible.

4.8.2. Technical Performance Indictors

Unavoidable Annual Real Losses (UARL)

This category represents the allowable volume of real losses from the system, which estimates a
volume of leaks that were undetectable or would be uneconomical to repair during the year. This
can help to evaluate the feasibility of real loss minimization (provides better understanding of
real loss components).

According to the analysis UARL volume of study town water utility was 456.75m3/year. It has
justified that the allowable volume of real losses from the system it was approximated a volume
of leaks that were not detected to repair during the year. Therefore, it is very crucial to determine
the feasibility of real loss minimization.

Water Demand Projection

Water managers forecast future water demand for a variety of purposes. These analyses can help
managers understand spatial and temporal patterns of future water use to optimize system
operations, plan for future system expansion, or for future service and expenditures. projected
domestic water demand were done by, After considering changes in population and changes in
the mode of service, per-capita demand and applying the adjustment factors, the domestic
demands were calculated and are presented in Table 4:5.

67
Table 4-3 Population and Domestic Water Demand Projection of Study Area

Description Unit Year

2008 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Population

Growth rate (Town) 4.80% 4.60% 4.30% 4.10% 3.90% 3.70%

Town Population No. 72,781 79,795 98,935 121,445 147,593 177,587

Coverage by Service Type

HTU 3.0% 5.5% 6.2% 7.1% 8.0% 9.1%

YTU (Private) 10.0% 17.5% 19.8% 22.4% 25.4% 28.7%

YTU (Shared) 3.8% 16.9% 19.1% 21.6% 24.5% 27.8%

PTU 67.0% 60.1% 54.9% 48.9% 42.1% 34.4%

Population served by

HC No 2,183 4,389 6,134 8,623 11,807 16,160

YT (Private) No 7,278 13,964 19,589 27,204 37,489 50,967

YT (Shared) No 2,766 13,485 18,897 26,232 36,160 49,369

PT No 48,763 47,957 54,315 59,386 62,137 61,090

Domestic Demand

Per capita demand

HC l/c/d 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 60.0 70.0

YT (Shared) l/c/d 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 27.5 30.0

68
 YT (Private) l/c/d 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 35.0 40.0

PT l/c/d 20.0 20.0 30.0 20.0 22.5 25.0

Total Domestic demand m3/d 1,349.4 1,932.2 2,992.8 3,085.9 4,403.1 6,162.3

Socio-economic factor 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

Climate factor 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

Adjusted Total Domestic m3/d 1,275.2 1,826.0 2,828.2 2,916.2 4,160.9 5,823.3
demand
l/s 14.8 21.1 32.7 33.8 48.2 67.4

Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI)

For economic considerations, it was very crucial that the ILI was purely technical performance
indicator which has does not take into account. Therefore, based on (Lambert, 2009) on ILI of
1.0(the UARL- the CARL) need not be profitable from an economic point of view. In case of
this thesis, the ILI was found that 0.87 for study area.

According to (Liemberger et al; 2009), ILI values close to 1.0 mean that world-class leakage
management was ensuring that annual Real Losses are close to the Unavoidable or Technical
Minimum value at current operating pressures in practical terms.

However, in the case of study area with aged distribution system and lack of leakage
management activities, achieving lower ILI value shows inapplicability of the PI for the town
water utility. Therefore in the study town the real loss was closes to unavoidable and operating in
the system need the expansion of existing infrastructure and additional water resource to meet
the demand. For further understanding all the performance indicators out puts that was
calculated using AWWA free water Audit software V5.0, for the Wolaitta Soddo town is
included in Appendix D of this thesis.

4.9. Available Pressure Heads/Network Simulation Results

The pressure at nodes depends on the adapted minimum and maximum pressures within the
network, topographic circumstances, and the size of the network. The minimum pressure should
maintain to ensure that consumers demand provided at all times.

69
The maximum pressure also contains limitation of leakage and leads to water losses in
distribution system. The operating maximum and minimum pressure that was adapted on the
system was 70m and 15m according to ministry of water, 2006.

Excessive pressures can be reduced by adjusting the speed of pumps in areas supplied by
pumping, installing a pressure reduction valves (PRV) and dividing the system in to different
pressure zones. Pressure control valves are sometimes installed in outlet mains from service
reservoirs in order to reduce the pressure to low lying zones, or to limit increases of pressure at
night to reduce leakage.

Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) throttle automatically to prevent the downstream hydraulic
grade from exceeding a set value, and are used in situations where high downstream pressures
could cause damage (Walski et al., 2003). In case the final computer simulation result shows that
the nodal pressure was greater than the maximum allowable pressure set in the design criteria
during minimum flow condition.

From the results the maximum and minimum pressures during low consumption (0.00 hrs) occur
at nodes J-35 and J-1 respectively, and are 90.63m and 14.53m of water column whereas the
maximum and minimum pressures during high consumption (8.00hrs) occur at nodes J-18 and J-
1 respectively, and are 88.92m and 14.73m of water column. Also During minimum hour
consumption, the residents get water at low pressure.

This was due to high elevation of the area which creates a low level of reliability of water users
on the supply system. As shown in the above the identified nodes have pressure below 15m at
0.00hr and 8.0hr of J-1 and the nodes have pressure above 70m at 0.0hr and 8.0hr were J-35 and
J-18 respectively. The pressure in those nodes were contradict with the recommended limit of
maximum and minimum pressure(70m and 15m respectively) that was allowed to the
distribution system. Figure 4:5 Justifies the condition of pressure value during in peak and low
demand time.

70
Figure 4-6 Graph of Pressure Value during Peak and Low Demand Time

The above figure 4:6 shows that the pressure value in jun-1 and jun-7 out of the recommended
pressure limit (15m and 70m) that was minimum and maximum respectively.

Also it was understood that during peak demand time pressure decreases as well as low demand
time pressure increases.

That means pressure decreases from the standard limit, water supply coverage is influenced
negatively and loss of water increases. Therefore in the study area the analysis was shows that all
nodes was explained above needs amendment to balance pressure in different mechanism,
otherwise it will be exposed the system to high water losses and low water coverage. However, it
needs further studies regarding to length of the pipe, age of the pipe and so on.

The simulation results have determined by using Water CAD software and for detail
understanding and information it’s mentioned in appendix-E and Figure 4:7 Shows the Network
layout of Water Distribution System of Study Town.

