Contemporary Design of Low Cost Substations in Developing Countries

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CONTEMPORARY DESIGN OF
LOW COST SUBSTATIONS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
WORKING GROUP
B3.43
AUGUST 2018
CONTEMPORARY DESIGN OF
LOW COST SUBSTATIONS IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
WG B3.43
Members
P. TONKING, Convenor AU J.A. VISQUERT, Secretary UK

R. SLEBODNIK US C. TWOMEY IE
S. FEITOZA BR R. ADAMS AU
T. MARAIS ZA T. KRIEG AU
P. KONIG ZA N. ARORA AU
A. GABRIEL AU C. CHIBAMBO MW
J. VALERO ESP T. FREY CH
Corresponding Members
DR. M. OSBORNE, Editor UK A. AMOD ZA

DR. S. AL HARTHI UAE F. GBEDEY WORLD BANK
R. HUGHES AU
Copyright © 2018
“All rights to this Technical Brochure are retained by CIGRE. It is strictly prohibited to reproduce or provide this publication in
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publication may be reproduced or utilised without permission from CIGRE”.
Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any responsibility, as to the
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permitted by law”.
WG XX.XXpany network provided access is restricted to their own employees. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or utilized without permission from CIGRE”.
ISBN : 978-2-85873-442-9
Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any
CONTEMPORARY DESIGN OF LOW COST SUBSTATIONS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This technical brochure has been developed to build on a growing global initiative to rapidly provide
first-time electrical infrastructure to developing communities in a manner cognizant of, and consistent
with, their economic and resource constraints. Substation design is the subject, and the purpose is to
deliver contemporary means to provide more cost-effective infrastructure. Maximising value in the
delivery of substation infrastructure will lead to greater cost efficiency and thereby effectively assure a
greater degree of electrification in a capital constrained developing world economy.
According to the Energy Access Outlook 2017, published by the International Energy Agency (IEA) an
estimated 1.1 billion people, approximately 14% of the global population, do not have access to
electricity. Many more suffer from supply that is of poor quality. Around 84% of those without electricity
access reside in rural areas and more than 95% of those living without electricity are in countries in
Sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia. While still far from complete, progress in providing
electrification in urban areas has outpaced that in rural areas by double the rate since 2000 [1].
Executive Summary Figure A presents an overview of countries with substantial populations that do not
yet have access to electricity.
Executive Summary Figure A – Population without access to electricity, 2016 (millions)
The US National Academy of Engineering survey of “Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th
Century” revealed the number one accomplishment that changed the world is “Electrification". The
provision of a basic electrical service has led to the greatest advance of community than any other
essential service. The United Nations proclaimed in 2012 the “International Year of Sustainable Energy
for All” and set 2030 as the target for universal access to modern energy services. There are several
obstacles to electrification including low demand, low load density, unaffordability by customers, poor
infrastructure, high cost to develop infrastructure, political instability and economic risks such as
assuring an adequate rate of return.
There are several likely solutions to the obstacles which includes the design of low cost substations as
well as making the processes for the supply and installation of these adaptable to specific local
circumstances. Furthermore, infrastructure development through private investment participation,
technical support by professional organisations, and delivery of scalable national development initiatives
are required to meet ambitious targets to electrify all people by 2030. To provide part of the solution
related to technical support to developing communities, in 2015, CIGRE Study Committee B3
commissioned Working Group B3.43 with the following objectives:
 To identify and develop opportunities to lower the cost and risk of new substation assets, and
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 To document guidance for the design of cost-effective and fit-for-purpose substations to provide
electricity to those needing that basic service in developing countries, as well as remote
locations in these countries. Specific focus upon Sub-Saharan Africa was identified due to the
significantly higher gap in electrification in this community.
The intent of WGB3.43 was to fast-track the efforts of the working group in a bid to accelerate the
delivery within a 3-year timeframe of much needed expertise in this area. The scope of WGB3.43
was clarified at the establishment of the working group as follows:
 Seek engagement from organisations in the targeted regions for their expertise in deploying
substation infrastructure. This was accomplished through recruitment at CIGRE Sessions and
a Workshop on Low Cost Substation & Transmission Line Solutions in Johannesburg, South
Africa during early 2017;
 Conduct a survey of practices around the world for relevant design practices to address this
issue. This was accomplished via a survey questionnaire with almost 60% of the results from
targeted developing regions;
 Identify currently available technologies for low-cost substations; consider balance of plant
impact (auxiliary systems) necessary to support these substations; offer advice to evaluate
whole-of-life value of substation assets; and provide sufficient guidance to deliver practical
solutions. This was accomplished through researching the above items (engagement and
survey) and documented in this Technical Brochure; and
 Consider CIGRE’s role in support of the development of local expertise and skills. This was
accomplished by preparing an educational Tutorial based on the Technical Brochure.
Furthermore, members of the working group have availed themselves to support designers in
developing countries on request.
This Technical Brochure, whilst established to support utility designers in developing countries, also
serves as a guideline for cost-effective substation development in developed countries where there are
substantial capital cost constraints. The IEA asserts in its 2017 Energy Outlook that as many as 200
million people living in developed communities or 15% suffer from energy poverty [1]. This
consideration is placing a greater focus upon utilities within developed communities to ensure maximum
value when delivering capital infrastructure. Increased focus upon prudent Asset Management Practices
is rapidly gaining attention across most utilities and it is this focus that could promote cost-effectiveness
measures required to deliver safe, reliable and affordable electricity for all.
This Technical Brochure is structured around the most relevant and important modules or “building
blocks” of the substation design process. Each chapter covers a significant subject matter area of the
design of substations. On a higher level, each chapter can be classified under one of three core themes
identified as material to cost-effective design, namely Design Philosophies, Engineering and Technical
Implementation and Project Implementation.
All of the chapters interrelate with one another in many ways. For example, risk assessment studies
form the basis of Asset Management (under Design Philosophies) as well as Safety in Design (SiD)
(under Engineering / Technical Implementation) and Project Management (under Project
Implementation). Regardless of where an activity falls in the design process, each chapter deals with
the subject in its own applicable manner. The Table of Contents and Chapters themselves of the
Technical Brochure established as independent subject matter areas for the reader to follow as desired.
The Technical Brochure does not have to be read from beginning to end, but can be read by individual
chapters as relevant to the designer’s needs.
This brochure provides electrical engineers of developing countries with an array of possible solutions
for the design procurement and establishment of substations, enabling them to embrace the United
Nations vision of “Electricity for all by 2030”. This brochure further provides engineers in the developing
world with an opportunity to transfer ideas and methodologies between countries, i.e. it provides a
glimpse of how other countries solve similar problems in different ways. Furthermore the brochure also
provides engineering and manufacturing concerns in the developed world with a view of the workable
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solutions that are fit for purpose for use in the developing world highlighting the solutions for the
developed world are not always fit for purpose for the developing world and vice versa.
Low-cost solutions for substation design can be established. However, designers must maintain an
awareness of the need to save scarce resources of money, seek guidance on the available techniques
to do so, and must constantly ask themselves “how can a saving be generated on this part of the
design”. The most relevant solutions identified are:
 Asset Management: the use of proven techniques to design and manage costs and risks
associated with inherently long-life assets; to get the most performance from the allotted budget
(i.e. “the most bang for the buck”);
 Engineering: the use of standard designs and modular designs for labour and cost savings in
preparing design deliverables; incorporating safety in design to prevent accidents due to hazards
impacting personnel, the public and equipment, which can have costly consequences;
 Equipment: the use of standard material and equipment for cost savings in specification,
procurement, installation and maintenance of substation infrastructure;
 Constructability: the benefits of standardisation of designs and material allow for the most labour-
efficient and thus cost-effective installation of the equipment; it will also promote familiarity with
the infrastructure that will yield savings during installation, operation and maintenance;
 Project management: the use of best practices to manage time, resources, scope, and quality
will ultimately ensure expenditures are minimised; and
 Training: the constant improvement and development of knowledge and skills via classroom,
peers, mentors, professional societies and self-motivation will guide designers to innovate toward
achieving low-cost high-performing solutions.
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CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 3
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 17
1.1 SETTING THE CONTEXT .................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE AND SCOPE OF WORK GROUP B3.43 ........................................................................... 19
1.3 WORKGROUP B3.43 TECHNICAL BROCHURE ......................................................................................................... 19
1.4 DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF TECHNICAL BROCHURE ................................................................................................. 21
1.5 APPRECIATION OF SUPPORTERS ................................................................................................................................. 22
2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................... 23

2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY DEFINITION .............................................................................................................................. 24
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO INFLUENCES ON DESIGN PHILOSOPHY .............................................................................. 24
Power Delivery Organisation ............................................................................................................................... 24
Considerations and Constraints ............................................................................................................................ 24
Codes, Standards and Laws ................................................................................................................................. 25
Engineering Resources ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Conclusion to Influences on Design Philosophy .................................................................................................. 27
2.3 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING DESIGN PROCESS ......................................................................................................... 28
Standard Designs .................................................................................................................................................... 28
Example of Standard Design for a Substation ................................................................................................. 31
Custom or Bespoke Designs ................................................................................................................................... 34
Conclusion to the Design Process .......................................................................................................................... 35
2.4 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING PROJECT EXECUTION METHODS .............................................................................. 35
Project Delivery System ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Project Financing as Related to Developing Regions ...................................................................................... 36
Engineering Delivery System ................................................................................................................................ 37
Conclusion to Project Execution Methods ............................................................................................................ 38
2.5 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING TYPE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM .................................................................................... 38
2.6 DEPENDENCIES AND INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER RELATED PHILOSOPHIES .................................................. 39
Related Inputs to and Outputs of Substation Design ....................................................................................... 39
Concluding Remarks on Interactions and Dependencies ................................................................................. 41
2.7 SUBSTATION DESIGN PHILOSOPHY CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 41
3. ASSET MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUBSTATION DESIGN ............................ 43

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................ 43
3.2 ASSET MANAGEMENT FUNDAMENTALS .................................................................................................................... 43
3.3 STAKEHOLDERS................................................................................................................................................................. 44
3.4 RISK MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................................................ 44
3.5 RELIABILITY, RESILIENCE AND AVAILABILITY ............................................................................................................... 46
3.6 MAINTENANCE.................................................................................................................................................................. 47
3.7 STRATEGY AND POLICY ................................................................................................................................................. 48
3.8 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................... 49
3.9 WHOLE OF LIFE MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................................. 49
Life Cycle Factors .................................................................................................................................................... 49
Asset Life Cycle phases .......................................................................................................................................... 49
3.10 ASSET MANAGEMENT FUNDAMENTALS .................................................................................................................... 50
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Life Cycle Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 51

3.11 SUSTAINABILITY ................................................................................................................................................................ 51
3.12 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY ............................................................................................................................................... 52
3.13 SUBSTATIONS AND THE COMMUNITY ....................................................................................................................... 53
3.14 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON ASSET MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................. 54
4. SUBSTATION DESIGN PROCESS ................................................................................................ 57

4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................ 57
4.2 DESIGN PROCESS ROLE DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................................................... 57
Asset Management.................................................................................................................................................. 57
Project Management............................................................................................................................................... 57
Design Management ............................................................................................................................................... 58
Electrical Primary Design ....................................................................................................................................... 58
Engineering Studies ................................................................................................................................................. 59
Civil Engineering ...................................................................................................................................................... 59
Structural Engineering ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Architectural Design ................................................................................................................................................ 59
Building Services Design ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Electrical Secondary System Design – Protection and Control ...................................................................... 60
Fire Protection Design ............................................................................................................................................. 60
Landscape Design and Environmental Services ................................................................................................ 60
Quality Control ........................................................................................................................................................ 60
Health and Safety in Design ................................................................................................................................. 60
Procurement .............................................................................................................................................................. 61
4.3 DESIGN PROCESS ............................................................................................................................................................ 61
General comments................................................................................................................................................... 61
System Planning Process ........................................................................................................................................ 63
Outline High Level Requirements including general location ......................................................................... 64
Concept Design and Outline Scope..................................................................................................................... 64
Technical, Environmental, Commercial Policies .................................................................................................. 64
Investigate site options including public consultation ....................................................................................... 65
Prepare high-level layouts .................................................................................................................................... 65
Achieve required permits....................................................................................................................................... 65
Project scope, cost estimates, programme and commercial approval......................................................... 65
Primary detail design ............................................................................................................................................. 66
Secondary system detail design .......................................................................................................................... 66
Civil, structural, architectural and landscape/environmental design ........................................................... 66
Physical & electrical installation drawings ......................................................................................................... 66
Construction ............................................................................................................................................................... 66
Commissioning .......................................................................................................................................................... 66
Handover & As-built Records ............................................................................................................................... 66
Technical and commercial review ........................................................................................................................ 67
4.4 USING BEST PRACTICES IN DESIGN PROCESS TO ACHIEVE LOW-COST SOLUTIONS ................................. 67
Typical substation installation costs ..................................................................................................................... 67
Recommendations on low-cost solutions for substation design ....................................................................... 68
4.5 SURVEY RESULTS ON DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION & MAINTENANCE COSTS .................................................... 71
4.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON DESIGN PROCESS .................................................................................................... 72
5. EQUIPMENT SELECTION ............................................................................................................... 75

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................ 75
5.2 THE NETWORK OPERATING AND FAULT CONDITION PARAMETERS ................................................................. 76
Current ratings, continuous and overload conditions ....................................................................................... 77
Short-circuit studies, duration of faults and over temperatures, ................................................................... 78
Short-circuit studies and electrodynamic forces ................................................................................................ 80
Short-circuit, internal arc and interruption ......................................................................................................... 80
5.3 CLIMATIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF THE SUBSTATION LOCATION....................................... 81
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5.4 INSULATION COORDINATION ..................................................................................................................................... 82

5.5 PRIMARY EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................................. 83
Power transformers ................................................................................................................................................. 84
Circuit-breakers ....................................................................................................................................................... 85
Hybrid Switches ....................................................................................................................................................... 85
Power Fuses (expulsion type and current limiting) ........................................................................................... 87
Disconnectors (isolators) / Earth switches ........................................................................................................... 87
Surge Arresters ........................................................................................................................................................ 89
Instrument Transformers .......................................................................................................................................... 91
Earthing System ....................................................................................................................................................... 92
5.6 SECONDARY EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................................................... 92
Economic aspects ..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Protection systems.................................................................................................................................................... 95
Substation control and automation systems ....................................................................................................... 97
Telecommunication systems .................................................................................................................................... 99
Auxiliary systems equipment ................................................................................................................................. 99
5.7 CONCLUDING GUIDELINES ON EQUIPMENT SELECTION .................................................................................. 100
6. SITE SELECTION, ACCESS AND CONSTRUCTABILITY .......................................................... 103

6.1 SITE SELECTION DEFINITION....................................................................................................................................... 103
6.2 ACCESS DEFINITION ..................................................................................................................................................... 103
6.3 CONSTRUCTABILITY DEFINITION ............................................................................................................................... 103
6.4 SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS.......................................................................................................................... 103
Site dimensions ...................................................................................................................................................... 104
Legislative and environmental factors ............................................................................................................. 104
Environmental factors affecting system reliability ........................................................................................ 105
Topography ........................................................................................................................................................... 106
Geological and geotechnical considerations ................................................................................................. 107
Access and access roads ..................................................................................................................................... 107
Line corridors ......................................................................................................................................................... 107
Substation security considerations ..................................................................................................................... 107
6.5 ACCESS CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 107
Main access to the substation............................................................................................................................. 108
Access in and around the substation................................................................................................................. 109
Access into and out of buildings ........................................................................................................................ 111
Impact of other services on access to equipment .......................................................................................... 112
Access for mobile equipment ............................................................................................................................. 113
6.6 CONSTRUCTABILITY CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................. 113
Constructability reviews ...................................................................................................................................... 115
Improve constructability through modular designs ........................................................................................ 115
Plan and design for future expansion requirements..................................................................................... 117
Design aids and other practices ........................................................................................................................ 118
Substation commissioning considerations ......................................................................................................... 120
6.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON SITE SELECTION, ACCESS AND CONSTRUCTABILITY .................................... 121
7. OPERABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY ..................................................................................... 123

7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 123
7.2 GLOBAL SURVEY DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................... 124
7.3 ASSET MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS.............................................................................................................. 125
7.4 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR MAINTAINABILITY AND OPERABILITY OF SUBSTATIONS ......................................... 126
Substation Performance Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 126
Elements that impact the availability of substation elements ..................................................................... 130
7.5 DESIGNING SUBSTATIONS TO MEET PERFORMANCE......................................................................................... 137
Substation Service Security ................................................................................................................................ 137
Availability during maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 138
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Substation Operability – Operational Flexibility ......................................................................................... 139

7.6 BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER – SIMPLE GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN TOWARD OPERABILITY AND
MAINTAINABILITY ........................................................................................................................................................................ 139
Classic Busbar Configurations ............................................................................................................................ 139
Substation Security ............................................................................................................................................... 139
Substation Maintainability .................................................................................................................................. 141
Substation Operational Flexibility .................................................................................................................... 141
Weighting Criteria for Substation Function .................................................................................................... 142
Combining Assessments and Weightings to determine a result ................................................................. 143
Process for assessment of Operability and Maintainability ....................................................................... 143
7.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON OPERABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY ............................................................... 144
8. SAFETY SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................ 147

8.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 147
8.2 MAIN RISKS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 147
Explosions, Fires and Arcs ................................................................................................................................... 147
Contact with live electrical equipment (HV and LV) ..................................................................................... 147
Step and Touch Potentials .................................................................................................................................. 147
Electromagnetic Fields ......................................................................................................................................... 148
Electromagnetic Interference ............................................................................................................................. 148
Audible Noise ........................................................................................................................................................ 148
Physical and cyber security breaches .............................................................................................................. 149
Chemical Risks ....................................................................................................................................................... 150
Summary of Risks .................................................................................................................................................. 150
8.3 SAFETY IN DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................................ 150
Purpose ................................................................................................................................................................... 150
SiD Assessment ...................................................................................................................................................... 150
SiD Workshop ....................................................................................................................................................... 151
Management of SiD Actions ............................................................................................................................... 151
8.4 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 151
People - Workforce or Public............................................................................................................................ 152
8.5 PHYSICAL SECURITY ..................................................................................................................................................... 154
Basic security requirements ................................................................................................................................ 154
Additional security measures ............................................................................................................................. 155
Particular Security Measures of/at Substations for the prevention of Theft ........................................... 155
8.6 ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................................................................................. 158
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 158
Environmental assessment ................................................................................................................................... 159
Legislation and Planning Laws ........................................................................................................................... 159
Water discharge .................................................................................................................................................. 159
Oil containment ..................................................................................................................................................... 160
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) ................................................................................................................................. 161
Fuel and Chemicals .............................................................................................................................................. 162
Erosion Control ...................................................................................................................................................... 162
Heritage ................................................................................................................................................................. 162
Noise and Vibration............................................................................................................................................. 163
EMF .......................................................................................................................................................................... 165
EMI ........................................................................................................................................................................... 166
8.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON SAFETY, SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENT ......................................................... 166
9. PROJECT DELIVERY CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................. 167