71
Figure 4-7 Shows the Network Layout of the Study Area

Possible Causes of the Water Loss and Shortage besides to PI

1/Age of Pipe Network

Pipe age was one of the factors that affects the magnitude of the loss specially that of physical
loss. Aged pipes were more likely having more water loss through leakage than newly installed
pipes. It was estimated that nearly more than 60% of the pipe network in the study town was laid
over 25 years ago. The main duties which made more than half a month was checking of each
customer (door to door water connection) by sounding rod .In this time, it was found so many
invisible & visible leakages both on the private connection & also on the main line.

72
2/ Poor Maintenance of Networks

In some places water authorities has executed a maintenance program for distribution system,
and in recent years most of the existing main line network system was replaced in the study area
during expansion work. But in the town poor maintenance of network and poor man power
management for maintenance, it was so difficult to find financial support to renew the water
distribution system. Thus, the lack of finance to appropriate materials and poor construction
resulted in increased leakage in the system. The following figure shows the water loss in the
town through breakage because of poor maintenance.

Figure 4-8 Shows the Water Losses Though Breakage

3/ Customer Side Leakage

Many water institutions do not give enough attention for water losses caused as a result of
metering errors but it has a considerable impact unless due to attention is given like to that of the
pipe networks. In study area as per the feedback from the local experts, until recently the water
authority was not checking the customer meters by itself unless the customers apply for checkup.
However, customers apply most probably when the problem were over-registration rather than
under registration.

4/ Illegal Connections

There were a significant number of illegal users of water within distribution system in the town
especially in the line that were too near to the private land to the customers and construction
areas.

73
The number of households who do not pay water rates but receive water from its distribution
system was not known by the Authority. As a consequence, they contribute significantly to
apparent losses and revenue loss to the water authority. Illegal connections were therefore of
significant concern of water utilities.

5/ During Construction of Utility

In this study town there are many construction of utility like condominium house in different
sites, roads, sewer line, Telecommunication line, etc. were worked from time to time. During
those utility were constructed water line including mail line and customer line were broken and
water lose is highly occurred up to the authority technician came and maintain. As it was tried to
observe, any contractor or the client of those utility don not care about water line during
excavation. Even though when broken the water line and water is highly lose do not report for
the authority.

4.10. Remedial Measures and Strategies for Identified Problems

Regarding to this study and the current water supply situations of Wolaitta Soddo town have the
following short- and long-term strategies are mentioned to amend the existing situation.

Short Term Strategies

This will give focus on every day operational problems that the water maintenance teams are
facing. It contributes to obtain important information to be used in the long term program.
Depend on the analysis of this study, the following remedial measures were recommended.

1/ Creating Awareness by Building Capacity

Capacity development occurred through by sharing of experience, knowledge, skills and values
to equipped national stakeholders to reap the benefits of successful water loss reduction.

Depending on the target group ( decision-makers, executive staff, and operator), the objective of
capacity development strategy could include gaining information on legal, technical, social,
environmental, and financial issues related to water loss reduction in general. Since conditions
vary from utility, an individual and carefully designed capacity development strategy, including
a compressive training concept, must be agreed up on.

74
2/ Amending Billing and Data Collection Practices

It is very important step forwarded for improving the overall demand management of the town
and help to a great extent to better evaluate the water balance and water loss, metering of input
volumes and inflows into zone distribution systems was essential for water balance calculations.
Billing system can be reviewed and updated for the integrity and quality of the data. The location
and the historical records like ages of meter, periods of calibration, etc. need also be integrated
with the billing system.

3/ Installing Meters Properly

Meters should be installed properly according to the manufacturer’s specifications. For example,
some meters require a specific straight length of pipe upstream and downstream of the meter.
Therefore, a standard meter stand should be designed and constructed onsite.

Utilities should purchase the meters on the customers‟ behalf, so that only standard, high quality
meters are used. Meters should also be installed where meter readers can easily read them, and
where it is easy to identify each property’s meter.

4/ Regular Inspection of the Water Net Work

Ones the locations of highly suspended leaking networks are identified due to attention should be
given to inspect for these areas and any leaks should be well recorded as it will be a good base
for further maintenance or replacement. Daily inspection supports to find the problematic areas
and take action immediately before much water is wasted. Regular inspection should not be
limited only to the network system and supply meters but also to the customer meters.

5/ Adjustment and Replacement of Customer Meters

In case of this study, one of the main causes for water loss is the under-recording of customer
meters. Unless meters are regularly calibrated and those not functioning well are either
maintained or replaced the water loss reduction programmed will not be effective.

Still now, the water authority was checking the customer meters only if it was requested by the
customers themselves, but this might only help the customer not to pay more as such requests
was usually for over registration.

75
Because of this the systematic check-up of the customer meters has important not only to
identify the magnitude of the loss but also to maintain and replace when necessary.

6/ Establishing Pressure Management

Pressure management plan was very crucial to reduce water in distribution system by balancing
flow velocity in the system.it was related to the establishment of zoning and district meter areas.

Long Term Strategies

The long-term program application consists of conduct detailed planning, budgeting and launch
of compressive improvement for metering, billing infrastructure management. Also establishing
of a long term apparent and real loss reduction goals. Besides to this upgrading the network and
replacement of old aged pipe lines and implementation of pressure zone, still more than half of
the pipe networks were old.

76
 CONCULISSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
As per this research the biggest problem observed that there is a poor operation practice in the
water utility. Due to the lack of proper maintenance practice, there are also some of pipes and
valves that are closed not working at this moment. Accordingly, the water distribution network
faced a pipe bursts and failures during low demand time and exposed to large volume of water
loss especially in high pressure zone areas. During high demand time mostly residences found in
dense population and high level of the town do not receive continuous water from the system.
Thereby, water pressure in the distribution network observed that were not perfectly performing
within the proposed maximum and minimum design criteria set by EFDRE, MOWIE. That
means technically there is pressure related problem in distribution system that leads interruption
of water supply of the community. Due to lack of operation and maintenance practice the water
loss in the town goes up which makes the water demand and supply unbalance.

Its distribution and the average water supply coverage were evaluated based on the daily per
capita consumption and level of connection and they are not satisfactory and far from the basic
standard limit that were mentioned on UN-Habitat in 2007. The water loss analysis result
revealed that; leakages, existence of poor maintenance services, burst of pipe, age of pipe, high
pressure and customer meter errors are the main causes of the water loss in Wolaitta Soddo town
water supply service.

The physical observation and discussions with the stockholders in the town, besides to the
analysis showed that, the town water supply system was dominated by aged pipes except the
main line and newly formed kebeles. The existing price of water is practically not real when it
compared with the report and design document. As 85% of the pipes are in the system that
provides service for the customers are too old and this was the main cause of water loss in the
town.

77
From the analysis of sample customer meters, significant variations were recorded depending on
location of the water meters of the customers. This indicates that the possibility of meters to have
under recording is higher in meters located at higher elevation as result of low pressure. On the
other hand meters located at the higher consumption records are observed in meters located at
lower elevation due to high pressure.

According to Mckenzie et al (2006), the system efficiency is not good (acceptable). Therefore,
the study area water supply system regarding to water losses is not acceptable.

The prevention method and strategies to reduce water loss explained in this study. However,
from the quality of the available data and the complex nature of the water loss and leakage, this
conclusion could only be taken as suggestive findings to be a base for further studies.

5.2 Recommendations
The study focused on the current water supply coverage and loss in study town. By using
different methodology application approach to distribution systems will result in better
understanding and knowledge of the decrease of the average per-capita demand and components
of uncontrolled flow rate, real losses and apparent losses. Also to satisfy as well as to balance the
demand and supply of water in the town, expansion work was very crucial related to the
urbanization development in the town is too high from time to time.

Since the higher value of the loss has evaluated in conjunction with the amount of water which
is extremely low, the magnitude of the loss has expected to be higher had there been enough
water supply and pressure in all areas. Therefore, due to attention should be given while
additional water source has planned for the future that a proper management of the existing
infrastructure in general and the water network in particular is paramount.

Introducing geographic information system (GIS) is timely as it may facilitate the updating of the
networks and support to perform related spatial analysis. Using the recently prepared digital
elevation model (DEM) to the town may support to divide the network into manageable smaller
hydraulic zones or district meter areas.

Attention must also be given for customer billing equity. Major differences are meter accuracy
translates to unequal customer billing. A water system with a high unaccounted for water loss
may have leaks or other distribution problems that must be addressed.

78
Without accurate meters the degree of these problems cannot truly be known. The accuracy of a
utilities water meters should be high priority and efforts made to maintain all meters at a high
and uniform level of efficiency.

Better management of the billing system in general and better evaluation of water loss comparing
with the billed water consumption and further study including modeling is essential to control or
limit water loss and meters error. One method to reduce the excessive pressure in the system is
by introducing a pressure reducing valve on the distribution network which can reduce the
pressure below the acceptable range as per the design. Also Water loss is not only engineering
problem but it can be reduced by creating awareness and changing behavior of people by
educating them to be owner ness feeling.

79
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX-A: Checklist of Interview for customers of the town

1. Is there any water related problem in your community? A/no B/yes

2. Do you think the current water supply system the town is enough? A/yes B/no

3. What is your daily water consumption? A/ 80L B/>80L C/<80L

4. How many birr do you pay for m3 of water?

5. Is there any water losses in your community? A/yes B/ no

6. Do you obtain mentainance service on time? A/yes B/ no

7. Have you ever seen pressure related problem? A/yes B/no

8. In general what do you think water supply service of your town? A/very good B/good
C/Satisfactory D/ Poor

9. Have you ever seen water wastage in your community? A/yes B/ no

10. If you say yes, what are the main cause of water wastage in your community? A/Lack of
awareness B/poor installation of distribution network C/lack of on time mentainanece D/ other
causes.

Checklist of Interview with stakeholder

1. 1 .when water supply distribution system established in the town?

2. What are the main sources of water in the town? A/ borehole B/ Spring C/ river D/shall
wall E/ Other

3. Are there any water sources that are not included to the distribution system? A/Yes B/ no

4. 4 .if yes, Where and how much?

5. Do you think the current water supply condition is satisfactory for the town? A/ Yes B/ Not

6. Do you think water production and consumption of the town is balanced? A/not balanced
B/ balanced

7. What is the daily consumption of water in each person? A/ 80L/per/day B/ <80L/Per/day

84
8. What is pressure performance in distribution system? A/low B/high C/Medium
d/standardized

9. How do you measure pressure in your system?

10. Is there any pressure related problem in distribution system? A/ yes B/ no

11. If yes what way you use to eliminate it from your system?

12. Are there any non-metered water consumptions? A/ yes B/ no

13. If you say yes for what purpose and how do you estimate the volume of water consumed?

14. Are there any water losses in the town distribution system? A/yes B/ No water loss

15. What do you think the main causes of water loss in your system?

16. How you control water loss of your system?

17. How do you identify leakage of water pipes? How do the residents/communities support in
reporting leakage of pipes?

18. How many registered legal water connection in your system?

19. Have you encountered with illegal water connections? If yes how frequent?

20. Do you think that all customers pay for all water they have consumed? If not why?

21. From your experience, does leakage and breakage of pipes have significant relation with
age of pipes? A/ YES B/no

22. What are the main cause of leakage and breakage?

23. Do you have a plan to replace aged pipes and water meters? What major criteria do you use
for prioritization of replacement?

24. Do you have any plan regarding operation and management in general and leakage
reduction in particular? If so what are the main components?

25. Are they have qualified employer?

26. Do you use GIS in your operational management of the water supply network?

85
Appendix-B: 2020 the annual water production, consumption, and losses

NO. Months Production(M3) Consumption(M3) Losses(M3) Losses (%)

1 July 92,863.92 69,082.00 323,781.92 25.61

2 August 95,092.00 70,263.00 24,829.00 26.11

3 September 121,378.60 91,170.00 30,208.60 24.89

4 October 117,931.80 87,291.00 30,640.80 25.98

5 November 128,026.60 101,788.00 26,263.60 20.51

6 December 158,200.00 117,188.00 41,012.00 25.92

7 January 164,780.00 120,368.00 44,412.00 26.95

8 February 141,317.00 114,752.00 26,565.00 18.80

9 March 180,680.00 130,540.00 50,118.00 27..74

10 April 179,521.00 125,798.00 53,792.00 29.93

11 May 169,980.00 126,588.00 43,392.00 25..53

12 Jun 168,123.00 121,204.00 46,919.00 27.91

Total 1,717,893.92 1,276,029.00 441,864.92 25.72

86
APPENDIX-D: Water audit software reporting worksheet
A/ Performance indicators (PIs)

AWWA Free Water Audit Software: WAS v5.0

American Water Works Association.
System Attributes and Performance Indicators Copyright © 2014, All Rights Reserved.