9.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 167
9.2 CURRENT PROJECT MANAGEMENT STANDARDS PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING REGIONS......................... 167
9.3 PROJECT MANAGER ROLE IN SUBSTATION DESIGN ........................................................................................... 170
9.4 PROJECT PLANNING .................................................................................................................................................... 171
Project Team and Structure ................................................................................................................................ 172
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Project Execution Plan ......................................................................................................................................... 173

Kick-Off Meeting .................................................................................................................................................. 174
9.5 PROJECT EXECUTION ................................................................................................................................................... 175
Project Time Management .................................................................................................................................. 175
Cost and Budget Management ......................................................................................................................... 176
Risk Management ................................................................................................................................................. 177
Change Management .......................................................................................................................................... 178
Health and Safety Management ...................................................................................................................... 180
Quality Assurance / Control .............................................................................................................................. 180
Communications Plan............................................................................................................................................ 181
9.6 PROJECT CLOSURE ....................................................................................................................................................... 181
9.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ............................................................................................................................................ 182
10. COSTING CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................. 185

10.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 185
10.2 SOCIOPOLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 186
10.3 COST ESTIMATING ....................................................................................................................................................... 186
Initial project costs for new substations ............................................................................................................ 186
Maintenance and Operation costs.................................................................................................................... 190
Replacement/dismantling costs ......................................................................................................................... 191
Asset costing process ........................................................................................................................................... 192
10.4 COST TRACKING/MONITORING/REPORTING ..................................................................................................... 192
Project costs monitoring ....................................................................................................................................... 193
Life-Cycle Monitoring ....................................................................................................................................... 194
10.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS - COST-SAVING RECOMMENDATION AND BEST PRACTICES ........................... 196
11. PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTS FOR MAJOR ELECTRICITY INFRASTRUCTURE ........ 199
11.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 199
11.2 STRATEGY AND POLICY .............................................................................................................................................. 199
11.3 PROJECT FUNDING ...................................................................................................................................................... 200
11.4 CONTRACTING MODELS FOR SUBSTATIONS ....................................................................................................... 200
11.5 SUBSTATION MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT PROCUREMENT ............................................................................... 201
11.6 PROCUREMENT APPROACH ....................................................................................................................................... 202
Commodities .......................................................................................................................................................... 202
Infrastructure.......................................................................................................................................................... 202
Services ................................................................................................................................................................... 203
Life-cycle cost analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 203
11.7 PROCUREMENT CAPABILITY ....................................................................................................................................... 203
Standardisation..................................................................................................................................................... 204
Pooling .................................................................................................................................................................... 204
Material storage concepts.................................................................................................................................. 205
11.8 PROCUREMENT PROCESSES ....................................................................................................................................... 205
Control framework for submissions ................................................................................................................. 206
11.9 CONTRACT MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................................ 207
Engineering, procurement and construction contract ..................................................................................... 207
General framework agreements ...................................................................................................................... 207
11.10 CLAIM MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................ 208
11.11 PUBLIC PROCUREMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 208
11.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON PROCUREMENT .................................................................................................. 208
12. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF SUBSTATION PRACTITIONERS ................................ 211
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12.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 211

12.2 SUBJECTS RECOMMENDED FOR TRAINING OF SUBSTATION PRACTITIONERS ............................................ 211
Substation / power system introductory concepts ......................................................................................... 212
Elementary studies for the specification of capacity for new substations................................................ 212
Overvoltage and insulation coordination ........................................................................................................ 213
Short-circuits, ampacity, overload and electrical contact ............................................................................ 213
Earthing/Grounding ............................................................................................................................................. 214
Busbar Design........................................................................................................................................................ 214
Structures and foundations ................................................................................................................................. 214
Electrical primary and auxiliary equipment ................................................................................................... 214
Protection Control and Telecommunications .................................................................................................... 215
Site development ............................................................................................................................................. 215
Construction ....................................................................................................................................................... 215
Technical standards and their application (a resume for the main equipment) ................................. 216
Technical specifications for primary equipment ........................................................................................ 216
Additional topics .............................................................................................................................................. 216
12.3 STRATEGY TO IMPLEMENT A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAMME FOR DEVELOPING DESIGNERS .............. 216
12.4 RESOURCES FOR TRAINING IN SUBSTATION DESIGN ........................................................................................ 217
Power Industry Professional Organisations: ................................................................................................... 218
Specific reference books for training of substation designers: .................................................................. 218
13. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 221
DEFINITIONS, ABREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ....................................................... 225

A.1. GENERAL TERMS ............................................................................................................................................................ 225
A.2. SPECIFIC TERMS ............................................................................................................................................................. 225
A.3. SYMBOLS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 236
LINKS AND REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 237
TECHNICAL SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ................................................. 243

C.1 PURPOSE ......................................................................................................................................................................... 243
C.2 SURVEY METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................... 243
C.3 ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................... 244
C.4 LESSONS LEARNED ....................................................................................................................................................... 245
C.5 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................................................................... 246
C.6 SURVEY RESULTS ........................................................................................................................................................... 260
C6.1 Survey Results on Engineering/Technical Implementation .................................................................................... 261
DETAILED DESIGN PROCESS....................................................................................... 271
OPERATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND PROTOCOLS ................................................ 275

E1 TRADITIONAL SCADA PROTOCOLS ......................................................................................................................... 278
E1.1 IEEE Standard 1815 or DNP3.0 Protocol ............................................................................................................ 279
E1.2 IEC 60870-5-101 Protocol ..................................................................................................................................... 279
E1.3 Modbus Protocol........................................................................................................................................................ 279
E2 MODERN SUBSTATION AUTOMATION SYSTEMS ................................................................................................. 279
E3 IEC61850 ENGINEERING PROCESS ......................................................................................................................... 280
E4 TIME SYNCHRONISATION........................................................................................................................................... 283
E5 LAN ARCHITECTURE ...................................................................................................................................................... 284
E5.1 Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol RSTP ..................................................................................................................... 284
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E5.2 IEC 62439-3 High-availability Seamless Redundancy HSR ............................................................................ 284

E5.3 IEC 62439-3 Parallel Redundancy Protocol PRP............................................................................................... 285
E6 CYBER SECURITY ............................................................................................................................................................ 285
E7 COMPARISON OF PROTOCOLS ............................................................................................................................... 285
GUIDANCE ON THE PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTATIONS USING THE WORLD

BANK PROCUREMENT REGULATIONS FOR IPF BORROWERS. .................................................... 289
F1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 289
F2 OVERVIEW OF THE WORLD BANK PROCUREMENT PROVISIONS RELEVANT TO THE SUPPLY AND
INSTALLATION OF SUBSTATIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 289
F2.1 Standard Procurement Documents - SPDs............................................................................................................ 289
F2.2 Standards and Technical Specifications ............................................................................................................... 291
F2.3 Contract Type ............................................................................................................................................................ 292
F2.4 Contract Conditions................................................................................................................................................... 292
F2.5 Bid Preparation Period and Submission ............................................................................................................... 292
F2.6 Evaluation Criteria .................................................................................................................................................... 292
F2.7 Price Adjustment ........................................................................................................................................................ 292
F2.8 Seriously Unbalanced Bids and Abnormally Low Bids ...................................................................................... 293
F2.9 Most Advantageous Bid........................................................................................................................................... 293
F2.10 Best & Final Offer and Negotiations ............................................................................................................... 293
F3 SUBSTATION PROCUREMENT PACKAGING ........................................................................................................... 293
F4 PROCUREMENT OF POWER TRANSFORMERS ....................................................................................................... 293
F5 CONTRACT MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................................ 294
F6 VALUE ENGINEERING................................................................................................................................................... 295
F7 SUMMARY OF KEY CONTRACT CONDITIONS ...................................................................................................... 295
F8 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................................................... 300
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FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Executive Summary Figure A – Population without access to electricity, 2016 (millions) ................................................. 3
Figure 1-1 – Rate of electrification between 2000 and 2030 ........................................................................................... 17

Figure 1-2 – Total population without access to electricity between 2000 and 2015 .................................................. 18
Figure 1-3 – Projection of type of electricity source for population requiring access to electricity ............................ 18
Figure 2-1– “Simplified” view of substation engineering disciplines .................................................................................. 23
Figure 2-2 - Survey Results on Influences by Codes, Standards & Guides on Design Philosophy ............................... 28
Figure 2-3 – Example: Preliminary Single Line Diagram with Standard Ratings ............................................................ 33
Figure 2-4 – Example: Preliminary Physical Substation Layout ........................................................................................... 34
Figure 3-1 – The Scope of Asset Management ....................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 3-2 – A Likelihood vs Consequence matrix showing relative risk ranking for a typical organisation
(“Severe” consequence and “Rare” likelihood shown) ........................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-3 – An example of a suburban substation in Queensland, Australia designed to blend into the local
streetscape – Courtesy Terry Krieg / Ergon Energy .............................................................................................................. 54
Figure 4-1 – Outline design process for New Substations .................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4-2 - Risk Factors for Design (from Survey Question 5.2) ........................................................................................ 72
Figure 5-1 – Typical decision sketch to enable the selection of the rated currents in a new substation .................... 78
Figure 5-2 – Selection of short-circuit currents ......................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 5-3 – Electrodynamic forces in insulators and mechanical stresses in conductors during short-circuit ............. 80
Figure 5-4 – Design options for internal arc consequences protection............................................................................... 81
Figure 5-5 – Disconnecting circuit-breaker with the current transformer on brackets and busbar on top ................. 86
Figure 5-6 – Low cost circuit interrupter .................................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 5-7 – Manufacturer’s Depiction of Hybrid switchgear .............................................................................................. 87
Figure 5-8 – Sample of Disconnector Types and Ratings as presented by Manufacturer ............................................ 88
Figure 5-9 – Substation Automation Hierarchy........................................................................................................................ 97
Figure 6-1 – Example of inadequate access for main transformer – Courtesy: Bob Slebodnik, Allegheny Energy
......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Figure 6-2 – Example of access constraints around transformer for replacement - Courtesy: Bob Slebodnik,
Allegheny Energy ........................................................................................................................................................................ 110
Figure 6-3 – Example of multiple access points into a substation yard for accessibility – Courtesy: Theunus Marais
/ Eskom South Africa .................................................................................................................................................................. 110
Figure 6-4 – Example of proposed access routes to equipment ...................................................................................... 111
Figure 6-5 – Example of building foyer to facilitate personnel safety while working inside .................................... 112
Figure 6-6 – Main construction risk factors ............................................................................................................................ 114
Figure 6-7 – Example of a standard line bay module ....................................................................................................... 116
Figure 6-8 – Example of a standard current transformer module ................................................................................... 117
Figure 6-9 – Example of initial layout in relation to final layout ..................................................................................... 118
Figure 6-10 – Example of a standard current transformer module with tubular support .......................................... 119
Figure 7-1 – Summary of Risk Factors from an O&M Perspective ................................................................................... 124
Figure 7-2 – Summary of Cost Factors from an O&M Perspective.................................................................................. 125
Figure 7-3 – Classical Substation Busbar Configurations ................................................................................................... 140
Figure 7-4 – Application of Simple Configuration Assessment Process ........................................................................... 144
Figure 8-1 – Hierarchy of Controls ......................................................................................................................................... 153
Figure 8-2 – Modern Earthing Practices in Substations ...................................................................................................... 157
Figure 8-3 – Visible Site Water Quality ............................................................................................................................... 160
Figure 8-4 – Helmholtz Resonator ........................................................................................................................................... 163
Figure 8-5 – Acoustic Characteristics of Helmholtz Resonators ......................................................................................... 163
Figure 9-1 – Project Management Triangle (Source WBDG) ........................................................................................... 167
Figure 9-2 – Project Consideration Survey Results .............................................................................................................. 168
Figure 9-3 – Overall Design and Construction Approaches Survey Results ................................................................... 169
Figure 9-4 – Substation Project Delivery Team Structure................................................................................................... 173
Figure 10-1 - Cost estimation improvement along the project .......................................................................................... 187
Figure 10-2 – Work Breakdown Structure Example ........................................................................................................... 188
Figure 10-3 – Budget composition .......................................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 11-1 – Equipment and Material Procurement Methods ......................................................................................... 201
Figure 13-1 – WGB3.43 conducting site assessment in South Africa .............................................................................. 223
App C Figure 1 – Survey Responses by Geographic Area from Survey Question 2.2.1 ........................................... 260
App C Figure 2 – Type of Business from Survey Question 2.1 ......................................................................................... 260
App C Figure 3 – General Non-Technical Aspects from Survey Question 5.1 .............................................................. 261
App C Figure 4 – Substation Property / Land Acquisition from Survey Question 3.3.1 ............................................. 261
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App C Figure 5 – Substation Site Preparation from Survey Question 3.3.1 ................................................................. 262
App C Figure 6 – Substation Structure Types from Survey Question 3.3.2 ................................................................... 262
App C Figure 7 – Utility Voltage Ranges from Survey Question 2.2.1 .......................................................................... 263
App C Figure 8 – Substation Structure Types from Survey Question 3.3.3 ................................................................... 263
App C Figure 9 – Substation Structure Finish & Corrsion Protection from Survey Question 3.3.3 ............................ 264
App C Figure 10 – Substation Control Building Type from Survey Question 3.3.4 ..................................................... 264
App C Figure 11 – Substation Cable Installation from Survey Question 3.3.4 ............................................................. 265
App C Figure 12 – Substation Structures from Survey Question 3.3.3 ........................................................................... 265
App C Figure 13 – Substation Oil Containment Techniques from Survey Question 3.3.4 .......................................... 266
App C Figure 14 – Substation Oil Holding Reservoirs from Survey Question 3.3.4 .................................................... 266
App C Figure 15 – Substation Oil Sump Rain Water Techniques from Survey Question 3.3.4 ................................ 267
App C Figure 16 – Substation Fire Prevention Techniques from Survey Question 3.3.4 ............................................ 267
App C Figure 17 – Substation Fence Types from Survey Question 3.3.4 ...................................................................... 268
App C Figure 18 – Substation Design Risks from Survey Question 5.2 .......................................................................... 268
App C Figure 19 – Safety Security and Environmental Considerations from Survey Question 4.1 ......................... 269
App D Figure 1– Detailed Substation Design Process Sheet 1 ......................................................................................... 272

App D Figure 2– Detailed Substation Design Process Sheet 2 ......................................................................................... 273
App E Figure 1 – First generation SCADA with hardwired field connections to “dumb” devices ............................. 276
App E Figure 2 – Second generation - provision of serial comms to some semi-intelligent devices ......................... 276
App E Figure 3 – Third generation with gateway architecture ........................................................................................ 277
App E Figure 4 – Fourth generation - the “digital” substation .......................................................................................... 277
App F Figure 1 – World Bank prequalification process..................................................................................................... 290
TABLES
Table 2-1 – Example: Design Standard Criteria .................................................................................................................... 32
Table 4-1 – Summary of Substation Installation Cost ............................................................................................................ 68
Table 5-1 – Standard Voltages and Insulation - Extracted from IEC 61936-1 [13] ..................................................... 83
Table 5-2 – Loading guide for power transformers (extracted from IEC 60076-7) ..................................................... 84
Table 5-3 - Disconnector typical specification items .............................................................................................................. 89
Table 5-4 – ZnO surge arrester typical specification items ................................................................................................. 90
Table 6-1 – Addressing construction risk factors .................................................................................................................. 114
Table 6-2– Example of a BoM for a standard current transformer module ................................................................. 117
Table 7-1 – Busbar Switching Scheme Relative Cost Comparison ................................................................................... 130
Table 7-2 – Assessment summary of Security Criteria ........................................................................................................ 141
Table 7-3 – Assessment summary of Maintainability Criteria........................................................................................... 141
Table 7-4 – Assessment summary of Operational Flexibility Criteria ............................................................................ 142
Table 7-5 – Assessment of three Types of Substation ........................................................................................................ 142
Table 7-6 - Weighting criteria for three types of substation ........................................................................................... 143
Table 7-7 – Summary of Weighted Results .......................................................................................................................... 143
Table 8-1 – Level of Risk or Harm Tolerance due to Injury ............................................................................................... 152
Table 8-2 – SF6 Impurity Levels ............................................................................................................................................... 161
Table 8-3 – Indicative Acoustic Limits ..................................................................................................................................... 164
Table 8-4 – EMF Reference Levels for Public Exposure ..................................................................................................... 165
Table 8-5 – EMF Reference Levels of Occupational Exposure ......................................................................................... 165
Table 9-1 – Sample Project Risk Assessment Register ........................................................................................................ 179
Table 10-1 – WBS element information sheet ..................................................................................................................... 188
Table 10-2 – Earned Value Management Analysis ............................................................................................................ 194
Table 11-1 – Strategic purchasing material groups ........................................................................................................... 204
Table 11-2 – Control framework process for procurement ............................................................................................... 206
App A Table 1 – 1 Definition of general terms used in this TB ......................................................................................... 225

App A Table 2 – Definition of technical terms used in this TB ........................................................................................... 225
App A Table 3 – General symbols used in this TB............................................................................................................... 236
App C Table 1 – Technical Survey Template Questionnaire ............................................................................................. 247