Water Audit Report for: SODDO TOWN

Reporting Year: 2021 7/1905 - 7/1905

*** YOUR WATER AUDIT DATA VALIDITY SCORE IS: 55 out of 100 ***
System Attributes:
Apparent Losses: 7.505 ML/Yr
+ Real Losses: 396.424 ML/Yr
= Water Losses: 403.929 ML/Yr

? Unavoidable Annual Real Losses (UARL): 456.74 ML/Yr

Annual cost of Apparent Losses: $300
Annual cost of Real Losses: $15,857 Valued at Customer Retail Unit Cost
Return to Reporting Worksheet to change this assumpiton
Performance Indicators:
Non-revenue water as percent by volume of Water Supplied: 24.8%
Financial:
Non-revenue water as percent by cost of operating system: 24.9% Real Losses valued at Customer Retail Unit Cost

Apparent Losses per service connection per day: 1.51 litres/connection/day

Real Losses per service connection per day: 79.73 litres/connection/day
Operational Efficiency:
Real Losses per length of main per day*: N/A
Real Losses per service connection per day per meter (head) pressure: 1.45 litres/connection/day/m

From Above, Real Losses = Current Annual Real Losses (CARL): 396.42 ML/year
? Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) [CARL/UARL]: 0.87

* This performance indicator applies for systems with a low service connection density of less than 20 service connections/kilometre of pipeline

B/ Water balance reports

87
 AWWA Free Water Audit Software: Water Balance WAS v5.0
American Water Works Association.
Copyright © 2014, All Rights Reserved.

Water Audit Report for: SODDO TOWN

Reporting Year: 2021 7/1905 - 7/1905

Data Validity Score: 55

Water Exported
Billed Water Exported
0.000
Billed Metered Consumption (water
Revenue Water
Billed Authorized Consumption exported is removed)
1,284.260
Authorized
Own Sources 1,292.491 Billed Unmetered Consumption 1,292.491
Consumption
(Adjusted for 8.231
known errors) 1,313.965 Unbilled Metered Consumption Non-Revenue Water
Unbilled Authorized Consumption
0.000 (NRW)

1,717.894 21.474 Unbilled Unmetered Consumption

21.474
Water Supplied Unauthorized Consumption 425.403
Apparent Losses 4.295
1,717.894 7.505 Customer Metering Inaccuracies
0.000
Systematic Data Handling Errors
Water Losses 3.211
Leakage on Transmission and/or
Water Imported 403.929
Distribution Mains
Real Losses Not broken down
Leakage and Overflows at Utility's Storage
396.424
0.000 Tanks
Not broken down
Leakage on Service Connections
Not broken down

C/Water control planning regarding the result

88
89
Appendix-E Water CAD analysis result
Appendix E-1 Network Table (Node) For the Existing System Based On Present Consumption

Nodal Results (Distribution Network) Scenario:

Extended Period Analysis: 0.0 hr / 24.0 hr
Junction Report

Zone Node X (m) Y (m) Elevation Demand Calculated Calculated Pressure

Label (m) (l/s) Demand Hydraulic (m H2O)
(l/s) Grade (m)