App C Table 2 – Summary of Respondents to Technical Survey - ................................................................................... 269
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App E Table 1 – Comparison of Communications Protocols .............................................................................................. 285
App F Table 1 – Comparison of Transformer Costs ............................................................................................................ 294
EQUATIONS
Equation 3-1 – General Availability Formula .......................................................................................................................... 46
Equation 3-2 – Series and Parallel Availability ...................................................................................................................... 47
Equation 5-1 – Calculation of temperature rise of conductors under short-circuit ........................................................... 79
Equation 7-1 – System Availability Calculation ................................................................................................................... 128
Equation 7-2 – Normalised Score for Substation Configuration....................................................................................... 143
Equation 10-1 – Estimation Range of Project Cost using 3-point estimation .................................................................. 190
Equation 10-2 – Schedule Variance ....................................................................................................................................... 193
Equation 10-3 – Cost Variance ................................................................................................................................................ 193
Equation 10-4 – Schedule Performance Index ..................................................................................................................... 194
Equation 10-5 – Cost Performance Index .............................................................................................................................. 194
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 SETTING THE CONTEXT
Energy access is the “golden thread” that weaves together economic growth, human development and
environmental sustainability. The United Nations (UN) adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
in 2015. Also known as the Global Goals for Sustainable Development, they consist of 17 interrelated
global goals, each having its own individual targets. The SDGs cover a broad range of social and
economic development issues such as: poverty, hunger, health, education, climate change, gender
equality, water, sanitation, energy, urbanisation, environment and social justice. The adoption of SDG
7.1 specifically – the goal to ensure access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy for all by 2030 –
established a new level of political recognition for energy’s central role in development [1].
Improvements in technologies are offering new opportunities for making significant progress on the
SDG goal in relation to electricity access. The combination of declining costs for solar and decentralised
solutions, cheaper and more efficient lighting, motors, and appliances, and new business models making
use of digital, mobile-enabled platforms has increased the number of available solutions to cater to
those currently without electricity access [1].
India’s continued emphasis on electrifying households means that it is expected to reach universal
electricity access in the early-2020s, with renewables accounting for about 60% of those who gain
access. In sub-Saharan Africa, the access rate grows to a projected 59% in 2030, from 43% in 2016,
however, the number of people without electricity access in the region begins to grow again as efforts
fail to accelerate. Of the 674 million people projected to still without access to electricity in 2030, 90%
live in sub-Saharan Africa [1].
Over the period to 2030, new connections to the grid could bring electricity to over half of those that
gain access, and offer the most cost-effective means of access in urban areas, but decentralised systems
are the most cost-effective solutions for over 70% of those who gain access in rural areas. By 2030,
renewable energy sources are projected to power over 60% of new access, and off-grid and mini/micro-
grid systems provide the means for almost half of new access, underpinned by new business models
using digital and mobile technologies. These projections, published by the International Energy Agency
(IEA) in their 2017 Energy Access Outlook report, are depicted in Figure 1-1 [1].
Figure 1-1 – Rate of electrification between 2000 and 2030
Efforts to promote electricity access are having a positive impact in all regions, and the pace of progress
has accelerated. The number of people without access to electricity fell to below 1.1 billion people for
the first time in 2016, with nearly 1.2 billion people having gained access since 2000, 500 million of
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which were in India. Most progress has been made in developing Asia, where 870 million have gained
access since 2000, of which India account for 500 million – one of the largest electrification success
stories in history. There is also for the first time a positive trend in sub-Saharan Africa, where
electrification efforts have been outpacing population growth since 2014. However, progress is uneven,
and there are still more people without electricity today than there were in 2000. These gains in
electrification, also published by the IEA in their 2017 Energy Access Outlook report, are depicted in
Figure 1-2. Projections on types and sources of electricity by IEA appear in Figure 1-3 [1].
Figure 1-2 – Total population without access to electricity between 2000 and 2015
Figure 1-3 – Projection of type of electricity source for population requiring access to electricity
As a real-life example of the positive results that can be accomplished, the inroads that Eskom (The
South African electricity utility) has achieved in infrastructure and electrification bears this out. Their
remarkable electrification program started in 1994 to electrify 1.75 million households by the year 2000
was exceeded by a year, and by end of 1999 more than 42% of rural homes were electrified. In 1996,
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Eskom received the electricity industry’s highest award, the Edison Award for its contribution to
electrification. By 2016, 5.6 million connections out of a target of 6 million were achieved. Eskom
credits their design standardisation practices as contributing to their successful electrification program.
This serves as an excellent example for emulation by other utilities trying to implement electrification
programs as well as giving inspiration and hope to those lacking in this basic need in undeveloped
regions.
Substations, be it grid-connected, mini/micro or off-grid electrification solutions, form a key element in
the successful implementation of electrification strategies. It is therefore important to ensure the
substations required in the developing world, to roll out the electrification strategies are “fit for purpose”
and “low in cost” for the developing countries. This implies that the country specific climate,
topography, infrastructure, utility management processes as well as culture and population, are taken
into account when establishing the electricity networks. The entire value chain must be considered,
from planning to design and up to the supply and final installation and operation of the substations.
The purpose of this brochure is to address these life stages and recommend the solutions and practices
relevant to the various developing countries.
1.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE AND SCOPE OF WORK GROUP B3.43
The terms of reference for the working group B3.43 were drafted and approved during mid 2015
with a commencement of activities by the end of 2015. The working group was assembled during
October 2015 and commenced activities in early November 2015 in Baden, Switzerland where the
terms of reference were analysed and the working group documented the interpretation of the
terms through a clarification document. The intent was to fast-track the efforts of the working
group in a bid to accelerate the delivery within a 3 year timeframe of much needed expertise in this
area. This document was approved in early 2016 by the CIGRE Study Committee B3 – Substations.
The terms of reference of WGB3.43 was clarified at the establishment of the working group as
follows:
 Seek engagement from organisations in the targeted regions for their expertise in deploying
substation infrastructure. This was accomplished through recruitment at CIGRE Sessions and
a Workshop on Low Cost Substation & Transmission Line Solutions in Johannesburg, South
Africa during early 2017;
 Conduct a survey of practices around the world for relevant design practices to address this
issue. This was accomplished via a survey questionnaire with almost 60% of the results from
targeted developing regions;
 Identify currently available technologies for low cost substations; consider balance of plant
impact (auxiliary systems) necessary to support these substations; offer advice to evaluate
whole-of-life value of substation assets; and provide sufficient guidance to deliver practical
solutions. This was accomplished through researching the above items ( engagement and
survey) and documented in this Technical Brochure; and
 Consider CIGRE’s role in support of the development of local expertise and skills. This was
accomplished by preparing an educational Tutorial based on the Technical Brochure.
Furthermore, members of the working group have availed themselves to support designers in
developing countries on request.
1.3 WORKGROUP B3.43 TECHNICAL BROCHURE

The Technical Brochure, whilst established to support utility designers in developing countries, also
serves as a guideline for cost-effective substation development in developed countries where additional
efficiencies can be realised. The IEA asserts in its 2017 Energy Outlook that as many as 200 million
people living in developed communities or 15% suffer from energy poverty. This consideration is placing
a greater focus upon utilities within developed communities to assure maximum value when delivering
capital infrastructure. Increased focus upon prudent Asset Management practices is rapidly gaining
attention across most utilities and it is this focus that could assure necessary cost efficient measures to
assure safe, reliable and affordable electricity for all. Finally, this document contains advice that is
applicable to fully developed modern countries. Sometimes utilities in developed countries get
19
complacent in their practices and spending habits. For example, the notion that “this is the way we
have always done it, it works best for us, and there is no need to change” or “this is the government’s
or investor’s or customer’s money, so why be frugal” must never become the norm. There are always
ways to continually improve, and to neglect this thinking is to fall behind best practice. The guidance
contained within the brochure can be used by all substation designers to varying degrees. It is the
ethical responsibility of designers and engineers to provide the best quality product at the best cost.
This Technical Brochure represents a key major deliverable of the Working Group’s efforts. The reader
will find that low-cost solutions can be found in all aspects of the design for a substation. However, the
intent is to turn the passive reader into an active user of the guidance provided here. Therefore, along
with this guidance, the designer must maintain full awareness of the need to save scarce resources of
money, must seek guidance to learn about available techniques to do so, and must constantly ask
themselves “how can a saving be generated on this part of the design”. Some of the most significant
solutions identified and presented within this brochure are:
 Asset Management: the use of proven techniques to design and manage costs and risks
associated with inherently long-life assets; to get the most performance from the allotted budget
(i.e. “the most bang for the buck”);
 Engineering: the use of standard designs and modular designs for labour and cost savings in
preparing design deliverables; incorporating safety in design to prevent accidents due to hazards
impacting personnel, the public and equipment, which can have costly consequences;
 Equipment: the use of standard material and equipment for cost savings in specification,
procurement, installation and maintenance of substation infrastructure;
 Constructability: the benefits of standardisation of designs and material allow for the most labour-
efficient and thus cost-effective installation of the equipment; it will also promote familiarity with
the infrastructure that will yield savings during installation, operation and maintenance;
 Project management: the use of best practices to manage time, resources, scope, and quality
will ultimately ensure expenditures are minimised; and
 Training: the constant improvement and development of knowledge and skills via classroom,
peers, mentors, professional societies and self-motivation will guide designers to innovate toward
achieving low-cost high-performing solutions.
The reader may ask “where are the ‘solutions’”? Why is there not a section providing Element A
(electrical configuration) + Element B (physical layout) + Element C (equipment) = Solution 1, and so
on? The answer is that it is not so simple. Solutions must be created based on prevailing constraints,
criteria, regulations, and the like. That is the charge of the engineer, … to create solutions … not to
simply obtain them from a “cook book of canned solutions”. Guidance is provided in each chapter for
the main elements of a substation as well as substation design itself. The designer must then apply the
guidance within their prevailing local conditions and given specific project scope. For example, select
equipment for the best performance for the money spent. This is the essence of the meaning of
“solutions” in the context of this Technical Brochure.
The reader may be concerned over “what is contemporary in substation design?” and “what are the big
game changers in all this material?” Over the decades since the last major CIGRE all-inclusive guideline
on substation design Technical Brochure 161 “General Guidelines for Design of Substations” published
in August 2000, there have been many contemporary solutions that have been developed and
implemented. To mention the major ones, there have been efforts to develop new SF6/N2 gas mixtures
to minimise SF6 utilisation; mixed hybrid switchgear to reduce substation footprints; ester insulating oils
for environmental/fire-resistant benefits; 3D CAD and substation-specific software to ease design,
factory pre-fabricated control buildings to minimise site work and commissioning, digital microprocessor
intelligent electronic devices (IED’s) to replace maintenance-intensive electromechanical relays; IEC
61850 with LAN and fiber optic technology to eliminate copper cabling, optical ground wire (OPGW) for
relaying and communication; optical instrument transformers to replace the heavier copper winding/iron
20
core devices; copper-clad steel conductor to virtually eliminate copper theft; on-line condition monitors
for real-time “health assessment” of major equipment; high temperature conductors to maximise power
transmission, infrared (IR) temperature scanning to identify problems generating hot spots, real-time
cloud based video capture for physical security, and active lightning protection to reduce shield wires
to name a few big changes. Most of these “contemporary solutions” are identified within each of the
chapters related to both technical (e.g., equipment and siting) and project (e.g., project management
and costing) implementation. For what is not covered here due to limited scope and space constraints,
can be readily found elsewhere in many utility industry and professional engineering reservoirs of
knowledge.
With all this said, it is important to note that what may work best for low-cost substation design solutions
in developing countries may be the good old fashioned, tried-and-true, simpler methods that worked
reliably well for the past decades. The contemporary, present-day, state-of-the-art solutions may not
be the best nor lowest-cost. However, the opposite may also be true in that newer solutions may be
better than older ones in the long run considering the whole lifecycle of the substation. The more
appropriate conclusion and guideline may be that there is no one solution applicable to every situation,
rather that every situation must be studied for the appropriate solution. That, as should be well known,
is the primary job of the design engineer.
This technical brochure has been designed to support substation design engineers with valuable
hindsight of seasoned professionals to avoid a number of less obvious pitfalls experienced throughout
the lifecycle. The authors wish to avert design engineers saying, "If only I had done this during the
design stage ...". Designers should avert the legacy philosophy and thinking where one could easily
become polarised and locked into a specific view driven by the environment that they find themselves
within”. This technical brochure is not meant to accentuate a single technology over another, as this
could result in failure. Instead the objective is to provide a broad range of considerations. It is important
to recognise that the technical brochure is not a panacea for all considerations. Readers should consider
that the concept of substation is fluid and significant changes could occur over time. There is only one
key area where designers should lock into a unified approach and this is to ensure that the philosophy
and the process for design is well-aligned and optimal to save cost, which in fact represents savings
through avoided cost. Most short-term failures in substation design are due to programme and schedule
and most long term failures were derived from the inability to take a life-cycle approach from the concept
combined with sub-optimal technology selection or configuration. Short-term thinking in utilities needs
to be avoided by considering the lifetime ownership of the substation.
1.4 DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF TECHNICAL BROCHURE

This Technical Brochure is structured around the modules or “building blocks” of the substation design
process. Each chapter covers a significant subject matter area of the design of substations. On a higher
level, each chapter can be classified under one of three core themes identified as material to cost-
effective design as follows:
1. Design Philosophies:
 Chapters: Design Philosophy & Considerations; Asset Management; and Design
Process;
2. Engineering / Technical Implementation:
 Chapters: Equipment Selection; Site Selection, Access & Constructability;
Operability & Maintainability; and Safety, Security & Environmental
Considerations;
3. Project Implementation:
 Chapters: Programme & Project Management; Costing; Procurement &
Contracts; and Training & Development.
All of the subjects/chapters interrelate with one another in many ways. For example, risk assessment
studies form the basis of Asset Management (under Design Philosophies) as well as Safety in Design
(SiD) (under Engineering / Technical Implementation) and Project Management (under Project
21
Implementation). Regardless of where an activity falls in the design process, each chapter deals with
the subject in its own applicable manner. The Table of Contents and Chapters themselves of the
Technical Brochure were established as independent subject matter areas for the reader to follow as
desired. The Technical Brochure does not have to be read from beginning to end, but can be read by
individual chapters as relevant to the designer’s needs. Owing to the vast array of likely references and
materials, the working group has established a reference section within the CIGRE Knowledge
Management System where designers could readily access useful design reference documentation. The
Technical Brochure also provides a summary of a global technical survey into substation design practices
where at almost 60% of the respondents are from utilities based within developing countries within
Sub-Saharan Africa.
1.5 APPRECIATION OF SUPPORTERS

This Technical Brochure would not be complete without the support provided by others. This Working
Group would like to recognise and express appreciation to those individuals and organisations that
supported our efforts by any means along the way. We want to express a very humble and gracious
“thank you” to the supporters listed below for their assistance, and we apologise to any supporters we
may have inadvertently overlooked.
 AECOM;
 AXPO;
 CIGRE;
 CIGRE Australia;
 CIGRE Southern Africa;
 Electric Supply Corp. of Malawi (Escom);
 Ergon Energy / Energy Queensland;
 ESB International;
 Eskom;
 Horizon Power Australia;
 Ms. Kylie Jelleff for all the diagrams;
 Next Generation Network of CIGRE;
 World Bank;
 Responders to our technical survey;
 And any and all others who we may have overlooked.
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2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONSIDERATIONS

The design of a substation is no simple piece of engineering. It involves a plethora of interrelated
disciplines to create a functioning system catering for the needs of the electrical performance of the
grid, the protection and control of the grid and the operational and maintenance facilities used by staff.
This is all in the context of an asset that may exist for upwards of 50 years.
A “simplified” view of the nominally five key engineering disciplines of Civil, Structural, Primary,
Secondary and Telecommunication that are involved in substation engineering is shown in Figure 2-1:
Figure 2-1– “Simplified” view of substation engineering disciplines
The purpose of this chapter is threefold:

 to provide the engineer with a sound understanding of design philosophies used in substation
design;
 to identify the approaches based on varying considerations, and
23
 to provide context for the approach to the design of substations and modern practices in use across
applicable organisations.
2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY DEFINITION

Philosophy is defined as “the critical study of the basic principles and concepts of a particular branch of
knowledge, especially with a goal to understand and improve them, and use them as practical
guidance”.
For the purpose of this Technical Brochure, substation design philosophy is “the group of basic
principles related to the understanding of substation design with the purpose of improving the substation
itself in terms of low-cost, practical solutions”. For this brochure, philosophy is not the probing into
conceptual, theoretical, nor critical studies of the complete body of knowledge of substation design, but
is rather more practical in nature. In simple terms, substation design philosophy is “practical guidance
to apply what adds real value and cost-savings to substation designs” to expedite electrification in
developing regions. Finally, for this brochure, substation design philosophy is not tied to the matter of
determining whether electrification of a region ought to be undertaken or not. This is a much higher
realm of a completely different subject matter and philosophy beyond the scope of the brochure.
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO INFLUENCES ON DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Many things can influence the design of a substation. These influences can potentially result in positive,
negative or neutral impacts on the design. Therefore an important goal is to identify and anticipate the
impacts and then formulate and adopt a substation design philosophy so as to maximise the benefits
and minimise problems during the design process. This section introduces some of the major influences
on substation design and thus on a philosophy to develop.
Power Delivery Organisation
Considering power systems as a whole (generation, transmission, distribution and consumption), the
substation is a vital, integral component in the transmission and distribution of electric energy.
Substations have existed since the first commercial use of electricity. As the commercialisation of
electricity grew, so did the presence of substations. Along with increased commercialisation of the
power industry, the power delivery organisation was a central influence. The types of entities
involved increased and evolved from the original privately-owned companies to the traditional regulated
investor-owned utilities to government power authorities, cooperative enterprises (co-ops), de-
regulated and unregulated utilities, independent power producers (IPP), private consortiums, micro-grid
owners, and the like. With the variety of entities involved, design philosophies also vary based on the
specific organisation and its objectives.
Examples of how power delivery organisations can affect the design philosophy:
a. Regulated investor-owned utilities may develop a cost savings philosophy in order to maximise
return on investment (ROI) and dividends paid to shareholders and minimise rates paid by
customers. This way of thinking is often reflected in most other utility operating processes.
This organisational philosophy then becomes part of the design philosophy.
b. Unregulated government electric authorities may develop a more state-of-the-art design
philosophy based on using results of R&D programs from other government sponsored agencies
and perhaps enabled with a more freely available portion of the government’s budget.
Considerations and Constraints