Zone 1 J-1 364,344 760,150 2204.3 0.73 0.22 2,218.82 14.53

J-2 363,663 760,178 2150.4 0.34 0.10 2,218.72 68.15

J-3 363,644 759,819 2167.2 0.52 0.16 2,218.69 51.39

J-4 363,862 759,727 2188.0 0.40 0.12 2,218.64 30.61

J-5 364,706 759,642 2180.2 0.72 0.22 2,218.74 38.46

J-6 364,018 759,520 2154.1 0.44 0.13 2,218.52 64.29

J-7 363,735 759,296 2140.1 0.89 0.27 2,218.31 78.08

Zone 2 J-8 362,935 759,870 2085.0 0.94 0.28 2,115.59 30.53

J-9 362,459 759,906 2071.6 0.70 0.21 2,115.56 43.89

J-10 362,399 759,254 2069.6 0.99 0.30 2,115.53 45.87

J-11 363,375 759,034 2091.4 0.77 0.23 2,115.54 24.06

J-12 363,125 758,693 2063.6 0.49 0.15 2,115.49 51.84

J-13 362,866 758,888 2053.2 0.80 0.24 2,115.43 62.10

J-14 362,602 758,528 2049.9 0.47 0.14 2,115.38 65.32

J-15 362,996 758,254 2054.7 0.00 0.00 2,115.34 60.49

J-16 362,797 757,967 2044.5 1.14 0.34 2,115.27 70.64

J-17 362,600 757,480 2056.5 0.52 0.16 2,115.15 58.52

J-18 363,895 758,252 2027.0 0.82 0.25 2,115.30 88.11

J-19 363,749 758,542 2053.4 0.60 0.18 2,115.42 61.87

90
 J-20 364,252 758,428 2031.9 0.91 0.27 2,115.30 83.19

J-21 364,123 758,823 2039.0 1.17 0.35 2,115.39 76.22

J-22 364,786 758,989 2059.8 1.07 0.32 2,115.31 55.42

J-23 365,172 758,492 2041.6 1.25 0.37 2,115.27 73.56

J-24 364,921 758,208 2050.6 0.80 0.24 2,115.28 64.55

Zone 3 J-28 362,157 758,439 2020.4 1.07 0.32 2,075.90 55.40

J-29 362,553 757,937 2049.9 0.34 0.10 2,075.96 26.05

J-30 362,228 757,356 2031.8 1.03 0.31 2,076.12 44.22

J-31 362,434 757,199 2030.3 0.65 0.19 2,076.10 45.69

J-32 362,200 756,852 1985.2 0.29 0.09 2,076.03 90.62

J-33 363,020 756,952 1986.9 1.06 0.32 2,075.90 88.86

J-34 363,378 757,707 2008.0 0.98 0.29 2,075.80 67.69

J-35 363,838 757,374 1984.9 0.81 0.24 2,075.74 90.63

J-36 364,129 757,964 1988.3 0.87 0.26 2,075.69 87.22

J-37 364,481 756,969 1989.5 1.26 0.38 2,075.43 85.75

Zone 4 J-38 361,548 758,528 1952.1 0.37 0.11 2,006.11 53.88

J-39 361,059 758,414 1936.4 0.40 0.12 2,005.98 69.48

J-40 361,719 758,041 1946.4 0.90 0.27 2,006.02 59.54

J-41 361,465 757,450 1941.6 1.19 0.36 2,005.75 64.05

J-42 360,892 757,276 1935.1 1.17 0.35 2,005.71 70.51

J-43 361,803 756,062 1916.8 1.17 0.35 2,005.39 88.47

J-44 362,136 756,527 1940.1 1.16 0.35 2,005.60 65.35

J-45 362,436 756,221 1935.3 0.60 0.18 2,005.48 70.06

Zone 5 J-46 364,390 756,217 1949.3 1.09 0.33 1,976.97 27.64

J-48 364,244 755,463 1892.6 1.35 0.41 1,976.90 84.11

91
 J-49 363,756 756,417 1900.4 1.31 0.39 1,976.92 76.34

J-50 363,722 756,952 1936.7 0.48 0.14 1,976.81 40.07

J-51 363,159 756,379 1916.5 1.07 0.32 1,976.69 60.10

J-52 362,727 756,027 1929.3 0.91 0.27 1,976.58 47.19

J-53 363,198 755,620 1900.6 1.12 0.34 1,976.45 75.69

Zone 6 J-55 360,695 757,861 1908.7 1.20 0.36 1,926.18 17.46

J-57 360,288 757,570 1899.5 0.99 0.30 1,926.16 26.66

J-58 360,764 756,737 1903.0 1.50 0.45 1,926.13 23.08

J-59 359,759 757,228 1894.1 1.88 0.56 1,926.10 31.90

J-60 360,411 756,448 1888.4 1.45 0.44 1,926.11 37.66

J-61 359,870 756,008 1862.2 1.16 0.35 1,925.96 63.63

J-62 360,840 756,064 1881.2 1.64 0.49 1,926.08 44.82

J-63 360,409 755,571 1867.2 1.15 0.35 1,925.78 58.51

J-64 361,452 755,581 1892.7 1.42 0.43 1,926.05 33.31

J-65 361,079 755,023 1869.6 1.30 0.39 1,926.00 56.28

J-66 362,227 755,191 1892.2 1.79 0.54 1,926.00 33.78

J-67 361,906 754,592 1875.2 1.31 0.39 1,925.92 50.67

J-68 362,934 754,833 1863.8 1.28 0.39 1,925.97 62.09

92
Nodal Results (Distribution Network) Scenario:
Extended Period Analysis: 8.0 hr / 24.0 hr
Junction Report

Zone Node X (m) Y (m) Elevation Demand Calculated Calculated Pressure

Label (m) (l/s) Demand Hydraulic (m
(l/s) Grade (m) H2O)

Zone 1 J-1 364,344 760,150 2204.3 0.73 1.17 2,219.15 14.86

J-2 363,663 760,178 2150.4 0.34 0.55 2,217.01 66.43

J-3 363,644 759,819 2167.2 0.52 0.83 2,216.36 49.06

J-4 363,862 759,727 2188.0 0.40 0.65 2,215.15 27.13

J-5 364,706 759,642 2180.2 0.72 1.15 2,217.38 37.11

J-6 364,018 759,520 2154.1 0.44 0.70 2,212.56 58.34

J-7 363,735 759,296 2140.1 0.89 1.42 2,207.75 67.55

Zone 2 J-8 362,935 759,870 2085.0 0.94 1.51 2,117.35 32.29

J-9 362,459 759,906 2071.6 0.70 1.12 2,116.78 45.10

J-10 362,399 759,254 2069.6 0.99 1.58 2,116.15 46.48

J-11 363,375 759,034 2091.4 0.77 1.23 2,116.35 24.87

J-12 363,125 758,693 2063.6 0.49 0.78 2,115.18 51.53

J-13 362,866 758,888 2053.2 0.80 1.27 2,113.84 60.51

J-14 362,602 758,528 2049.9 0.47 0.75 2,112.64 62.59

J-15 362,996 758,254 2054.7 0.00 0.00 2,111.78 56.94

J-16 362,797 757,967 2044.5 1.14 1.82 2,110.30 65.69

J-17 362,600 757,480 2056.5 0.52 0.84 2,107.70 51.08

J-18 363,895 758,252 2027.0 0.82 1.32 2,110.92 83.74

J-19 363,749 758,542 2053.4 0.60 0.96 2,113.61 60.05

J-20 364,252 758,428 2031.9 0.91 1.45 2,110.86 78.76

J-21 364,123 758,823 2039.0 1.17 1.87 2,112.86 73.70

93
 J-22 364,786 758,989 2059.8 1.07 1.71 2,111.08 51.20

J-23 365,172 758,492 2041.6 1.25 2.00 2,110.35 68.65

J-24 364,921 758,208 2050.6 0.80 1.28 2,110.44 59.72

Zone 3 J-28 362,157 758,439 2020.4 1.07 1.71 2,070.95 50.46

J-29 362,553 757,937 2049.9 0.34 0.55 2,072.28 22.37

J-30 362,228 757,356 2031.8 1.03 1.65 2,075.78 43.88

J-31 362,434 757,199 2030.3 0.65 1.04 2,075.24 44.84

J-32 362,200 756,852 1985.2 0.29 0.47 2,073.66 88.26

J-33 363,020 756,952 1986.9 1.06 1.70 2,070.97 83.94

J-34 363,378 757,707 2008.0 0.98 1.56 2,068.65 60.56

J-35 363,838 757,374 1984.9 0.81 1.29 2,067.27 82.19

J-36 364,129 757,964 1988.3 0.87 1.38 2,066.20 77.75

J-37 364,481 756,969 1989.5 1.26 2.01 2,060.46 70.80

Zone 4 J-38 361,548 758,528 1952.1 0.37 0.60 2,008.68 56.44

J-39 361,059 758,414 1936.4 0.40 0.65 2,005.62 69.12

J-40 361,719 758,041 1946.4 0.90 1.44 2,006.50 60.02

J-41 361,465 757,450 1941.6 1.19 1.90 2,000.53 58.84

J-42 360,892 757,276 1935.1 1.17 1.87 1,999.67 64.48

J-43 361,803 756,062 1916.8 1.17 1.87 1,992.69 75.79

J-44 362,136 756,527 1940.1 1.16 1.85 1,997.21 56.97

J-45 362,436 756,221 1935.3 0.60 0.96 1,994.51 59.12

Zone 5 J-46 364,390 756,217 1949.3 1.09 1.75 1,978.26 28.92

J-48 364,244 755,463 1892.6 1.35 2.17 1,976.74 83.95

J-49 363,756 756,417 1900.4 1.31 2.10 1,977.12 76.54

J-50 363,722 756,952 1936.7 0.48 0.77 1,974.67 37.94

94
 J-51 363,159 756,379 1916.5 1.07 1.71 1,971.95 55.36

J-52 362,727 756,027 1929.3 0.91 1.46 1,969.61 40.23

J-53 363,198 755,620 1900.6 1.12 1.79 1,966.68 65.94

Zone 6 J-55 360,695 757,861 1908.7 1.20 1.93 1,928.89 20.17

J-57 360,288 757,570 1899.5 0.99 1.59 1,928.51 29.01

J-58 360,764 756,737 1903.0 1.50 2.39 1,927.68 24.63

J-59 359,759 757,228 1894.1 1.88 3.01 1,927.19 32.99

J-60 360,411 756,448 1888.4 1.45 2.32 1,927.36 38.91

J-61 359,870 756,008 1862.2 1.16 1.86 1,924.12 61.78

J-62 360,840 756,064 1881.2 1.64 2.63 1,926.68 45.42

J-63 360,409 755,571 1867.2 1.15 1.84 1,919.93 52.67

J-64 361,452 755,581 1892.7 1.42 2.27 1,926.03 33.29

J-65 361,079 755,023 1869.6 1.30 2.08 1,924.84 55.12

J-66 362,227 755,191 1892.2 1.79 2.87 1,924.98 32.75

J-67 361,906 754,592 1875.2 1.31 2.10 1,923.12 47.87

J-68 362,934 754,833 1863.8 1.28 2.05 1,924.28 60.39

95
Appendix E-2: Network table for the existing system based on present consumption

Scenario:
Extended Period Analysis: 0.0 hr / 24.0 hr
Pipe Report

Link Start End Diamet Length Materi Veloci Headlo Dischar Start End
Label Node Node er (mm) (m) al ty ss (m) ge (l/s) Pressur Press
(m/s) e (m ure
H2O) (m
H2O)