During electrification, different design philosophies have also evolved out of varying considerations
and constraints imposed on an entity’s design process from both internal and external sources.
External influences can be broken down into natural means or man-made means. Examples of external
natural influences are from geography, climate, and the environment. Examples of external man-made
influences are from societal, political and economic sources (e.g. governments, regulators, customers,
the economy, the local community, physical/cyber threats, and the evolving electric industry itself).
Internal influences can be from the entity’s own management, assets, resources, finances, performance
indices, operating and safety practices, and even the utility’s own reaction to external influences
affecting it.
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Examples of how considerations and constraints can affect the design philosophy:
a. Geographical Location: The philosophy adopted needs to establish and apply safety factors
to designs based on site-specific weather and climate conditions. Tropical regions will dictate
considerations to address extreme winds of monsoons or cyclones, as will arctic regions dictate
addressing ice accumulation, or dessert regions with sand contamination.
b. Security: The philosophy should consider the existence of hazards and risks related to
vandalism and theft, which leads to decisions as to where there is a need for the incorporation
of sophisticated security devices such as cameras and motion detectors, or just the low-tech
solution of using copper-clad steel conductor for grounding.
c. Environmental Stewardship: This requires the philosophy to consider issues on
sustainability as a factor in both maximising the service life and performance of an asset (i.e.,
a transformer) and minimising its final end-of-lifecycle disposal impact on the earth. Sustainable
design results in the wise use of resources making things better for business and the
environment at the same time (creating a win-win situation).
d. Local Communities: Within the philosophy of substation designs for increased access to
electricity, the community forms the hub in the choice and planning of a substation as they
often own the land or live in the vicinity and will influence the location and usage of the
substation. It is important to determine up front if the construction of a substation in one
location will favour one part of the community or not based on current needs and projected
changes in an emerging market environment. Furthermore, one needs to be aware that the
community may view a substation project as an opportunity to raise the standard of living and
created employment. The utility needs to liaise with the community leaders during the planning
phase to understand the vision they have for the area and to ensure all stakeholders are known
in the process as part of the pre-approval phase.
Codes, Standards and Laws
Globally accepted design and building codes have been established over the decades to reduce the risk
of hazards and accidents, which have resulted from electrical infrastructure expanding into the public
domain. These standards and codes define the levels of quality and safety for design, fabrication and
installation of materials and equipment. They are based on engineering studies and research, and are
often the joint efforts of professional societies, equipment manufacturers, electric utilities and academia.
Codes are often prepared for use on a regional or national basis. They are often adopted by governing
regulatory agencies/authorities and imposed as mandatory, enforceable requirements to be
implemented on electrical systems. At another level below codes in hierarchy are design standards.
They are created in the same way; however, their use is not mandated but rather recommended and
voluntarily adopted for design work. In addition to codes and standards are laws, regulations, and acts
of governments. These are at the highest level of the hierarchy and must be obeyed under penalty of
law. In some areas, all of the rules to protect employees, the public and the environment from harm
fall under the umbrella term of Health, Safety, Environment and Quality (HSEQ). In other areas, it may
be known as Occupational Safety and Health (OSH). Applicable codes, standards and laws all influence
design philosophies in that they prescribe elements to be implemented in utility’s and consultant’s
designs. It is recommended that each designer familiarise themselves with the applicable laws,
regulations, acts of government, codes and standards when utilising the recommendations proposed in
this chapter.
Below are a few examples of design codes, standards and laws can affect the design philosophy:
a. Electrical Safety Codes: These are compilations of rules necessary for the practical
safeguarding of employees and the public with respect to the design, construction, operation
and maintenance of electrical infrastructure. A governmental agency having responsibility to
oversee and approve projects in a jurisdiction can adopt and mandate that these codes be used.
The designer must then be knowledgeable of such codes and incorporate them into the design.
In the absence of such codes in a country, the designers ought to study available options and
then agree to adopt the most applicable codes to emulate. This is a key part of the safety
philosophy as it supersedes other requirements under areas of economics, aesthetics, and
convenience. Designers should maintain knowledge of applicable codes as they are periodically
revised;
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b. Equipment and Material Standards: These provide recommendations for raw materials,
manufacturing processes, design, assembly, testing, handling, and installation. They can apply
for goods (from cable and connectors up to switchgear and transformers) or services (like
excavation, grading, trenching and concrete work). Having a reasonable national technical
standardisation system is a key factor affecting substation design. The resulting philosophy is
one of becoming familiar with many applicable standards, incorporating them in appropriate
material specifications, and referencing them on design drawings. Examples are standards
prepared and published by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Although not
in the same category of standards, other sources of technical reference material for use as
guidelines for all aspects of substation design can be found in power industry groups such as
CIGRE and IEEE;
c. Energy-Related Laws: These include any regulations applicable to the power system that are
enforceable by the imposition of penalties (fines and/or imprisonment). Environmental laws
cover a wide area of concerns such as audible noise, electromagnetic and radio interference,
soil erosion, storm water runoff, and contamination including oil and SF 6 gas. As an example,
environmental laws will dictate when and where oil spill containment is required for
transformers. The regulations may be based on the volumes of oil on site and the distance to
navigable waterways or drinking supplies. The resulting philosophy dictated, usually by the
utility’s management, is one of immediate compliance of any and all applicable laws; and
d. Certification and Licensing: In order to ensure that designs are prepared by competent
engineers of good character entrusted with the safeguarding of the public, laws are established
for the oversight of the practice of professional engineering. Where these laws are enacted the
engineers in charge must be licensed and usually those engineers under their direction are
encouraged to achieve this level of professional and personal development. Wherever these
systems are not available, entities should consult with their regional partners for support in
acquiring the necessary certifications. However, this should not limit the capacity to develop
and approve basic designs in line with the regional and international standards, which can later
be reviewed and approved by certified personnel.
Engineering Resources
The design philosophy is greatly affected by the resources and methods employed by an organisation’s
management to execute projects.
Examples of how engineering resources or capacity can affect the design philosophy:
a. Internal or In-house Resources: This route is often taken by an electric utility. This requires
constant investment in recruiting, hiring, training, enabling, equipping, managing, rewarding,
and retaining a staff sufficient to handle the workload. Training must always be up-to-date with
the latest developments in technology so that designers keep abreast with current industry
trends to ensure the utility gets the most appropriate, cost- effective, and fit-for-purpose design.
Benefits of using internal resources are more control over the timing and cost of the design
deliverables. Another benefit is maintaining the expertise within the organisation to know the
system and readily handle problems that occur on the system. Each entity involved in
developing and implementation of power projects should always have a certain level of in-house
expertise to ensure that the user needs are properly integrated within all the designs. However,
this objective can be affected if staff reductions in response to economic constraints are
implemented in a short-term rather than long-term mind-set. Once expertise is lost, it can be
difficult to rebuild. The resulting philosophy, if it can be achieved with adequate funding and
internal resources, is one of independence and reliability on one’s own resources for design
work;
b. External or Outsourcing Resources: This route is taken by many electric utilities, especially
where there is rapid development. Whereas the in-house approach requires continuous
expenditure on personnel, this approach allows the cost to be incurred through a once-off
competitive expenditure to consultants. There is still a need to have internal resources to
oversee the consultant’s work. The biggest issue with this approach is that there is potential
for some loss of control over the timing and cost of design deliverables, but this can be mitigated
through a properly structured contract. This means there is the additional requirement for legal
and contracting expertise to achieve success. If the contract is managed properly, there can
26
be more control over timing and cost of the deliverables. Also, in the context of designing for
developing regions, in-house expertise and resources are not always that freely available, and
money to pay these resources may be even less available. In those cases, consultants can add
value. While developing their in-house resources, design teams are encouraged to utilise global
expertise to ensure access to more innovative, fit-for-purpose solutions applicable in their
environment instead of following less cost-effective design practices that might become costly
to change in the medium to long term. This avoids the challenges for in-house designers using
traditional design philosophy which could potentially result in old, less cost-effective designs.
For larger projects, Engineer-Procure-Construct (EPC) contracting is often deployed where
functional specifications are compiled by the utility’s in-house engineers. The detail design is
then contracted out by means of competitive bidding to an EPC contractor, who then in turn
provides for the material procurement and construction services as well. With external
resources, the resulting philosophy is one of partnering and reliance on others for services and
expertise for design work which must be managed to the best interest of the utility; and
c. Mixed Resource Approach: This gives internal staff the responsibility to handle most of the
workload with consultants handling the peak workloads that occasionally occur. Mixed
resources can also be used on a single specific project. For example, the more complex designs
unfamiliar to the internal staff such as for a Static VAR Compensator (SVC) can be outsourced
to experts through a competitive process, whereas the interconnection of the SVC to the system
substation can be handled internally. There should be economic benefits in balancing internal
and external resources in optimal proportions. This is often of practical value when there is an
ongoing programme of capital projects with a consistent workload especially when
implementing a large-scale access to electricity programme. However, this becomes a costly
liability if there is a low level of network growth combined with limited number of electrical
assets being installed. In this case there is practical value in minimising internal staff and
outsourcing to external firms. Depending on the structure of the program, this philosophy
requires compromise in having both an internal knowledgeable staff as well as external expertise
in the proper balance.
Conclusion to Influences on Design Philosophy

A few main aspects out of a vast array that can affect design philosophy were introduced above as
follows:
 the power delivery organisation;
 constraints and considerations;
 codes standards and laws; and
 the design resources.
It can be easily seen that each aspect has several possibilities that can affect the design. So, the design
philosophy will ultimately be the culmination of many influencing factors and an entity’s approach to
dealing with them. There are other aspects that have a somewhat larger and more focused influence
on substation design philosophy. These topics will be presented in more detail in the following sections
of this chapter.
No one facet in design philosophy is absolute in its governance of the subject of substation design, but
rather they all exist as alternates or options to be used by each organisation at the appropriate times
in designing substations.
Design Philosophy to a seasoned substation designer, is just a matter of using the right electrical
components in the right combination for the right power delivery applications. The applicable design
philosophies are practically ingrained into their thinking and are second-nature to their design process.
They understand what is required and almost automatically pull the right tools and solutions out of their
storehouse of acquired knowledge and experience, and then quickly determine the optimal design to
develop.
For those who are new to the field of substation design and especially those tasked with expanding
infrastructure into undeveloped regions where it never existed before, it can be a daunting endeavour.
The various constraints and considerations must first be identified and studied, and then addressed.
Then the scope and specifications for a given project must be understood and analysed. The applicable
27
codes and laws must be determined. Then the plan of attack determined, that is, either to use in-house
resources or a consultant. Only then can a philosophy or approach to the design be formulated, finalised
and followed.
2.3 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING DESIGN PROCESS

With the understanding that design philosophy is “practical guidance to apply what adds real value and
cost-savings to substation designs”, and that aspects such as organisation, constraints and resources
will affect the process, the next thing to consider is the actual design activity itself. Design activities
mean the developing, estimating, researching, studying, optimising, calculating, rendering, drawing,
drafting, specifying, procuring, reporting, and similar tasks undertaken to produce a substation design
package. The design package means the reports, files, drawings, standards, procedures, specifications,
purchase orders, and similar deliverables required to construct an actual substation.
Various methods may exist to undertake the actual design activities to produce a substation design
package, but two seem to dominate. These methods are:
 standard designs; and
 custom designs.
These two methods can also be combined in various proportions by the designer to suit the needs in
preparing the design package. Based on the scope of work, at the onset of the project, the designer
must ask themselves pertinent questions to determine the best method. For example, does the
proposed substation conform to established company parameters (e.g. an identical substation like this
was installed last year) Or is it unique and outside the limits of current company installations (e.g. An
SVC that cannot design internally needs to be installed) Or are the site conditions outside the prescribed
criteria for standard foundations, structures, busbar, insulation, and other aspects(e.g. does the small
site available necessitate GIS as opposed to the company’s standard AIS designs)?
As some input to consider before the discussion on the design process philosophy, refer to Figure 2-2
for a summary of the survey results on how codes, standards and guides are currently influencing the
design process philosophy adopted by the responding utilities.
50%
40%
Percentage
30%
20%
10%
0%
Designs were dictated Designs were adopted Designs were utilized Designs were not
by mandatory codes from voluntary from internally covered by any of the
adopted by standards created by developed company above, but rather by
governing / regulating utility / industry / guidelines based on the individual
agencies professional local experience engineer's selection
organizations
Design Influences
Figure 2-2 - Survey Results on Influences by Codes, Standards & Guides on Design Philosophy
Standard Designs
Standard Designs are based on detailed engineering for a defined set of criteria and constraints. This
detailed engineering produces a Standard Design, which is a document (or a set of documents) that
contain key details for a certain part (or all) of an overall substation installation, for example, a power
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circuit-breaker. The details may include a plan view, elevation view, item numbers, bill of material,
material requirements plan (MRP), foundation details, grounding details, conduit details, cable
requirements, special notes, and cross-references to other applicable standards. When combined with
a standard design for disconnectors and one for a transmission line termination and one for busbar,
they become a complete transmission line terminal design. An important point to consider in developing
Standard Designs is that often not all design details can be standardised fully. For example, foundation
details or grounding design may be standardised with an assumption of a certain soil characteristics and
the design adjusted to suit local conditions. Keep in mind that this sub-section deals with a utility
company’s standards as opposed to industry standards (such as IEC), although industry standards would
certainly be used as input to create company standards. Other input for creating company standards
would certainly be power industry organisations such as CIGRE and IEEE where technical reference
material is available for every aspect of substation design.
Standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the
consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups and others. Standardisation
includes the process of making something conform to a standard (i.e. creating design standards). The
process of standardisation starts with the identification of starts with the organisational high level
objectives and then selection of a desired element of a substation to standardise. It proceeds with the
definition of the design criteria and then all the detailed design activities. It ends with the documentation
of the standard to be used on future projects. The standardisation process is often taken to a higher
level with the creation of Design Modules. For example, individual design standards can be integrated
together to become higher-level modules or building blocks. The individual design standards for the
circuit-breaker, disconnectors, line termination, and buswork mentioned in the above paragraph can be
combined into a complete transmission line terminal design module that, like the standard itself, can be
used to simplify and economise the overall design process. A transmission line terminal design module
can be combined with a main bus design module, a power transformer module, a distribution bus
module, distribution line terminal bay modules, and even a control building module to produce the core
of a substation design package. The site-specific grading, drainage, oil containment, fencing, ground
grid, cable trench, lightning protection, yard lighting, security, and other typical non-standardised
elements are then added to the core design to produce the final design package. Modularisation such
as described can yield significantly lower costs for infrastructure, especially where there are significant
electrification programmes.
The main driving constituents of a design standard are its design criteria and constraints. Design
criteria, for engineering purposes, are defined as the explicit attributes or goals that a design must
achieve in order to be successful. Typically, they are categorised as electrical, physical and societal.
For example, electrical criteria for a particular substation with a nominal 132 kV busbar could be that it
must be able to be operated up to a maximum voltage of 145 kV and with a continuous current capacity
equal to 1200 A. In addition to the normal operating conditions, a criterion for the abnormal or
emergency or fault conditions that may possibly occur must be provided, such as the maximum per unit
overvoltage and the short-circuit current values. Constraints, for engineering purposes, are defined as
limitations or conditions that must be satisfied with a design. For example, physically a substation
cannot exceed the size of a given property that is typically available but yet it must fulfil its planned and
specified function. As another example, electrically a substation cannot exceed a given value of
temperature or a certain short-circuit level without using special measures. Constraints also relates to
aspects such as the prevailing equipment technology or the available budget for the project. The given
criteria and constraints are used as input to the design process to determine which of the alternate
proposed design options should be implemented as a final standard. A final standard design can then
be applied in those actual design situations that fit within tolerances of the assumed and adopted criteria
and constraints.
Some examples of how a certain electrical criterion can affect the design would be related to such
aspects as the load concentration (urban vs. rural, or light residential vs. heavy industrial customers),
or strength of the system supplying the project site (near generation vs. remote locations). Servicing
higher concentrations of load would increase the continuous current requirement and likewise busbar
conductor size to prevent over-heating. Proximity to a stronger system increases the available short-
circuit current and likewise grounding conductor size to prevent fusing. The consideration for
standardisation in this respect is that capacity was the primary constraint – hence standard designs can
be categorised into a number of subclasses based upon capacity to tailor-fit a substation to its planned
purpose. All other aspects, such as equipment ratings, insulation levels, and load/fault levels should be
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retained as constant in the standard design. Therefore, the standard designs must coordinate with the
planning philosophies on how to serve typical loads found on the system.
Some examples of how a physical criterion can affect the design would be in the area of environmental
concerns. This would correspond to such aspects as the geography and climate zones of the service
territory. For a given geographic location along a sea coast or in a river valley, the designer would have
to consider providing sufficient elevation of the site or equipment to avoid flooding zones. For a location
near tectonic plates, one must consider seismic withstand mitigation for potential earthquakes. Climate
affects the design in that coastal regions may experience seasonal monsoons or hurricanes requiring
extreme wind pressure withstand for busbars, insulators, and structures to prevent damage due to
overstressing of the materials. Mountain regions may experience icing requiring added strength to
support the ice load such as shorter, stronger busbar spans to prevent excessive deflection and fibre
stress. Desert climates may need to consider equipment stress from sub-zero night time temperatures
to >50 degrees ambient daytime and respective humidity variations as well as potential sand storms.
Such climatic influences as extreme wind speeds and isokeraunic levels are often available as country
or regional maps or charts for the designer to reference for the necessary factors to select the proper
standard design options. The standard designs therefore must coordinate with the governing
engineering codes that protect and ensure safety for the electrical worker and the public, as well as to
the equipment itself.
Often different criteria are interlinked. Geographic criteria may affect electrical criteria and vice versa.
A coastal area is at sea level requiring no derating adjustment to insulation levels such are needed for
high altitudes. In contrast a high elevation mountainous area requires an increase to Basic Insulation
Level (BIL) due to the derating effects of high altitude on the dielectric strength of air. However, coastal
areas may require increases to insulation creepage due to contamination from salt spray and mist,
whereas a mountainous area is typically free of insulator contamination requiring no increase in
creepage. Therefore, the standard design must coordinate all applicable criteria and ensure that the
one(s) governing or dominating the situation are handled safely and adequately.
Another major geographical vs electrical influencer in the location and design of a substation is the soil
resistivity which, in combination with the specified fault levels, creates a specific design requirement for
safe step and touch potentials during faults. When choosing an arbitrary fault level which is not
necessarily relevant to the current network fault level or the anticipated fault level, the engineer can
find it a challenge to achieve a safe earth grid design for the substation, although clearly it is not possible
to change this once the substation is built. Thus, it is always good practice where possible to review
more than one site location and measure soil resistivity before procuring property. Such geographic
influencers as soil properties (both physical and electrical) are often available as country or regional
maps or charts to help the designer make preliminary decisions that will affect their designs.
The approach to develop standardisation for a utility is to determine all the environmental, electrical,
civil, and structural criteria that define design requirements, and then to engineer standard designs
based on those criteria. The key is to utilise those conditions that fit a reasonable range of conditions
that exist in the utility service territory.
Some examples of how reasonable ranges of conditions can be determined for substation design are:
a. Soil properties that cover the historic range of soil typically sampled during core boring tests in
a utility’s service territory are used to design a standard range of selectable foundations that
adequately transfer the foundation loads to the supporting soil. The accumulated data can be
documented for use by designers on various infrastructure projects. If soil property variations
exist, then perhaps two or three standard foundation designs could be prepared as alternates
to fit each individual situation encountered (e.g. “normal”, “moist”, or “rock” type soils). As a
fail-safe measure, the construction personnel are directed to contact the designer if atypical soil
conditions are ever encountered;
b. Three phase short-circuit current availability varies according to system fault studies. By having
two standard structure designs prepared, such as one for 40 kA faults for regular substations
and one for 63 kA for EHV substations, they can be selected so that fault forces from a particular
busbar can be transferred to a support structure that adequately handles the forces. Likewise,
standard versus high strength insulators would be specified in the design standard as applicable
to handle the fault forces; and
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c. Equipment ratings, such as those offered for transformers and switchgear, vary widely by
manufacturers. A utility can quickly narrow down the most common ratings utilised and build
standard designs revolving around standard equipment. Not only does this streamline design,
it allows many other benefits based on the economy of scale concept. Procurement
departments are able to negotiate the best prices, award multi-year blanket purchase
agreements, and form mutually beneficial alliances with vendors for better equipment cost,
delivery, and customer support. Field crews are more familiar with this standard equipment for
maintenance and repairs, as well as having a stock of common spare parts. With standard
equipment, the guess-work of which units to keep in spare inventory is eliminated. In the event
of a failure, spare standard equipment is readily interchangeable on the system. In the event
of project cancellation, equipment already ordered can be easily reused on the next available
project.
With this approach, there is a chance that there may be some “over-engineering” when applying a
standard design to some specific cases. For example, using a standard design with a 40 kA busbar fault
criteria when there may be less than 20 kA fault current available at a proposed substation location.
This would increase the cost of equipment, busbar, and associated elements by a margin. Generally,
this increased cost is offset by the savings in engineering and drafting cost by using standard designs
over custom site-specific designs for the foundations, structures, busbar and equipment. Rather than
buying site-specific equipment, there are the intangible cost savings gained by using established vendor
alliances for procurement of standard equipment and material, as well as savings by having
interchangeable equipment for maintenance and troubleshooting purposes. Ultimately this results in a
reduction in design costs associated with the need to redesign similar substations across the service
territory. Under no circumstances should a standard design be used when it results in an “under-
engineered” facility. In this instance, a custom design is mandatory to meet the any constraining criteria
beyond the tolerances used to develop the design standards. There are not only advantages regarding
design and material, but also in risk. Depending on the level of standardisation, in-house
capabilities/resources, and available supply chain, a delivery strategy consisting of different levels of
disaggregation can be developed. For instance, the delivery of equipment/material can be split into
different packages or bundled into a single package. From a utility point of view, this practice will
position the associated risk on either the utility side or the contractors/suppliers side. This is dependent
on in-house engineering and project management capabilities and ability of the supply chain
management to deploy such a practice.
With these few examples, it can easily be seen that by selecting the most frequently required
foundations, structures, insulators, busbar conductor, equipment, risers, station service, control
buildings, and even connectors and hardware, a design department can easily formulate a set of design
standards and design modules to fit the vast majority of applications that a utility planning department
requires. However, it is of importance to state that standardisation is an option to pursue and that each
utility (whether it is in developed or undeveloped regions) has to create design standards to suit their
needs. Furthermore, the utility must have the expertise to both create and utilise the standard properly
and economically to avoid using a “cookie cutter” design for a substation that may be inadequate and
costly due to the designer’s inexperience.
In summary, utilities often benefit the most from standardisation. Electric utilities are often confined to
a specific service territory. Within that territory, they often face a specific set of conditions based on
natural circumstances (e.g. geography, climate, and environment) and those made by man (e.g.
urban/rural communities, industry, and agriculture) and those based on their electrical system
requirements (e.g. long-established system transmission and distribution (T&D) voltages). For those
conditions, they often plan a specific type of substation configuration to supply typical loads
encountered. Generally, they will benefit from the use of design standards and design modules. For
further details on the subject, refer to CIGRE Technical Brochure 389 “Combining Innovation with
Standardisation” [2].
Example of Standard Design for a Substation