Distribution Pipe Network

P-1 R1 J-1 150 179 uPVC 0.07 0.01 1.21 1.50 14.53

P-2 J-1 J-5 80 636 uPVC 0.08 0.08 0.40 14.53 38.46

P-3 J-1 J-4 50 642 uPVC 0.09 0.18 0.18 14.53 30.61

P-4 J-1 J-2 80 700 uPVC 0.08 0.10 0.42 14.53 68.15

P-5 J-2 J-3 80 360 uPVC 0.06 0.03 0.32 68.15 51.39

P-6 J-3 J-4 50 237 uPVC 0.08 0.05 0.16 51.39 30.61

P-7 J-6 J-4 50 289 uPVC 0.11 0.12 -0.22 64.29 30.61

P-8 J-6 J-5 50 755 uPVC 0.09 0.22 -0.18 64.29 38.46

P-9 J-7 J-6 50 368 uPVC 0.14 0.22 -0.27 78.08 64.29

P-10 Zone-2 J-8 250 315 uPVC 0.08 0.01 4.03 2.00 30.53
PRT

P-11 J-8 J-9 150 479 uPVC 0.07 0.03 1.32 30.53 43.89

P-12 J-9 J-10 150 720 uPVC 0.06 0.03 1.11 43.89 45.87

P-13 J-8 J-13 50 1,066 uPVC 0.06 0.16 0.13 30.53 62.10

P-14 J-8 J-11 200 1,212 uPVC 0.07 0.05 2.30 30.53 24.06

P-15 J-10 J-13 100 650 uPVC 0.10 0.10 0.81 45.87 62.10

P-16 J-11 J-12 150 423 uPVC 0.12 0.05 2.07 24.06 51.84

P-17 J-13 J-14 100 447 uPVC 0.09 0.05 0.70 62.10 65.32

96
P-18 J-14 J-15 100 480 uPVC 0.07 0.04 0.56 65.32 60.49

P-19 J-15 J-16 80 350 uPVC 0.10 0.07 0.50 60.49 70.64

P-20 J-16 J-17 50 528 uPVC 0.08 0.12 0.16 70.64 58.52

P-21 J-15 J-18 50 938 uPVC 0.03 0.04 0.06 60.49 88.11

P-22 J-19 J-12 150 653 uPVC 0.11 0.07 -1.92 61.87 51.84

P-23 J-18 J-20 50 419 uPVC 0.01 0.00 0.02 88.11 83.19

P-24 J-19 J-21 150 469 uPVC 0.09 0.03 1.53 61.87 76.22

P-25 J-18 J-19 50 324 uPVC 0.11 0.12 -0.21 88.11 61.87

P-26 J-21 J-20 80 439 uPVC 0.10 0.09 0.52 76.22 83.19

P-27 J-21 J-22 100 734 uPVC 0.08 0.08 0.66 76.22 55.42

P-28 J-22 J-23 100 1,017 uPVC 0.04 0.03 0.34 55.42 73.56

P-29 J-23 J-24 50 382 uPVC 0.02 0.00 -0.03 73.56 64.55

P-30 J-20 J-24 100 897 uPVC 0.03 0.02 0.27 83.19 64.55

P-34 J-28 J-29 80 714 uPVC 0.06 0.06 -0.32 55.40 26.05

P-35 J-29 J-30 80 1,118 uPVC 0.08 0.16 -0.42 26.05 44.22

P-36 J-30 J-31 150 259 uPVC 0.10 0.02 1.77 44.22 45.69

P-37 J-31 J-32 80 462 uPVC 0.09 0.07 0.44 45.69 90.62

P-38 J-31 J-33 100 652 uPVC 0.14 0.19 1.13 45.69 88.86

P-39 J-33 J-32 80 1,178 uPVC 0.07 0.12 -0.36 88.86 90.62

P-40 J-33 J-35 80 1,015 uPVC 0.09 0.17 0.46 88.86 90.63

P-41 J-33 J-34 100 835 uPVC 0.09 0.10 0.71 88.86 67.69

P-42 J-34 J-36 80 796 uPVC 0.08 0.11 0.42 67.69 87.22

P-43 J-36 J-37 50 1,126 uPVC 0.08 0.26 0.16 87.22 85.75

P-44 J-35 J-37 50 763 uPVC 0.11 0.31 0.22 90.63 85.75

97
P-45 Zone-4 J-38 150 285 uPVC 0.12 0.04 2.09 0.25 53.88
PRT

P-46 J-39 J-38 100 504 uPVC 0.14 0.14 -1.09 69.48 53.88

P-47 J-41 J-39 100 1,048 uPVC 0.12 0.23 -0.97 64.05 69.48

P-48 J-38 J-40 100 521 uPVC 0.11 0.10 0.89 53.88 59.54

P-49 J-40 J-41 80 939 uPVC 0.12 0.27 0.62 59.54 64.05

P-50 J-41 J-42 100 599 uPVC 0.06 0.04 0.50 64.05 70.51

P-51 J-42 J-43 50 1,567 uPVC 0.08 0.31 0.15 70.51 88.47

P-52 J-44 J-41 100 1,148 uPVC 0.09 0.15 -0.73 65.35 64.05

P-53 J-43 J-44 50 572 uPVC 0.10 0.20 -0.20 88.47 65.35

P-54 J-44 J-45 50 429 uPVC 0.09 0.12 0.18 65.35 70.06

P-55 Zone-5 J-46 150 203 uPVC 0.12 0.03 2.20 2.00 27.64
PRT

P-58 J-48 J-46 100 768 uPVC 0.08 0.07 -0.59 84.11 27.64

P-59 J-46 J-49 150 1,004 uPVC 0.07 0.05 1.28 27.64 76.34

P-60 J-49 J-50 100 593 uPVC 0.11 0.11 0.88 76.34 40.07

P-61 J-50 J-51 100 915 uPVC 0.09 0.12 0.74 40.07 60.10

P-62 J-51 J-52 80 757 uPVC 0.08 0.11 0.42 60.10 47.19

P-63 J-52 J-53 50 672 uPVC 0.07 0.13 0.15 47.19 75.69

P-64 J-48 J-53 50 1,457 uPVC 0.10 0.45 0.19 84.11 75.69

P-66 Zone-6 J-55 300 798 uPVC 0.08 0.02 5.43 0.20 17.46
PRT

P-68 J-57 J-55 300 760 uPVC 0.07 0.02 -5.07 26.66 17.46

P-70 J-57 J-58 250 976 uPVC 0.09 0.04 4.20 26.66 23.08

P-71 J-57 J-59 100 734 uPVC 0.07 0.06 0.56 26.66 31.90

P-73 J-60 J-61 80 697 uPVC 0.10 0.15 0.52 37.66 63.63

98
P-74 J-58 J-60 250 456 uPVC 0.08 0.01 3.76 23.08 37.66

P-75 J-62 J-60 200 576 uPVC 0.09 0.03 -2.80 44.82 37.66

P-76 J-64 J-62 200 785 uPVC 0.07 0.03 -2.30 33.31 44.82

P-77 J-61 J-63 50 694 uPVC 0.09 0.19 0.18 63.63 58.51

P-78 J-65 J-63 50 865 uPVC 0.09 0.22 0.17 56.28 58.51

P-79 J-64 J-65 100 671 uPVC 0.07 0.05 0.56 33.31 56.28

P-80 J-66 J-64 150 877 uPVC 0.07 0.05 -1.32 33.78 33.31

P-81 J-68 J-66 100 792 uPVC 0.05 0.03 -0.39 62.09 33.78

P-84 J-66 J-67 80 680 uPVC 0.08 0.08 0.39 33.78 50.67

99
Scenario:
Extended Period Analysis: 8.0 hr / 24.0 hr
Pipe Report

Link Start End Diameter Length Material Velocity Headloss Discharge Start End
Label Node Node (mm) (m) (m/s) (m) (l/s) Pressure Pressure
(m (m
H2O) H2O)

Distribution Pipe Network

P-1 R1 J-1 150 179 uPVC 0.37 0.18 6.47 2.01 14.86

P-2 J-1 J-5 80 636 uPVC 0.42 1.77 2.12 14.86 37.11

P-3 J-1 J-4 50 642 uPVC 0.48 4.00 0.95 14.86 27.13

P-4 J-1 J-2 80 700 uPVC 0.44 2.14 2.23 14.86 66.43

P-5 J-2 J-3 80 360 uPVC 0.33 0.65 1.68 66.43 49.06

P-6 J-3 J-4 50 237 uPVC 0.43 1.21 0.85 49.06 27.13

P-7 J-6 J-4 50 289 uPVC 0.59 2.59 -1.16 58.34 27.13

P-8 J-6 J-5 50 755 uPVC 0.49 4.82 -0.96 58.34 37.11

P-9 J-7 J-6 50 368 uPVC 0.72 4.81 -1.42 67.55 58.34

P-10 Zone- J-8 250 315 uPVC 0.44 0.25 21.48 3.99 32.29
2 PRT

P-11 J-8 J-9 150 479 uPVC 0.40 0.58 7.04 32.29 45.10

P-12 J-9 J-10 150 720 uPVC 0.33 0.63 5.92 45.10 46.48

P-13 J-8 J-13 50 1,066 uPVC 0.34 3.51 0.67 32.29 60.51

P-14 J-8 J-11 200 1,212 uPVC 0.39 1.00 12.25 32.29 24.87

P-15 J-10 J-13 100 650 uPVC 0.55 2.30 4.34 46.48 60.51

P-16 J-11 J-12 150 423 uPVC 0.62 1.17 11.03 24.87 51.53

P-17 J-13 J-14 100 447 uPVC 0.48 1.20 3.74 60.51 62.59
100
P-18 J-14 J-15 100 480 uPVC 0.38 0.86 3.00 62.59 56.94
P-19 J-15 J-16 80 350 uPVC 0.53 1.48 2.66 56.94 65.69