The following is an example of some design criteria to develop a design standard for the primary side
of a nominal 138 kV two line, two transformer transmission substation. Table 2-1 lists some of the
electrical and structural criteria for the equipment and facilities. Table 2-1 represents a preliminary
single line diagram with the basic standard arrangement and conductor/transformer sizes.
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Figure 2-4 represents a preliminary physical layout that is modified based on the electrical requirements,
terrain, access, and other site dependent characteristics. Similar documents would be prepared and
available to document the design criteria for the secondary side of the substation including all
distribution facilities. Note that the information is presented here as a representative example only and
does not represent specific criteria to be used without thorough engineering analysis and study.
Table 2-1 – Example: Design Standard Criteria
138 kV DESIGN STANDARD CRITERIA

Electrical Design Criteria: Rating:
A. Nominal Voltage Rating 138 kV
B. Maximum Voltage Rating 145 kV
C. BIL Rating 650 kV BIL
D. Continuous Current Rating 1200 A
E. Short-circuit / Short Time Current Rating 40 kA
F. Maximum Temperature Rise 100˚ C
Notes:
1. Ratings are based on published utility industry standards and manufacturer’s catalogs.
2. Site specific values for each actual design must be obtained from the power system analysis (load
flow and short-circuit studies) and be within the parameters of the design standard utilised.
Civil / Structural Design Criteria:
A. Loads based on the worst case of the following two conditions:
a. A 45 m/s wind load with a three-phase fault force per the electrical criteria
b. 1.25 cm radial ice load with an 18 m/s wind and 40 kA three phase fault
B. Deflection of busbar tubing will be limited to a maximum of one diameter of the tubing.
C. Deflection of structures due to loading will be limited to 1/300 of the span in the vertical
and 1/200 of the span in the horizontal direction.
D. In addition to equipment, a 115 kg person on the structure or on a ladder against the structure.
E. Aeolian wind vibration will be controlled with a 336.4 kcmil ACSR damper conductor
inside busbar tubing for spans greater than 6 meters.
F. Substation termination structures capacities of 1,000, 2,500 and 5,000 kg line tensions.
Notes:
1. Criteria is based on the National Electrical Safety Code.
2. The geographical area and applicable adjustment factors are based on the local service territory.
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Figure 2-3 – Example: Preliminary Single Line Diagram with Standard Ratings
33
Figure 2-4 – Example: Preliminary Physical Substation Layout
Custom or Bespoke Designs

Custom or Bespoke Designs are defined as individually-made or custom-made designs for a specific set
of specifications for a substation. This approach is in contrast to and is at the other end of the spectrum
from standard designs. Generally custom designs are used in either of the two cases described as
follows.
A project is created to prepare a tailor-made design package for a substation to fit the utility’s defined
functional scope and site-specific conditions. The engineer designs according to the specific electrical
requirements, the specific geographical/physical considerations, the governing safety codes and
standards, and any other prevailing constraints and criteria affecting the project. The deliverable design
package would consist of all specifications to obtain equipment and material, and all design drawings
to bid, construct and document the facility. Additional services may be provided as contracted, such as
developing the scope, estimating costs, project management, procuring equipment and material, and
construction management. It should be noted that the utility may require, or it may just be prudent,
that the building blocks or some part of the base design is based on the utility’s design standards, thus
saving the utility time and money whilst also maximising standardisation as far as practical.
Outsourcing is generally adopted by utility engineering departments that do not have staff levels to
handle the full work load they have to execute. This could be the result of an increase in their planned
project list, possibly expanding rapidly due to customer growth spurts, or the result of a decrease in
staff, possibly due to layoffs or retirements. It may also be the result of an unexpected surplus in
available budget allocations allowing additional substation projects to be undertaken. Selective
outsourcing can be used by utilities that have the personnel but do not have the expertise on staff to
prepare the certain non-traditional designs. For example, if a Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is required
by system planners, but the design is beyond the experience, knowledge and software of the resources
on hand. Finally, there are those entities that simply chose to operate in this manner. A utility’s
corporate management may be such that their philosophy is to structure their engineering process
34
around outsourcing. Their financial resources (an internal constraint) may dictate a philosophy where
limited budgets restrict availability of the latest software tools, sufficient man-power, and current
industry standards resulting in reliance on consulting firms. The approach can prove to be successful
with the right business case to handle the prevailing circumstances.
The second case for this approach is typically when a utility’s engineering department must provide a
design for a non-typical application on their grid. A good example would be a rural utility with all Air
Insulated Switchgear (AIS) substation facilities which encounters its first instance where extremely
limited space in an urban area dictates the need for Gas Insulated switchgear (GIS) substation
equipment. The engineers must then custom-design the substation without the aid of their commonly
used AIS design standards. All the usual activities for substation design would be done by the utility
staff for this custom design. A more common instance is where a utility encounters a space restriction
(not as extreme so as to necessitate GIS) where their standard AIS designs can be utilised but where it
can possibly be compressed to fit a tighter area. It could possibly be for a dedicated customer
connection with a rare specific application where a one-time design is required (e.g. a waste water
treatment plant). A slight modification of an existing design standard will probably work in this case.
The modifications may or may not be outside the bounds of the criteria or tolerances of the original
standard. The proposed altered design can easily be studied to confirm if it will adequately serve the
purpose of compressing the design for this one-time application. This results in a custom design for
the given unique application. As an alternate, in either of these two examples, the utility may choose
to outsource the design to an experienced consultant for this one-time occurrence. This may be the
prudent choice in this case.
Conclusion to the Design Process

Whether a philosophy of using either standard designs or custom designs is adopted, the outcome
should generally be the same regarding the actual design itself. There will be some differences, but all
should be within the margin of a workable design. There may be some slight variations due to the
individual designer’s rendition of the solution; perhaps in the yard cable layout. But for typical
substations on a system, a more distinct difference is found generally only in the amount of time
required to produce the design. Standardisation allows for a shorter design duration with lower cost
through the use of design standards and design modules, whereas a custom design would take longer
to thoroughly cover all the aspects required with added cost. It is important to note that the custom
design approach can sometimes result in situations where most substations are designed as bespoke
when in fact the utility could have benefitted from using a standard design. For a non-typical design,
where standardisation does not apply, and a custom design is required, this distinction becomes
irrelevant. Either way, the main impact by adding more time to the design activity duration is adding
more engineering cost to the design phase. As the adage states, “time is money”. So, minimising the
design time via standardisation yields benefits in project cost savings. Using the limited resources of
time and money wisely should be the philosophy advocated. In this regard, when using consultants,
keep in mind that the success of this approach is largely dependent upon sufficient hands-on expertise
and a successful track record of the consultant in the area of a utility’s particular substations. The use
of standardisation for low cost solutions for substation designs should be carefully studied and
considered for deployment by utilities in developing countries.
2.4 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING PROJECT EXECUTION METHODS

Whether a substation is custom designed, or based on company standards, or a combination of both,
the engineering is really a part of the larger picture of executing the complete project. The installation
of a substation represents the complete project and its design is only an element that remains to be an
integral part of the project. The design portion depends somewhat on how the entire project is
approached, or in other words, the project delivery system.
Project Delivery System

The main modern project methods (also known as project models, approaches, or contract
arrangements) are listed below with a brief definition. Each has their advantages and disadvantages.
Detailed discussion of these methods is beyond the scope of this chapter, but they are presented to see
how the design integrates into each method and how it can affect design philosophy.
35
 Design-Build: a project is designed then constructed by a single entity, the owner, such as a
utility using its internal engineering staff and its company construction crews;
 Design-Bid-Build or Traditional Method: a project is designed by the owner, such as a
utility using its internal engineering staff, and then the owner tenders bids and contracts with
a separate entity for the construction;
 Engineer-Procure-Construct: a project owner contracts with one entity to perform the
design, procure, construct, and handover the project to that owner. This is sometimes known
as Turnkey project execution. Other terms used for this method are Engineer-Procure-
Construct-Commission (EPCC) and Lump Sum Turn Key (LSTK);
 Engineer-Procure-Construction Management: a project owner contracts with one entity
to provide management services for the whole project. The EPCM contractor coordinates all
design, procurement, and construction services. They may or may not undertake actual site
work, but they must ensure required work is completed on time;
 Build-Own-Operate: a project in which a private entity, finances, designs, builds, owns, and
operates a facility with some degree of encouragement from a utility or a government, which
may offer other financial incentives such as tax-exempt status. This differs from the previous
methods in that it interjects a form of project financing and operating into the mix;
 Build-Operate-Transfer: a project in which a private entity, finances, designs, builds, and
operates a facility receiving a concession from the private or public sector as stated in the
concession contract. This enables the project proponent to recover its investment, operating,
and maintenance expenses for the project before transferring it to the public sector. This too
interjects project financing and operating. This is found to be a typical approach in the resource
sector, which is time-constrained, whereby the mine or process establishes the substation to a
set of standards and then transfers it to the host utility as a gifted asset. This approach reduces
the risk for the utility and places it upon the customer. It also used by some utilities as an
option for industrial customer and IPP connections; and
 Build-Own-Operate-Transfer: a project in which a private entity, finances, designs, builds,
owns, and operates a facility. During the specified concession period the private entity owns
and operates the facility with the prime goal to recover the costs of investment, operating, and
maintenance while trying to achieve higher margin on project. The facility is then transferred
to the government or partner at a previously agreed-upon or market price. These specific
characteristics make it suitable for infrastructure projects like highways, railway, airports, and
power generation which have political importance for the social welfare but are not attractive
for other types of private investments.
Project Financing as Related to Developing Regions

Organisations that lend money to developing countries to support development of infrastructure follow
certain rules to guarantee that the money reaches its intended recipients. Projects are co-financed with
governments, other multilateral institutions, commercial banks, export credit agencies, and private
sector investors. The following World Bank (WB) process offers an example of the framework within
which the Design Engineers will need to work:
 Project Identification: a borrowing country's government, and other stakeholders determine
how financial assistance can be used to have the largest positive impact. Initial analytical work
on a project concept results in documenting strategies and priorities, identifying objectives,
risks, alternative scenarios, safeguards for environmental and social issues, and a timetable for
project approval;
 Project Preparation: where the borrower conducts feasibility studies and prepares initial
engineering designs. The financier takes an advisory role offering analysis, advice, and an
assessment of the arrangements for overall project management. If necessary, Due Diligence
Studies are performed such as an Environmental Assessment on the project's likely
environmental impact and steps required to mitigate possible harm. Other studies may be
aimed at analysing potentially adverse effects on the health, resources, economies, and cultures
of indigenous peoples;
36
 Project Appraisal: to review the project design in detail, agree on conditions for effectiveness,
set a timetable, and resolve any outstanding questions and unfinished business;
 Project Approval: The project appraisal document and all financial and legal documentation
is submitted to the financier for consideration;
 Project Implementation: the borrower prepares the project specifications and contracts with
public-sector manufacturers, consultants and contractors to procure all goods and services. The
financier ensures that proper fiduciary controls are in place for dispersing funds. During
execution, the project's activities, progress, outcomes and impact on beneficiaries are
monitored and regularly reported along with milestone reviews. The financier measures and
evaluates the effectiveness of the project’s operation and results;
 Project Completion: the project is closed-out and stakeholders evaluate and document the
results achieved, problems encountered, lessons learned, and knowledge gained during the
project; and
 Project Evaluation: the financier (and possibly Independent Auditors) assesses how well the
entire operation complied with its operations policies and accounted the use of its resources.
Regarding the above project delivery method, it should be noted that utility receiving the funding and
executing the project must have the engineering resources (either internally or externally available)
with the required expertise to ensure successful completion of the design.
Engineering Delivery System

An aspect somewhat related to project execution methods worth mentioning with regards to design
philosophy is the precursor to engineering in any of the above methods. It is development of the project
owner’s concept, with regards to the engineering aspects, that occurs in the earliest of all design
activities. This is called Front End Engineering (FEE) or Front End Engineering Design (FEED). It is
sometimes referred to as Pre-Project Planning (PPP), Front-End Loading (FEL), Early Contractor
Involvement (ECI) or Optioneering. Upon conceiving a project, the owner usually conducts a Conceptual
Design and/or Feasibility Study to see if the proposed project is worth pursuing. Since there are always
alternate ways to accomplish an objective, studies include optioneering or the selection of preferred
options out of a wider array of likely possible design solutions considered. Each possible solution has
its advantages and disadvantages in areas such as utilisation of resources, performance,
constructability, operability, maintainability, future expandability, and economic use of available capital
funds. The goal is to study, evaluate, compare and optimise toward the best solution to pursue. This
is typically accompanied by a System Impact Study to see how the proposed project affects the
surrounding parts of the system and what system modifications would be necessary (e.g. reconductoring
or upgrading affected transmissions lines). FEED is the basic engineering that focuses on developing
technical requirements of the scope, evaluating potential risks, and determining the main investment
costs for the project. The beginning of a project is the best time to start considering Safety in Design
(SiD) to make the substation safer. The concept is to avert potential safety incidents, injuries and
fatalities for construction and operational phases by taking well-defined, mandatory steps built in to the
design phase to address safety requirements. This is accomplished by the use of shared lessons learned,
a focus on hazards and their control, applying practices and techniques geared for safer outcomes, and
a hierarchical engineering review/approval structure.
As an analogy to describe the FEED philosophy, think of engineering as the process of solving problems.
To do this, it is wise to define the “problem” first and then identity the “solution” afterwards. Recognise
that these are two fundamental steps in the engineering process. Following these steps in order, avoids
rushing first into the solution, and even worse, to a certain preferred solution that may not even be the
best one for the given problem. The designer needs to understand the problem clearly before solving
it. FEED is the tool to understand and define the problem. It guides the designer to make some of the
most important decisions up front so that they end up spending far less time and money later on when
the project is deep into its execution stages.
Thus, FEED is a way of looking at a project before completing the detailed design, and is used to
thoroughly plan a project and control expenses. FEED is conducted by the planning engineers, working
in close communication with the owners, to thoroughly understand and logically consider all aspects of
the project, both initial installation and future expansion, as well as potential problems. The engineering
37
section then dissects this problem and generates what some call the “Basic Engineering” where the real
tangible scope of work, the stage-by-stage process of delivering the solution, and the impacts on
outages and remote ends all become clearly evident. This step also includes consideration of lesson
learned from the past in order to avoid issues regarding deliverability and constructability of solutions,
as well as avoiding variations for better consistency. It is followed by a review to ensure it is well
developed to address the objective and scope (the “problem”), and then approved by all involved. The
FEED package first becomes the basis for bidding and then for designing in the project execution phases,
which in turn has its own critical review(s) ensuring the detailed design (the “solution”) is also well
developed. Finally, some of the FEED deliverables would be a General Single Line Diagram, a Preliminary
Layout, and a Material-Take-Off List. Afterward, the project proceeds with “Detailed Engineering” where
the final design deliverables (e.g. Schematic Diagrams, Plan and Elevation Views, and a Bill of Material)
are prepared.
Conclusion to Project Execution Methods