P-20 J-16 J-17 50 528 uPVC 0.43 2.61 0.84 65.69 51.08

P-21 J-15 J-18 50 938 uPVC 0.17 0.86 0.34 56.94 83.74

P-22 J-19 J-12 150 653 uPVC 0.58 1.58 -10.25 60.05 51.53

P-23 J-18 J-20 50 419 uPVC 0.07 0.07 0.13 83.74 78.76

P-24 J-19 J-21 150 469 uPVC 0.46 0.75 8.18 60.05 73.70

P-25 J-18 J-19 50 324 uPVC 0.56 2.68 -1.11 83.74 60.05

P-26 J-21 J-20 80 439 uPVC 0.55 2.00 2.77 73.70 78.76

P-27 J-21 J-22 100 734 uPVC 0.45 1.78 3.54 73.70 51.20

P-28 J-22 J-23 100 1,017 uPVC 0.23 0.73 1.83 51.20 68.65

P-29 J-23 J-24 50 382 uPVC 0.09 0.10 -0.17 68.65 59.72

P-30 J-20 J-24 100 897 uPVC 0.18 0.41 1.45 78.76 59.72

P-34 J-28 J-29 80 714 uPVC 0.34 1.33 -1.71 50.46 22.37

P-35 J-29 J-30 80 1,118 uPVC 0.45 3.50 -2.26 22.37 43.88

P-36 J-30 J-31 150 259 uPVC 0.54 0.54 9.46 43.88 44.84

P-37 J-31 J-32 80 462 uPVC 0.47 1.58 2.37 44.84 88.26

P-38 J-31 J-33 100 652 uPVC 0.77 4.27 6.05 44.84 83.94

P-39 J-33 J-32 80 1,178 uPVC 0.38 2.69 -1.90 83.94 88.26

P-40 J-33 J-35 80 1,015 uPVC 0.49 3.70 2.45 83.94 82.19

P-41 J-33 J-34 100 835 uPVC 0.48 2.32 3.80 83.94 60.56

P-42 J-34 J-36 80 796 uPVC 0.45 2.45 2.24 60.56 77.75

P-43 J-36 J-37 50 1,126 uPVC 0.43 5.74 0.85 77.75 70.80

P-44 J-35 J-37 50 763 uPVC 0.59 6.82 1.16 82.19 70.80

P-45 Zone- J-38 150 285 uPVC 0.63 0.80 11.15 3.57 56.44

101
 4 PRT

P-46 J-39 J-38 100 504 uPVC 0.74 3.05 -5.80 69.12 56.44

P-47 J-41 J-39 100 1,048 uPVC 0.66 5.10 -5.15 58.84 69.12

P-48 J-38 J-40 100 521 uPVC 0.60 2.18 4.75 56.44 60.02

P-49 J-40 J-41 80 939 uPVC 0.66 5.97 3.31 60.02 58.84

P-50 J-41 J-42 100 599 uPVC 0.34 0.86 2.67 58.84 64.48

P-51 J-42 J-43 50 1,567 uPVC 0.40 6.98 0.79 64.48 75.79

P-52 J-44 J-41 100 1,148 uPVC 0.50 3.32 -3.89 56.97 58.84

P-53 J-43 J-44 50 572 uPVC 0.55 4.52 -1.08 75.79 56.97

P-54 J-44 J-45 50 429 uPVC 0.49 2.70 0.96 56.97 59.12

P-55 Zone- J-46 150 203 uPVC 0.66 0.63 11.74 3.88 28.92
5 PRT

P-58 J-48 J-46 100 768 uPVC 0.40 1.52 -3.17 83.95 28.92

P-59 J-46 J-49 150 1,004 uPVC 0.39 1.14 6.82 28.92 76.54

P-60 J-49 J-50 100 593 uPVC 0.60 2.45 4.72 76.54 37.94

P-61 J-50 J-51 100 915 uPVC 0.50 2.73 3.95 37.94 55.36

P-62 J-51 J-52 80 757 uPVC 0.45 2.34 2.24 55.36 40.23

P-63 J-52 J-53 50 672 uPVC 0.40 2.93 0.78 40.23 65.94

P-64 J-48 J-53 50 1,457 uPVC 0.51 10.06 1.01 83.95 65.94

P-66 Zone- J-55 300 798 uPVC 0.41 0.45 28.95 3.33 20.17
6 PRT

P-68 J-57 J-55 300 760 uPVC 0.38 0.38 -27.02 29.01 20.17

P-70 J-57 J-58 250 976 uPVC 0.46 0.83 22.43 29.01 24.63

P-71 J-57 J-59 100 734 uPVC 0.38 1.32 3.01 29.01 32.99

P-73 J-60 J-61 80 697 uPVC 0.56 3.25 2.80 38.91 61.78

102
P-74 J-58 J-60 250 456 uPVC 0.41 0.32 20.03 24.63 38.91

P-75 J-62 J-60 200 576 uPVC 0.47 0.69 -14.91 45.42 38.91

P-76 J-64 J-62 200 785 uPVC 0.39 0.65 -12.28 33.29 45.42

P-77 J-61 J-63 50 694 uPVC 0.48 4.19 0.94 61.78 52.67

P-78 J-65 J-63 50 865 uPVC 0.46 4.91 0.90 55.12 52.67

P-79 J-64 J-65 100 671 uPVC 0.38 1.19 2.99 33.29 55.12

P-80 J-66 J-64 150 877 uPVC 0.40 1.05 -7.02 32.75 33.29

P-81 J-68 J-66 100 792 uPVC 0.26 0.70 -2.05 60.39 32.75

P-84 J-66 J-67 80 680 uPVC 0.42 1.86 2.10 32.75 47.87

APPENDIX-F: Diameter, pipe material and lengths of the distribution system

Diameter Length of the pipe (m)

(mm)
Zone-1 Zone-2 Zone-3 Zone-4 Zone-5 Zone-6

50 2,290 3,547 1,891 2,568 2,684 1,559

80 1,696 789 3,443 939 757 1,377

100 4,226 1,493 3,811 2,276 2,197

150 179 2,743 260 282 1,207 877

200 1,212 1,753 1,362

250 315 1,432

300 1,558

Total 4,165 12,832 8,839 7,600 6,924 10,362

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APENDIX-G: Summary of Water Demand Projection of the Study Town

Description Unit Years

2008 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Population No 72,781 79,795 98,935 121,445 147,593 177,587

Domestic demand m3/d 1275.2 1826.0 2828.2 2916.2 4160.9 5823.3

Non Domestic Demand

Public Demand m3/day 318.8 456.5 707.0 729.0 1040.2 1455.8

Total Domestic + Public m3/day 1593.9 2282.5 3535.2 3645.2 5201.1 7279.2
Demands

Total Unaccounted-for % 27.0% 15.0% 17.5% 20.0% 22.5% 25.0%

water (UFW)
m3/day 430.4 342.4 618.7 729.0 1170.3 1819.8

Average Day Demand m3/day 2,024.3 2,624.8 4,153.9 4,374.3 6,371.4 9,099.0

l/s 23.4 30.4 48.1 50.6 73.7 105.3

Maximum Day Demand 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.1 1.1

Factor

Maximum Day Demand m3/day 2,327.9 3,018.5 4,777.0 5,030.4 7,008.5 10,008.9

l/s 26.9 34.9 55.3 58.2 81.1 115.8

Peak Hour Demand Factor 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.6

Peak Hour Demand m3/day 4,190.3 5,433.4 8,598.5 8,048.7 11,213.6 16,014.2

Peak Hour Demand l/s 48.5 62.9 99.5 93.2 129.8 185.3

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