With respect to design philosophy, defined as being “basic practical guiding principles to apply what
adds real value and cost-savings to our substation design”, the project execution method may have
little effect on actual design itself. It mainly affects the overall installation of a substation more so at
the project level. The effect on the substation design itself is more along the level of project
management than at the design activity level. The actual design is still driven by the usual constraints,
criteria, codes and standards discussed in this chapter. It is still accomplished by the typical use of
either standard or custom designs as discussed in this chapter. However, the scheduling, monitoring,
and reporting for the design activities will depend on the project management entities put in charge
and the established hierarchy of communication. The material and equipment purchasing activities will
depend on the procurement procedures of the project execution method used. The protocol to transmit
design drawings at different stages of engineering for review, comment and approval by the owner will
depend on the specific project delivery method. The final issuing design deliverables (specifications,
drawings and associated documents) to the construction entity will likewise depend on the execution
method used.
The project execution method will certainly affect the coordination and interactions of all resources
involved with the overall installation of a substation. The FEED process will certainly lead to a better
understanding of the problem to be solved from an engineering perspective. In general, the same
philosophies to accomplish the actual design within the given scope and constraints as well as
engineering methods utilised by the designer will apply no matter how the design fits into the chosen
project delivery method.
2.5 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING TYPE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Substation design philosophy is relatively independent of the type of electrical system where the
substation is to be located. The substation will be designed, constructed and function the same whether
it is located on-grid (connected to a centralised integrated electric utility system), or off-grid
(independent, stand-alone or isolated from any utility system and having its own power source such as
diesel-generators) or in a micro-grid (a small network of users connected to a grid which is able to
disconnect and function independently with their own local distributed energy resources). Another case
to note, sometimes defined as off-grid (a single or very small group of homes with minimal
lighting/receptacle load served from photovoltaic panels), is too small and outside the realm of being
connected to a substation.
Note that the term “relatively” was used above in relating the independence of design philosophy to the
grid type. Certainly, some obvious dependencies exist such as size of a substation. For example, on-
grid substations can become quite large up to EHV levels to transmit bulk power generated from multiple
fossil fuel power plants. By contrast off-grid substations may be quite small due to the limited amount
of power transmitted such as from a hydro plant on a remote dam.
Another example of an obvious dependency of design philosophy to the grid type is in the protection,
control, and monitoring equipment specified for a substation. A non-grid connected substation may
have simpler controls equipment compared to an on-grid substation with more complex controls
schemes just by virtue of the fact that the grid is a more complex network of interconnected lines and
generators. An on-grid substation may have relatively simpler controls equipment compared to a micro-
grid substation just by virtue of the fact that micro-grid controls schemes must operate for grid-
38
connected conditions as well as for grid-isolated or stand-alone conditions. Different control systems
must work as called for in a micro-grid substation’s operation. However, the detailed choice of
protection/control/monitoring systems are far reaching but are introduced in concept later in this TB.
In conclusion, the type of electrical system (grid connected versus isolated) will certainly present many
considerations and constraints as noted in this chapter. In in general, the same design philosophies
with respect to the substation apply in all cases.
2.6 DEPENDENCIES AND INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER RELATED PHILOSOPHIES

As discussed in the section on how design philosophy related to the project execution methods, it is
evident that the engineering is really just a part of the bigger picture of executing the complete project.
The installation of a substation is the complete project and its design on only an integral part. In
keeping with this line of thought, the design depends on many inputs and outputs to the project or
process of installing a substation provided by other related functional groups. Just as important as all
these inputs and outputs are, it is equally important that the substation designer have a rudimentary
knowledge of the workings of the related functional groups. For example, the substation designer must
be able to review the work of the planning engineer so as to confirm whether their proposal can be
realistically achieved. Coordinating with the planner will yield a viable plan and reduce the overall time
to develop the design.
Related Inputs to and Outputs of Substation Design

The main prerequisite input to a substation design is a project concept plan. This plan is the product
of planning engineers conceiving the need for a substation, determining the basic conceptual elements
required (such as voltages, MVA, load centre/circle of substation site, and number of circuits required),
developing the best configuration for its integration to the entire transmission and distribution systems
and then predicting future expansions.
Some specific examples of how planning philosophy may affect the design philosophy:
 Transmission planning philosophies, such as the typical level of electrical load to be served from
one substation, will affect the size of the transformer and the maximum number of distribution
circuits leaving the substation;
 Distribution planning philosophies, such as the level of reliability for customers, will affect the
number of transformers in a substation (e.g. one or two transformers with the second for
redundancy) and/or the use of a reserve or transfer busbar; and
 Distribution line design philosophy such as number of customers per feeder affects the feeder
conductor size and feeder terminal switchgear type and rating.
The planning concept is then further developed by protection, controls and monitoring engineers
prescribing the overall protection schemes and specifications to safely operate the substation. They
also specify the instrument transformers, relays and SCADA/RTU equipment to implement these
schemes. This input will affect the layout, equipment and cabling of the substation and control building.
Further input is provided by civil engineers on the siting process. Site location, orientation, access,
terrain, and soil properties will all drive the substation design to some extent (and vice versa).
Environmental scientists will also drive the design with requirements for oil containment, polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB), noise abatement, aesthetics, screening, hazardous materials disposal, and other
ecological concerns. They will also drive the siting process to ensure that the regulations of government
permitting agencies are met regarding the preservation of wetlands, wildlife habitat and archaeological,
historical, cultural, and recreational areas of significance to indigenous people. Finally, the transmission
and distribution lines designers will affect the substation design with respect to the insulation
coordination affecting the selected insulator type and rating, the line routing affecting the substation
orientation, the line tensions affecting the termination structure strength, and the construction type
(overhead vs. underground) affecting the terminations.
There are also important desired outcomes from a substation that must be “designed into” it from the
beginning. Constructability is first and foremost in a design. A design on paper is worthless if it cannot
be readily built in the field. If there are physical interferences, clearance violations, extensive subsurface
rock, property ownership disputes, or erroneously specified equipment, then construction can come to
a quick halt until issues are resolved. Idle labour and equipment can quickly consume the budget and
39
schedule. Other physical influences such as logistics, accessibility, and availability of material and
equipment, can all affect construction. In developing countries, lack of necessities such as good roads,
heavy lifting cranes, material suppliers, and contractors can present construction challenges. The future
expansions predicted by planning must be woven into the design for constructability reasons. A simple
switch on the end of a bus will permit the future extension of that busbar for the next line terminal or
transformer without the need for a total outage or requirement for a mobile-substation. Operability is
the second as part of a good design. A good example is including space to safely perform switching
with a hook-stick tool, or proper labelling of equipment so that switching operations are conducted
without error that could lead to an inadvertent outage or a deadly accident. Maintainability is the third
link in a good design. Adequate access lanes and working space (for both vehicles and personnel) is
vital to being able to maintain, troubleshoot, repair and replace equipment when necessary. For
example, grounding studs must be provided to install portable working ground leads. Working holes
and notches must be specified in EHV hardware if hot line tools are used for live-line work practices.
Sustainability is the final consideration in that covers designing with retirement, recycling and disposal
in mind upon the end of the equipment/facility lifecycle. Above all, general safety must be “designed
into” the substation in all phases.
Also, running all through the project to install a substation are processes such as project management
and asset management. Project management activities will flow from the project execution methods
as discussed above with prescribed requirements to adhere to scheduling, monitoring, reporting,
communication, and design reviews protocols. Asset management, in broad terms, is a system that
monitors and maintains property of value to an entity or organisation. In finer terms, it is a systematic
process of specifying, prioritising, financing, deploying, operating, maintaining, upgrading, and
disposing of assets in a cost-effective manner. For an electrical system, it usually applies to tangible
assets (such as transformers) as opposed to intangible assets (such as intellectual property).
Considering valuable, productive assets such as power transformers, asset management would be the
useful practice of managing them to achieve the greatest return. The process itself involves the
selecting, monitoring and maintaining of the transformer fleet with the objective of providing the
required level of service in the most reliable and cost-effective manner. Consideration is given to the
economic and engineering aspects of the asset over its entire lifecycle — from specification, design,
construction, commissioning, operating, maintaining, repairing, modifying, replacing, decommissioning
to disposal. With the inclusion of design in the lifecycle, the asset management philosophy of an
organisation will then influence that of the designers. For example, asset managers may dictate that
real-time, on-line condition monitors be installed on all EHV transformers for awareness of the state of
the health of its gas and oil. This will require the substation designers to provide the proper interfaces
and cabling at both the transformer and in the control building to accomplish this requirement. This
allows signalling of an alarm to operational and maintenance personnel if the gas or oil exhibits signs
of degradation or contamination so that priorities can be set for further testing based on operational
and economic constraints. With substations now considered as strategic assets, managing their
components has become a very important driver. This is due to:
 The ageing infrastructure of the last century now reaching the end of its original design life;
and
 The desire to reap the benefits of the lessons learned and valuable historic data/information
obtained via improved modern design approaches moving into the next century.
The former may not benefit developing regions, but the latter can surely add value.
Technically, all of the above-mentioned utility philosophies are intertwined, and all must be considered
at all stages of developing infrastructure. The planning philosophy for the radius of a load circle served
out of a typical substation will directly affect distribution feeder lengths. Distribution line design
philosophy must address this and deal with the resultant voltage drop. Asset management philosophy
will dictate the best equipment to counter voltage drop by using either transformers load tap changers
(LTC) or voltage regulators on the line terminals. This will affect substation design in the layout and
equipment specification stages. The resultant substation layout must accommodate the maintenance
philosophy where flexibility is ensured, such as with dual transformers or the use of a reserve/transfer
busbar, so that the periodic de-energisation of equipment can occur for invasive inspections without
impacting the customer satisfaction philosophy.
Finally, interactions and dependencies can go beyond the utility to outside entities. These can be for
wide-area operational philosophies that govern Transmission System Operators (TSO), inter-utility ties,
40
and inter-country ties. There can also be regulatory agency philosophies that govern environmental
approvals, operational reliability standards, security, and rate of return. A regulatory ex-ante (before
the fact) framework regulates returns against assets over a set life. So, to improve returns, a utility
needs to replace assets. The outcome is that substation life is often designed to a set lifespan with the
expectation that it would be replaced, which often leads to cost optimisation to meet the regulatory
rationale. The flip side of this is the regulatory ex-post (after the fact) framework leading to the “blank
cheque” approach where assets are completely over-designed to maximise availability and reliability.
There can also be corporate and market economic philosophies that govern how projects are financed
and managed to profitability. With all these dependencies, an experienced-base holistic approach is
necessary.
Concluding Remarks on Interactions and Dependencies

It is evident that all other functional utility departments with their governing philosophies must be
considered and incorporated into substation design philosophy. The study of both the function and
philosophy of all of these other utility groups is beyond the scope of this brochure. However, the
considerations and effects of these related philosophies (planning, protection, construction, operation
and maintenance) into the corresponding recommendations of these guidelines for substation design.
Ultimately, the substation designer must be aware of these various influencing philosophies, consider
each input as it relates to the specific project, and finally incorporate appropriate measures into the
substation design.
2.7 SUBSTATION DESIGN PHILOSOPHY CONCLUSION

The proper summary and conclusion to end this chapter is to answer the question - “How does all the
material presented on design philosophy relate to the subject matter of this Technical Brochure?” The
purpose of the brochure is to provide practical guidance for designers in undeveloped, developing, and
remote regions so that they can produce cost-effective, fit for purpose designs for substations. To be
able to measure success in achieving this, a successful substation project is defined as one that is
valued-engineered for performance, site conditions, code compliance, cost-effectiveness, and schedule
through its entire lifecycle.
It appears that standardisation, the development and use of standard designs, would be an immense
benefit. This is a critical component to successfully rolling out a large number of substations within the
timelines set forth in the various programmes on electrification. However, most of the utilities in
developing nations do not have such manuals with standardised designs. In lieu of standards, ideally,
the sharing of existing utility design manuals would streamline the process of serving the electrification
needs of these undeveloped, developing, and remote regions. One must remember that a lot depends
on the purpose or application of the substation. If it is a new EHV substation serving as a hub of bulk
power transmission from a generating station into a large region, then a predominately custom design
philosophy using standards whenever possible may be the best method to pursue. If it is a new HV
transmission or MV sub transmission substation serving as a terminal of a radial spoke out of an EHV
substation to distribute power to a community, then a design philosophy based on standardisation
and/or shared established utility design manuals is probably the best to utilise. However, there are
scenarios in between the above broad spectrum of cases, and the best design philosophy must be
determined from experience and then followed. Standardisation of material and equipment also provide
immense benefits. The use of AIS, and GIS to some extent, is fairly common and the benefits of
standardised ratings, specifications, and deployment for equipment provide cost savings. However,
newer hybrid Mixed Technology Switchgear (MTS) substations, combining the benefit of AIS and GIS
into compact, modular designs that encompasses several different functions in one module or pre-
fabricated containerised or skid-mounted substations should not be overlooked. All these equipment
solutions are conducive to developing countries, especially in cases of remote locations, limited resource
availability, and time pressures. And as with most professions, engineering is a mix of both “art” and
“science”. The “art” of knowing what works best in each situation, which is gained through experience,
will guide the “science” to achieve its best results.
Certainly, the organisation type, the prevailing site constraints, the applicable codes, and the available
resources all revolve around the design process. They must all be addressed in the standards used in
the design itself. Certainly, at the overall project level, the project management method, the FEED
process, and the inputs and objectives of all other interrelated functional groups must all be considered
41
in the design process. Regardless of the purpose of a substation and consideration to all the
aforementioned influences, there must still be some all-encompassing basic common-sense advice to
follow. It may be best summarised as follows.
At each step of design, with consideration to everything from conceptualisation to retirement, the
substation designers must get into the habit to constantly ask themselves some meaningful questions
such as:
 What basic elements of a substation will fulfil the needs of the planning engineer?
 Which combination of basic elements, arranged within the physical site constraints, will best
serve the intended purpose?
 What can one do at each step of the process to optimise the design?
 What can be done to lower cost while fulfilling the scope and maintaining safety?
 Which one or two basic ideas can be implemented to add real value to one’s engineering?
 At what point can one add real value to the engineering?
 At what point can the best of the skills and experience, and that of one’s peers and mentors,
be built on to accomplish a simple, elegant solution to the problem at hand?
It can be that a simple voltage transformer with a power winding connected through a protective fuse
to a transmission line to serve rural customer load on a single-wire earth return (SWER) line.
Possibly a transmission line shield wire scheme (SWS) feeding a pole mounted transformer and a
distribution line is best used.
Ultimately develop and adopt standardisation or seek out existing shared utility standards to deploy on
an ongoing basis. And then always aim for continuous improvement.
This line of questioning and contemplating will guide design philosophy. The resultant philosophy, and
the well thought out answers derived from questioning, will guide designs to achieve the goals of cost-
effective, universal electrification. The same questioning philosophy of each element of substation
design was used in the creation of this Technical Brochure.
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3. ASSET MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR

SUBSTATION DESIGN
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Asset Management for substations includes the processes for managing the complete asset life cycle
and includes risk management and the balancing of often conflicting objectives for asset owners. Asset
Management is applied to all aspects of the substation life cycle including planning and design,
construction, operations and maintenance, environmental management, performance and condition
monitoring, security, spares management and ultimately, de-commissioning of the substation at end of
life.
Compliance with formalised asset management guidelines such as BSI PAS55 or global standards such
as ISO 55000 provides a way for asset owners and operators to demonstrate to shareholders, regulators
and a range of other stakeholders that assets are being managed in a way that is consistent with best
industry practice and provides a way to achieve the highest level of objectives defined by the
organisation [3] [4] [5] [6] [7].
During the design stage, an asset management approach implies that the designer considers the high-
level objectives that stakeholders might require for the substation and also that the designer considers
the entire substation life cycle. In practice, these higher-level objectives are embodied in organisation
policies and standards and are not directly addressed by the individual designer. Asset Management
standards such as ISO 55000 provide a guide on the ultimate but should be used as a guide in
developing the necessary supporting processes in the power sector. It is advisable that this is
considered at the outset and not delayed until the sector is developed in a region. Better to consider
up front as the potential avoided costs in developing infrastructure is significant.
One recommended approach is to ensure knowledge of the principles so that when aspects become
applicable they can be integrated and use external experience to develop a “roadmap” for development.
A strong point should be that accreditation is not a recommended aspiration for a developing power
sector but knowledge of the principles amongst key individuals is important. This section discusses
some of the key principles that are part of the practice of asset management for substations.
3.2 ASSET MANAGEMENT FUNDAMENTALS

Asset Management is an important aspect of the design and management of inherently long-life assets
such as high voltage substations.
Successfully designing, and ultimately managing one, or a large population of substations requires the
interaction of many individuals within the owner’s organisation and a range of suppliers and service
providers. Asset Management invariably involves all levels of the business from senior management
through all levels of asset management activities to the person who carries out weeding and gardening.
Asset management involves balancing risks, costs and performance to achieve agreed asset objectives.
Often asset objectives are defined at high strategic level but involve activities at the lowest level of the
organisation. An important aspect of asset management is the asset life-cycle from conception through
to disposal and also alignment of activities from the highest levels of the organisation down. The
following diagram, Figure 3-1 shows the scope of asset management within a typical organisation.
Asset Management is not new and organisations have been managing all types of assets, including
substations for a long time. However, in the 1980’s the discipline of “asset management” started to be
discussed, particularly in the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand and rapidly spread to many other
countries. Since that time, there has been significant development in international understanding of
the best practice principles that underlie good asset management practice.
In 2004, the British Standards Institute (BSI), in collaboration with the Institute of Asset Management,
released Publicly Available Specification or PAS 55 in two parts, which was considered the first
internationally recognised specification for Asset Management.
In 2014, the ISO 55000 series of standards were issued, defining accepted global understanding of
asset management principles. These standards detail agreed best practice principles that have
relevance for many assets, including high voltage substations.
43
Figure 3-1 – The Scope of Asset Management
3.3 STAKEHOLDERS
One of the reasons for the development of the discipline of asset management was the difficulty in
providing assurance to stakeholders that an organisation was effectively managing its assets. The
development of PAS 55 in 2004 and its review in 2008 was driven by the need to demonstrate that
privatised utilities and transport organisations in the UK were effectively managing assets. In particular,
there were concerns regarding the asset management systems in place to ensure the longer-term
integrity and safety of the privatised assets.
Successful asset management requires the active participation of many individuals within an
organisation and its supply chain. It requires the understanding and support of internal and external
stakeholders, such as shareholders and regulators, who may wish to exert influence on the utility.
Important stakeholders for the design of low cost substations are bankers and financiers and also the
community in which the substations will be located and will serve. Stakeholders define the strategy
that guides decision-making within the asset life-cycle and is directly linked with the objectives defined
by stakeholders.
3.4 RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk management is one of the foundation principles of asset management and a core skill for an asset
manager. In general terms, risk is related to uncertainty but can be assessed and quantified in relation
to the likelihood that an event may occur and the consequence of that event.
Risk Management can be considered “as a coordinated set of practices to define hazards and inherent
asset risks, assess the risk and the consequences and comparing these against other risks to determine
priority, consider feasible mitigation methods for that risk, select and implementing a solution ”.
Risk management is often aimed to reduce overall risk to a level defined as “As-Low-as-Reasonably-
Practical” (ALARP), or So-Far-As-Is-Reasonably-Practical (SFAIRP) particularly for safety-related risks in
and around substations. Many organisations develop an internal risk policy that defines what the
44
organisation accepts as tolerable risk, referred to as the organisation’s risk appetite. This is often
represented as a risk-consequence matrix that includes several criteria of risk such as:
 Safety;
 Financial;
 Network reliability;
 Market Efficiency;
 Relationships;
 Organisation and People;
 Environment; and
 Compliance.
A Likelihood versus Consequence Assessment Matrix such as in Figure 3-2 can be prepared that defines
the levels of consequence in each of those criteria to provide guidance for asset decision-making and
prioritising within the organisation.
An example of a Severe Consequence for Safety may be “Significant Permanent Injury or a fatality” or
for Reliability may be “an outage for a customer more than 1 week”.
Likelihood is used to determine the overall level of risk to the organisation from a number of alternatives.
As an example, a “Rare” likelihood may be defined as the “Probability of the event occurring less than
once every 25 years. As an example, “Severe” Consequence combined with a “Rare Likelihood delivers
a “Medium” risk to the organisation.
Risk management is one of the essential tasks for the asset manager particularly in relation to optimising
costs and reliability of infrastructure. The goal of risk management is to find the optimum solution from
several options, meeting broader organisation objectives.
Figure 3-2 – A Likelihood vs Consequence matrix showing relative risk ranking for a typical
organisation (“Severe” consequence and “Rare” likelihood shown)
Broader organisational objectives may include:

 System: reliability and quality of supply;
45
 Equipment: technical condition of the equipment to meet performance, regulatory and

legislative objectives;
 Financial: capital investment and whole-of-life costs;
 Societal: public opinion, reputation, community acceptance; and
 Environmental Stewardship: assuring neutral impact upon environment through provision
of services.
There are many references to the practice of risk management and the reader is encouraged to search
for those to find more information on this topic.
In designing a substation (as an example), the designer aims to minimise a range of risks that may be
evident over the substation life-time, beginning at the choice of site.
The following locations should be avoided in order to minimise risks:
 Sites located close to waterways, wells, dams and drinking water supplies – to reduce the risk
of pollution from the substation in the event of a spill;
 Sites located close to underground services and to residential and commercial buildings – risk
of transfer potentials electrocuting humans and animals;
 Sites located close to schools, parks and playgrounds – these are sensitive areas, with a risk to
children and from vandalism and unauthorised entry;
 Sites close to heavily populated areas – prudent avoidance of EMF exposure or noise complaints;
 Coastal sites or sites located downwind of any heavy industry with airborne pollution that could
require longer insulation creepage distances or be hazardous to personnel and potentially
impact on the design life of the substation by contamination of insulators and corrosion to steel
structures; and
 Sites located, as far as practical, away from metallic pipes, railway lines, neighbouring
conductive fences and communications cable to minimise the effect of transfer potentials.
3.5 RELIABILITY, RESILIENCE AND AVAILABILITY

The reliability of substations is obviously a key concept and is related to risk management. The concepts
of risk and reliability together can be used to develop an appropriate maintenance strategy for the
organisation. Consideration of risk in assets such as substations invariably involves a third concept, that
of criticality. The introduction of criticality provides another way to prioritise activities including
maintenance, replacement and refurbishment works.
An extension of “reliability” is “resilience”. Reliability relates to the robustness of the plant and
equipment not to fail. Chasing ever increasing degrees of reliability will simply add cost to the project.
Resilience however is recognising that whatever the degree of reliability, things will eventually fail or
need to be out of service for one reason or another, but resilience is the time in which the system can
be restored to normal operation so as to minimise the disruption to the consumer. Resilience may
therefore be a more important factor in considering substation layout, choice of equipment and/or
suppliers in respect of time to repair and indeed in the mechanisms to detect failures and resources
available to respond to the incident at any time of the day/night.
Resilience is therefore generally reflected in the Availability requirement for the substation.
Availability is defined as:
A = MTBF / (MTBF + MTTR)
Equation 3-1 – General Availability Formula
 A = Availability as % (the average time per year to be out of service)

 MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures (or being out of service for planned maintenance)
46
 MTTR = Mean Time To Restore (Repair)

This availability formula combines the concepts of the reliability of the equipment not to fail (MTBF)
with the time to restore the system to normal operation (MTTR). An availability of 90% would imply an
expectation of being out of service on average for 3.65 days per year, whilst 99% would be just 3.65
hours/year.
Availability can be difficult to determine as it is based on an assessment of all the components in the
system. Components or sub-systems that operate in series to create a desired outcome will reduce the
overall availability, whilst components that operate in parallel will enhance availability. For example:
two systems each with an availability index of 90% will yield these results:
In series: Atotal = A1 x A2 = 90% x 90% = 81%
In parallel: Atotal = 1- [(1-A1) x (1-A2)] = 99%
Equation 3-2 – Series and Parallel Availability
However, given the overall complexity of a substation operation and the interrelation between primary
and secondary systems, Availability can be a somewhat nebulous figure and difficult to specify overall
given different circumstances and operation of the various components. As an example, tripping of a
circuit-breaker requires a functional set of circuit-breaker contacts, healthy trip mechanism, no trip
circuit isolating links in the wrong position, no broken wires, no loose terminals, a healthy relay, a relay
that can detect the fault in an appropriate time, a charged battery with sufficient discharge capacity,
healthy auxiliary supply to the relay and trip coil, CT and VT correctly connected and not isolated with
no breaks in their wiring! Suffice to say that certain aspects or components of the system can be
specified to maximise an overall expectation of performance.
It is clear that MTBF has a heavy reliance on the choice of equipment supplier and hence is a
procurement responsibility as much as it is of having a supplier of reliable equipment. In some
components of the overall design, it may be possible to structure the system to be inherently resilient
that equipment can be out of service for any reason without disruption of supply to the consumer.
Primary plant can utilise mesh, ring or breaker-and-a-half schemes to provide continuity of supply
compared to straight bus arrangements, whilst the secondary systems may use duplication and/or
various forms of resilient architecture such as Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP), High-availability
Seamless Redundancy protocol (HSR) or Parallel Redundancy Protocol (PRP).
MTTR has a heavy reliance on the asset owner’s ability to detect the fault and imitate a response, the
holding of spares or alternative arrangements and the time to recommission. In some instances where
immediate access to spares/replacements is not practical, the speed at which equipment can be
returned to the supplier for repair and the time of repair can be critical concerns.
In both cases, choosing the lowest cost supplier may therefore not be in the best interests of Availability.
Equally in both cases, the asset owner must establish appropriate mechanisms and resources to deal
with the inevitability of failures despite reliability and maintenance regimes.
3.6 MAINTENANCE
Similar to risk management there are many texts and references available on the topic of maintenance
management.
Maintenance is defined in IEC 60300-3-14 of 2004 as “the combination of all technical, administrative
and managerial actions during the lifecycle of an item intended to retain it in, or restore it to a state in
which it can perform the required function” [8].
Part of the range of activities, broadly described as asset management is maintenance management
and that is defined as: “all the activities of management that determine the maintenance objectives or
priorities, strategies and responsibilities and implement them by means such as maintenance planning,
maintenance control and supervision, and several improving methods including economical aspects ”.
47
Maintenance management can be complex and involve a range of disciplines within a company such as
operations, engineering, information technology, economics, safety, risk, engineering and accounting.
Broadly maintenance strategy can be divided into two different approaches:
 Corrective Maintenance (or defect maintenance); and
 Preventative Maintenance.
There is no right or wrong approach and different maintenance strategies may be appropriate for
different components of the substation. Some of the different strategies and approaches to
maintenance are detailed in the Maintainability Chapter but may include:
 Time-based preventative maintenance;
 Condition based maintenance (CBM);
 Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM);
 Risk Based Maintenance (RBM); and
 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM).
Ultimately, the maintenance approach used in any organisation or situation depends on the type and
the condition of the assets and the risk appetite of the asset owner. In designing low cost substations,
perhaps in remote locations, it is vital to consider the maintenance needs of the design adopted and
the capability to maintain it using resources that are available locally. This may mean simplified
components that are easily repaired using local capability or alternatively the design is such that no
maintenance at all is required for the design life of the substation.
In some cases, considering maintenance needs at the design concept stage can lead to design changes,
for example using spring operating mechanisms in circuit-breakers instead of hydraulic or pneumatic
mechanisms considering the number of moving parts and the associated level of maintenance and
repairs. Another example is the use of simpler vacuum breakers instead of SF 6 gas breakers for simpler
maintenance needs. In some cases, designing for minimised maintenance needs to be balanced against
the additional cost of purchase.
3.7 STRATEGY AND POLICY

The establishment of an asset management regime in an organisation is a common response to external
drivers for better business performance including improved asset decision-making. Effective asset
management provides the opportunity to align asset decision-making with broader organisational
objectives. Optimising asset decision making usually relates to reliability, risk, operational and capital
investment costs.
The asset manager is required to meet corporate objectives including legislative and regulatory
requirements.
This combination of potentially conflicting objectives requires the establishment of organisational
policies and strategies to articulate how the various, and often, conflicting requirements will be
balanced.
A powerful feature of good asset management practice is the alignment of asset activities throughout
the organisation from the corporate objectives right through to the smallest asset inspection or
maintenance task.
The establishment of appropriate policies and strategies becomes a tool for utilities to demonstrate this
whole-of-business alignment. Examples of key asset management policies include:
 Risk Management Policy;
 Safety Policy;
 Environmental Policy;
 Quality of Supply and Security Policy;
 Financial Policy;
48
 Procurement Policy; and

 Employee Conduct and Equal Opportunity Policy.
Asset Managers must be familiar with relevant internal company policies and understand how these
impact asset management decision-making. In some cases, there may be specific asset management
policies defining the approach to asset-decision making, maintenance and condition monitoring. In
some organisations these policies may not exist or are incomplete and the designer needs to use
judgement or the policies of other organisations as a guide to good practice.
3.8 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

The general aim of substation environmental management from an asset management perspective is
to reduce the environment footprint of the substation during its service life. Some of the environmental
control measures are built in at design stage and include oil-water separation systems, drainage
measures and buffer zones. Other measures are related to on-going site management, maintenance
and operations in relation to conservation of natural resources, protection of habitats and control of
hazards.
One of the challenges for substation asset owners may be older substations and equipment built to
different standards than were acceptable when built that no longer meet current environmental
standards.
The broader movement towards the concept of sustainability means that a whole range of aspects of
substation management may need to be considered, dependent on organisational policy.
3.9 WHOLE OF LIFE MANAGEMENT

The design lifetime of a substation is typically considered to be more than 50 years generally based on
the expected life of the primary equipment. The site itself may even have longer life span, during which
time the substation can be expected to undergo significant changes with new equipment, particularly
secondary systems with their own life of 10 – 20 years, augmentation expansion with new circuits and
additional transformers and of course refurbishment of parts of the facility according to respective life
cycles. The substation becomes a mix of various technologies and the age of installed equipment will
span from brand new to over 50 years.
Whole of Life management and decision making is an important aspect of asset management affects
the way the substation is designed, maintenance, refurbishment and replacements are carried out
during the substation life.
Life Cycle Factors

A range of life-time factors are considered when making design or other decisions (such as life extension
options) for substations including:
 Future Needs: Is the substation due for de-commissioning or even replacement at some stage
in the foreseeable future?
 Fault Levels: Is the substation capable of managing current or predicted fault levels and is the
current equipment rating suitable?
 Asset Health and Performance: this usually entails a detailed assessment of the plant
condition compared to network requirements.
 Safety: Is the equipment safe, can life be extended safely according to current standards?
 Costs & Risk: Is the cost and risk of life extension or refurbishment well understood?
Asset Life Cycle phases

Asset life cycle includes all aspects of managing assets from the initial concept through to disposal.
Substation life-cycle can be considered to be up to seven phases as depicted in Asset Management for
substations includes the processes for managing the complete asset life cycle and includes risk
management and the balancing of often conflicting objectives for asset owners. Asset Management is
applied to all aspects of the substation life cycle including planning and design, construction, operations
49
and maintenance, environmental management, performance and condition monitoring, security, spares
management and ultimately, de-commissioning of the substation at end of life.
Compliance with formalised asset management guidelines such as BSI PAS55 or global standards such
as ISO 55000 provides a way for asset owners and operators to demonstrate to shareholders, regulators
and a range of other stakeholders that assets are being managed in a way that is consistent with best
industry practice and provides a way to achieve the highest level of objectives defined by the
organisation [3] [4] [5] [6] [7].
policies and standards and are not directly addressed by the individual designer. Asset Management
standards such as ISO 55000 provide a guide on the ultimate but should be used as a guide in
developing the necessary supporting processes in the power sector. It is advisable that this is
considered at the outset and not delayed until the sector is developed in a region. Better to consider
up front as the potential avoided costs in developing infrastructure is significant.
One recommended approach is to ensure knowledge of the principles so that when aspects become
applicable they can be integrated and use external experience to develop a “roadmap” for development.
A strong point should be that accreditation is not a recommended aspiration for a developing power
sector but knowledge of the principles amongst key individuals is important. This section discusses
some of the key principles that are part of the practice of asset management for substations.
3.10 ASSET MANAGEMENT FUNDAMENTALS
Asset Management is an important aspect of the design and management of inherently long-life assets
such as high voltage substations.
Successfully designing, and ultimately managing one, or a large population of substations requires the
interaction of many individuals within the owner’s organisation and a range of suppliers and service
providers. Asset Management invariably involves all levels of the business from senior management
through all levels of asset management activities to the person who carries out weeding and gardening.
Asset management involves balancing risks, costs and performance to achieve agreed asset objectives.
Often asset objectives are defined at high strategic level but involve activities at the lowest level of the
organisation. An important aspect of asset management is the asset life-cycle from conception through
to disposal and also alignment of activities from the highest levels of the organisation down. Figure 3-1
identifies the scope of asset management within a typical organisation.
Asset Management is not new and organisations have been managing all types of assets, including
substations for a long time. However, in the 1980’s the discipline of “asset management” started to be
discussed, particularly in the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand and rapidly spread to many other
countries. Since that time, there has been significant development in international understanding of
the best practice principles that underlie good asset management practice.
In 2004, the British Standards Institute (BSI), in collaboration with the Institute of Asset Management,
released Publicly Available Specification or PAS 55 in two parts, which was considered the first
internationally recognised specification for Asset Management.
In 2014, the ISO 55000 series of standards were issued, defining accepted global understanding of
asset management principles. These standards detail agreed best practice principles that have
relevance for many assets, including high voltage substations.
The key stages within the lifecycle of the assets are:
 Identification of need
 Design
 Construction
 Commission
 Operate and Maintain
 Decommission
50
 Manage Residual Liabilities

Clearly not all of these activities are the same length of time with the “Operate and Maintain” phase the
predominant activity in terms of proportion of substation asset life. In many utilities, the aspect of
substation life that attracts the most attention is the early stages of “Design and Construction”.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis

Life cycle costing (LCC) is the most effective way of considering the financial aspects of asset
management decisions. Considering not only the initial purchase cost but also the implications for the
asset lifetime provides a more accurate picture of the value of a decision, whether a new substation
purchase, and implementation of new technology or a change to maintenance strategy. The general
understand of life cycle costs is that the initial purchase price is only part of the cost of an item or
project.
Life cycle cost = purchase cost + installation and commissioning cost + cost during asset life (including
losses) + cost of disposal at end of life.
The cost of operations and maintenance is a major component of the ownership cost of a long-life
substation asset. Refurbishment costs, maintenance costs including labour, tools and equipment and
spare parts and consumables as well as costs for outages, including costs associated with unavailability
where an asset is out of service for maintenance or following a failure must all be considered for a life
time assessment. The initial purchase cost is relatively easy to assess and compare, whereas the lifetime
and disposal costs may be more difficult to assess, particularly considering a 50-year time horizon.
The substation life time is also a matter for debate for any utility. There is usually a financial lifetime,
typically 40-45 years, decided for accounting purposes whereas the technical lifetime may be much
longer (or shorter) dependent on the technology and the care taken during the life of the asset. Lifecycle
cost analysis is strongly influenced by the organisation’s accounting approach and also the regulatory
environment and the various strategies that are employed by the organisation to achieve its objectives.
3.11 SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability is a key area of concern for the power network and for substation designers with some
aspects of directly affecting substation design. Sustainability can be considered to be about People,
Planet and Profit (“3 P’s). Many of these aspects of sustainability are encompassed by the various
elements of Asset Management.
It is recommended to establish an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) that describes all relevant
obligations and best environmental practice measures to be taken to ensure sound environmental
management of the site. The EMP shall addresses such factors as: location, water supply, climate, soil
conditions, air quality, noise and vibration (including for all large plant and equipment planned for use,
all bulk rock excavation and all blasting), soil management (including imported fill, excess cut,
stockpiling), waste, annual rainfall and regularity, runoff, drainage, sediment and erosion control, water
quality, flora and fauna, cultural heritage, site contamination, hazardous chemicals and dangerous
goods, incidents and complaints, auditing, monitoring and reporting, records management and training.
The EMP identifies all the development and other statutory approvals conditions and obligations related
to construction of the substation. The EMP shall address each condition and obligation and describe
methods to be undertaken to ensure compliance.
In respect of overall sustainability, all substation designs shall include resource conservation by such
measures as:
 Manage contamination and return contaminated land to sustainable use;

 Minimising the volumes of materials required and ensuring procurement is managed to prevent
excessive wastage of non-renewable resources during the construction of substations;
 Where possible, specifications for use of renewable and/or recycled products that can replace
materials produced from scarce finite resources. For example, recycled aggregates in concrete
for footings and for hardstand areas in place of virgin quarried material;
 Specifying materials that can be sourced locally where feasible to reduce travel distances;
51
 Specifying materials that can be sourced from sustainable production systems and/or companies
with good environmental performance;
 Consider designs that can use materials that are easily recyclable and/or are more durable to
extend their usable life and minimise maintenance/replacement needs;
 Carefully considering site selection to avoid the clearing of native vegetation where possible and
consider replanting affected areas to improve biodiversity where clearance in unavoidable;
 Ensure resource efficiency is considered by designing to maximise reparability rather than
replacement;
 Include environmentally sustainable heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems;
 Use LED-based yard lighting with local and remote on/off controls considering prevention of
override if personnel are on site and the need to override for site security if personnel are not
on site;
 Consider on-site generation with solar panels, small wind turbines as alternative ac supplies for
lighting, auxiliary supply and battery charging;
 Contain and control sediment movement caused from construction activities;
 Ensure dirty water from the platform and site shall be kept separate from clean water crossing
the site;
 Ensure the site is deemed to be stable and erosion free at completion of works;
 Dust and noise from the site works shall be kept to a minimum at all times e.g. a temporary
vehicle shake down and / or wash down area shall be established so all vehicles cross it before
entering or exiting the site;
 Carry out the landscaping and planting or seeding of screening vegetation to suit the specific
conditions for the site. Sites where plants and grasses are difficult to establish and grow to
maturity may require some form of soil covering such as stones with selected seeding only
letting the seeds self-germinate. Other sites with good soil and rainfall could be top-soiled,
hydro-mulched and watered to establish quick plant establishment and growth;
 Preference is for seeds and plants for grasses, shrubs and trees to be native to the local area
through other means of establishing grasses and plants requiring the use of turf or hydro-
mulching or seeding using a combination of appropriate grasses that are suitable to the local
conditions;
 Grasses and plants that require watering shall be watered at a suitable rate and for a suitable
period to fully establish the plants to a point they are self-sustaining and continue to grow; and
 Carry out remedial works to batters and slopes eroded by water, including removal of eroded
material from drains, edges and other areas, maintenance of silt and sediment controls.
3.12 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY

Design is often influenced by local codes, design standards and legislation. Experience with safety
incidents and accidents have led many countries to adopt health, safety and environmental protection
laws or rules with mandated requirements for designers of electrical infrastructure.
The aim of these rules is to protect employees, the public and the environment from harm over the life
of the installation. These rules or legislation may be referred to as Health Safety, Environment and
Quality (HSEQ) or Occupational Safety and Health (OHS). In some cases, specific legislation requires
designers to follow a defined process to ensure that applicable safety and environmental considerations
are addressed during the design process.
In general terminology, designing for safety involves the integration of hazard identification and risk
assessment in the design process to eliminate or minimise the risks of injury throughout the life of a
product being designed.
One of the design challenges for infrastructure such as substations is to consider what hazards might
exist over the life of the installation and that may mean considering what may occur over more than 50
52
years of installation life. This may include uncontrolled development outside of the substation which
may not be in an organised way (for example in lower socio-economic areas, or developing areas where
the type of demand evolves from being purely domestic, to small-scale commercial then eventually
industrial through processing of natural resources) and the impact such development may have on the
substation. It is estimated that building inherently safe plant and equipment would save between 5–
10% of their cost through reductions in inventories of hazardous materials, reduced need for protective
equipment and the reduced costs of testing and maintaining the equipment.
The direct costs associated with unsafe design can be significant, for example retrofitting, workers’
compensation and insurance levies, environmental clean-up and negligence claims. Since these costs
impact more on parties downstream in the lifecycle who buy and use the product, the incentive for
these parties to influence and benefit from safe design is also greater.
A safe design approach results in many benefits including:
 prevent injury and disease;
 improve usability of products, systems and facilities;
 improve productivity;
 reduce costs;
 better predict and manage production and operational costs over the lifecycle of a product;
 comply with legislation; and
 innovate, in that safe design demands new thinking.
Consideration of safety and the environment is one of the fundamental requirements for all designers,
whether in a legislated requirement or not.
3.13 SUBSTATIONS AND THE COMMUNITY

Substations are designed to fulfil a set of functions within the electrical network but they are often built
adjacent to residential, business or industrial areas and other infrastructure and therefore required to
meet community expectations for visual aesthetics, noise control and other factors and in some cases,
mandatory regulatory requirements. In the past, substations could be designed to simply achieve their
core electrical and mechanical functions but increasingly utility owners need to consider the needs of
the community in relation to electrical infrastructure. However, care should be taken to avoid the
tendency to attribute greater importance to aesthetics in higher socio-economic areas. To this end
designers have often taken considerable effort to reduce the impact of the infrastructure on the
community. This can be justified on the basis that ultimately the utility can be shown to be a better
community citizen, even if these measures add to the cost of the installation which must be passed on
the shareholders and other stakeholders. In addition, substations that blend into the community
landscape may assist the approval process. Aesthetics may assist in developing community engagement
and acceptance of the new substation but it is important that stakeholder engagement begins at the
beginning of the design process.
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Figure 3-3 – An example of a suburban substation in Queensland, Australia designed to blend into
the local streetscape – Courtesy Terry Krieg / Ergon Energy
3.14 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON ASSET MANAGEMENT

Asset Management for substations provides a basis for the management of the complete asset life cycle.
It incorporates risk management and the balancing of often conflicting objectives for asset owners.
Asset Management is applied to all aspects of the substation life cycle including planning and design,
construction, operations and maintenance, environmental management, performance and condition
monitoring, security, spares management and ultimately, de-commissioning of the substation at end of
life.
The potential benefits of optimised, risk-based, whole of life-cycle asset management of substations
includes:
 Improved achievement of high-level strategic objectives;
 Alignment of organisational activities and work processes, avoiding organisational silos and
short-term thinking;
 The ability to audit what and why things are done;
 Better planning aligned with overall objectives;
 Better designs that are aligned to community expectations, adding value to the community;
 Better utilisation of information for asset decision-making;
 Consistent and auditable risk management processes;
 Improved competency development and coordination of human resource activities; and
 Improved staff engagement, empowerment, leadership and communications.
The ISO 55000 standard can be used to enable the power sector to optimise its power sector asset
management and to be able to prove that to external and internal stakeholders. Organisations may
seek to be accredited against the requirements of ISO 55000 and demonstrate to stakeholders that
their asset management practices are aligned with agreed best practice. However accreditation is not
essential and many organisations have adopted a policy to adopt the various life-cycle processes to
align with ISO55000 but without seeking formal accreditation.
policies and standards and are not directly addressed by the individual designer.
54
One recommended approach is to ensure the specifier and designer have appropriate knowledge of the
asset management principles so that when aspects become applicable they can be integrated and use
external experience to develop a “roadmap” for development. A strong point should be that
accreditation is not the objective in itself for a developing power sector, but knowledge of the principles
amongst key individuals, especially designers is important and can be indicated by accreditation.
55
56
4. SUBSTATION DESIGN PROCESS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineers have been designing substations for over a century and a body of knowledge has
developed in how to design a substation in a way which:
 promotes the development of the most cost-effective final design which is built in the most
efficient manner; and
 promotes the most efficient use of designers’ time and of design resources.
The overall aim is to design in a manner such that all design requirements are met, no rework is
required in design or in construction and that designs and materials are available such that an
efficient construction programme can be delivered.
Achieving such a result requires that design in all its related aspects is carried out in an organised
manner, i.e. by following a documented design process. This coordinated process includes any
necessary preliminary or feasibility studies followed by cost-estimating and planning processes to
define the project for capital approval purposes. Once the proposed project has been formally
reviewed and approved then detail design work can start.
The following paragraphs attempt to describe a number of generic roles which must be carried out
for a successful substation design project and then describe various actions which should be
considered in putting such a design process together and show a possible example process flow.
These roles can be carried out by individuals or companies, in many cases an individual or a
company may carry out more than one role but it is important that it is always clear which role is
being implemented at any particular stage in the process especially where multiple roles are being
carried out by a single person as good interaction between the roles is essential for a successful
project. The details of a design process and how the various stages are implemented will depend
on the client and delivery company organisations and on the requirements of the procurement
procedures being used.
4.2 DESIGN PROCESS ROLE DESCRIPTIONS

The main requirements for each role in the process are as follows:
Asset Management
 Define the strategic (e.g. cost objectives, lifetime and modularity) and operational targets for
the substation;
 Decide whether a new substation is required based on the outputs from grid studies and inputs
from finance, operation, maintenance and engineering;
 Define high level requirements for the substation;
 Ensure that interests from Asset Management, Engineering, Operations and Maintenance are
covered;
 Ensure that operational requirements and standards are included in the substation design;
 Manage the scope approval and capital approval process; and
 Manage the asset portfolio throughout the full life cycle (i.e. construction, operation and
maintenance until final de-commissioning) of the substation.
Project Management
 Manage and co-ordinate the delivery of the overall project to achieve the required cost and time
objectives;
57
 Initiate the project in a controlled manner, review the planned scope, set up cost management
structures, set up the project baseline programme, set up project team and agree and clarify
individual responsibilities;
 Set up project management structures and processes e.g. project meeting schedule, reporting
requirements and other administrative elements;
 Hold formal kick-off meeting with the client, agree design review points with the client and
manage these reviews to promote efficient use of design resources;
 Review and manage design and material costs on an on-going basis and arrange corrective
action where necessary;
 Review and manage the project schedule (programme) on an on-going basis and arrange
corrective action where necessary;
 Manage overall requirements and change control in the project;
 Achieve required permits for construction and compliance of the substation. Negotiations with
authorities, partners and landowners;
 Achieve required approvals of relevant authorities after completion of the work, provide proof
that the substation is fit for service;
 Manage handover of project to operation and maintenance upon completion; and
 Manage technical and commercial closure of the project documenting the final project
performance (cost and schedule) and significant records and correspondence, plus the lessons
learned.
Design Management
 Co-ordinate the work of the individual designers, ensure that appropriate design standards are
being used;
 Hold initial design group meeting to agree design roles and responsibilities;
 Agree design document management processes and required design deliverables;
 Agree design risk management and quality control processes;
 Review the client specification requirements;
 Review overall design requirements and arrange for sustainability and safety in design reviews;
 Determine what site investigations or engineering studies are required and arrange for them to
be carried out;
 Review impact of results from site investigations or engineering studies and refer them to the
client for review if necessary;
 Review preliminary designs before issue for client review;
 Review initial design suite before issue for client review;
 Review final designs before issue for client review especially with respect to interfaces between
design disciplines;
 Finalise and issue all as-built records; and
 Carry out lessons learned review of designs following construction completion.
Electrical Primary Design

 Prepare the physical design of the overall layout of the substation;
 Develop primary equipment single line diagram;
58
 Agree required design parameters for HV equipment, prepare equipment specifications, and
carry out tender evaluations;
 Prepare layout drawings for the substation primary equipment;
 Carry out environmental and short-circuit calculations to determine the required design loads
on primary equipment, earthing system design calculation and lightning protection system
calculations, busbar and other high-voltage connections design studies, lighting/illumination
design for the substation switchyard, other outdoor access and work areas and for perimeter
security, and control cable route layouts;
 Carry out any required noise studies and design any required noise mitigation measures; and
 Determine requirements for support structures, oil containment bunds, control cable
containment systems.
Engineering Studies
 Perform any system studies required to determine the required performance/ratings for the
substation equipment for example:
 Insulation co-ordination;
 Transient response;
 Minimum and Maximum Fault Levels;
 Critical Fault Clearance Times;
 Earthing studies and analysis;
 Power quality and harmonics;
 Load flow; and
 Arc-flash.
Civil Engineering
 Prepare groundworks design for site preparation, landscaping berms, security ditches/ramps;
 Design the drainage, oil containment and sewage systems, cut off drains and storm water
systems (in collaboration with the landscape design specialist);
 Design roadways and other vehicle and pedestrian access routes;
 Design excavations for installation of foundations and cable duct systems; and
 Design fencing systems.
Structural Engineering
 Design all building structural components e.g. load-bearing walls, foundations and other
structures; and
 Design or verify adequacy of HV equipment foundations and support structures.
Architectural Design
 Carry out the visual external design of buildings;
 Design building internal layouts to meet electrical designer’s functional requirements; and
 Manage the overall visual impact of the installation.
Building Services Design

 Perform the detail design of:
 LV power supply services;
 building heating systems;
 permanent and emergency lighting systems;
59
 ventilation and air-conditioning systems; and

 building security systems.
Electrical Secondary System Design – Protection and Control

 Develop the secondary system single line diagram for instrument transformer connections and
for protection relay trip outputs;
 Ensure that primary equipment outputs are not overloaded;
 Design and specify the substation equipment control, protection, monitoring, metering and
telecommunication systems;
 Determine the required D.C. battery standby capacity;
 Design the low voltage A.C. and D.C. supply systems for the operation of the control and
protection equipment and of the primary equipment; and
 Determine the space and layout requirements (including redundancy requirements) for control
and protection cabinets, batteries and battery charger systems, A.C. and D.C. distribution
boards.
Fire Protection Design

 Design the fire protection and any fire suppression systems;
 Ensure adequate provision of fire escape routes and emergency exits; and
 Ensure that the overall installation complies with all relevant fire safety regulations.
Landscape Design and Environmental Services

 Check ground conditions of proposed site for environmental suitability e.g. for impact on
groundwater or for presence of buried waste;
 Carry out environmental impact, archaeological, cultural, and historical studies to assess the
impact on a proposed site;
 Assess the EMF impact of the project;
 Attend public hearings or meetings during the project planning and approval process to address
issues the public or authorities may have;
 Ensure that any required landscaping trees, bushes, flowers are suitable for the local
environment;
 Ensure that the planting meets electrical operation requirements e.g. that trees will not infringe
electrical clearances or create potential security risks to electrical equipment from falling or from
invasive root growth;
 Ensure appropriate ground preparation before planting and specify any necessary irrigation
requirements; and
 Provide input into the design of hard landscaping features such as oil retention bunds or
enclosures and provision for handling of storm water effluent especially during torrential rain or
flash flood scenarios.
Quality Control
 Ensure that appropriate quality control measures are in place and are followed throughout the
design process.
Health and Safety in Design

 Ensure that the substation installation is designed so that it can be constructed, operated,
maintained and demolished safely.
60
Procurement
 Ensure the most cost-effective purchase of equipment and services. An important aspect of the
procurement process is to determine the appropriate procurement strategy particularly in
relation to whether materials should be bought on a project basis or alternatively on long-term,
maybe 5 years, framework contracts which facilitate standardisation.
4.3 DESIGN PROCESS

An example of an outline design process for a new substation is shown below in Figure 4-1 which is
followed by comments and clarifications on the individual stages shown on the flow chart which include
references to other chapters in the brochure. These chapters provide more detailed descriptions of the
individual items or project stages. This flow chart is based on a flow chart from CIGRE Brochure 161
‘Guidelines for Design of Outdoor AC Substations’ [9].
While this flow chart shows the design process for a new substation a similar process can be used for
design of extensions or of changes to existing substations. The initial stages would be a little different
in that the system planning input is still required but the outcome would lead to a requirement for an
extension or uprating or reconfiguration of an existing substation and then into the design concept step.
From this stage the process is identical to that required for a new substation although less effort may
be needed in some steps.
This process is focused on a single substation but it is unlikely that work on only one substation in a
network is being planned at any particular time. All work, whether this is new substations or extensions
or asset renewal or maintenance, being planned across a network should be coordinated into an overall
plan which optimises the use of various resources and minimises the required outages.
A more detailed version which shows a possible approach to the sequencing of the various design
activities and the interactions between the various parties involved in the design process is given in
Appendix D.
General comments
An important feature of a good and cost-effective design process is that it is carried out in defined steps
with the provision of control or review points at appropriate points in the process. These review points
ensure that design requirements are being met and that any initial assumptions, initial or discovered
risks or proposals for design changes are being evaluated and finalised in an appropriate and controlled
manner which considers as far as reasonably possible the potential impacts of risks or of proposed
design changes. This is particularly important in the case of proposed changes to existing approved
standard designs.
Check lists and process procedure documents should be used to ensure that all required process steps
are implemented.
It would be easy to think that a small extension project in an existing substation would not require the
same level of design process as that required for a new substation. However, this approach would be
mistaken as brownfield substation projects can easily require as much, if not more, design effort that a
greenfield project.
This is due to the constraints involved such as:
 Limited layout space;
 Construction work in proximity to energised equipment;
 The need for planning to minimise the outages required in the existing installation;
 The challenges involved in interfacing with existing control and protection designs and
equipment technologies; and
 Limited availability of good as-built records that could give rise to hidden obstacles and
underground services.
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System Planning Process
New Substation
No
Required?
Yes
Outline High Level

Requirements
(including general location)
Technical, environmental,
commercial policies
Concept Design and

Outline Scope
Investigate site options

(including public
consultation)
Feedback for future

Prepare high level layouts projects and standard
designs
Achieve required permits
Project scope, cost

estimates, programme Technical and commercial
(Technical and commercial review
approval)
Secondary system detail

Primary detail design
design
(including material order)
(including material order)
Civil, structural,
architectural and
landscape/environmental
design
Prepare physical &

electrical installation
drawings
Handover & As-built

Construction Commissioning
Records
Figure 4-1 – Outline design process for New Substations
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Substation design tends to be an iterative process where an initial design is proposed and this is then
modified to meet particular site conditions, access requirements, cost constraints and other aspects until
an optimum design is reached. A good design process will ensure that these iterations are carried out
in a controlled manner to minimise wasted effort or unexpected changes.
It should also be noted that while a strict linear process could help to ensure that no rework is required
this approach will tend to result in long project timeframes so normally a certain amount of activities
will be carried out in parallel to shorten project timelines. This is most likely the case in relation to the
interaction between the detail design stages and the material specification and procurement stages.
However this process must be managed carefully to ensure that inter-disciplinary impacts are checked
at appropriate stages and that procurement decisions are subject to appropriate technical and
commercial approval.
Often initial assumptions must be made where a designer interfaces with other disciplines to allow
design work to start. For example, overhead line details may not be available until quite far into a
substation design and construction process and a discrepancy into the location and orientation of a line
end mast could mean the intended design of the connection between the end mast and the substation
may no longer be feasible and require expensive and time-consuming rework. Another common source
of interface errors is the interface between the physical and civil/structural designers.
The overall design process must ensure that any initial design assumptions are checked and verified
before final construction drawings are issued as this area is a common, and possibly the most common,
source of design errors. Designers should not assume that checking the design is the end of the matter.
The design process must also ensure that any critical dimensions or installation details e.g. the correct
orientation of current transformers are checked as soon as possible after installation of the particular
item so that the impact of any installation or construction errors can be reviewed to determine the
consequential impact and come up with an appropriate solution.
It is particularly important to that time is taken to ensure that any proposed design changes, perhaps
especially those which appear to have minor impact, are fully reviewed to assess the impact of the
changes and to pick up any untended consequences, i.e. always stop and think.
In recent years the design software tools available to designers have improved with the development
of physical 3D modelling tools and electrical modelling tools. These tools automate some design checks
and facilitate the checking of design interface between the various design disciplines. These deliver
efficiency gains compared to the effort required to manually check details on 2D drawings or electrical
schematic diagrams and connection lists. These tools are not cheap, but if used regularly on a large
enough workload can considerably improve the accuracy and speed of delivery of the design outputs.
Alongside these tools is a developing trend to use the BIM (Building Information Model) approach to
add asset management information to the models with the intention of developing a full digital copy of
the physical installation which can provide a single source of all information associated with the asset.
However, as mentioned above, these tools can be quite expensive both in relation to initial purchase
costs both for the software and also for the high-end hardware which is required for them to run
effectively but also in relation to the ongoing software and hardware maintenance costs. The design
process can be (and has been) carried out effectively with basic 2D CAD tools so a careful cost-
effectiveness review should be carried out beforehand if considering adopting these new design tools.
Design process is relatively independent of the type of procurement process being used. The roles
described may be carried out by different people or organisations but some version of the roles
themselves and the interaction between them is still required for a successful design process.
Further details with regard to each of stages can be found in the chapters in this brochure covering
design philosophy, asset management, equipment selection, siting, constructability and access,
operability and maintainability, safety and environment considerations as well as procurement of
substations
System Planning Process

This is the ongoing process carried out by system operators which looks into the future for a defined
period (maybe 10 or 15 years or even longer) on a rolling basis to assess what changes will be required
to the system to meet envisaged demands, e.g. load growth, increased short-circuit levels, introduction
63
of distributed generation, reliability improvements, distributed energy resources (DER) and renewable
feed in management systems (FIM).
Outline High Level Requirements including general location

The outputs from the system planning process could include requirements for new substation in
particular general locations or for extensions, augmentation or refurbishment to existing substations.
Concept Design and Outline Scope

Expenditure of effort and money at the project definition stages is particularly important in minimising
changes and rework at later stages of the project. For example, a preliminary study could be conducted
to define the planning principles and demonstrate feasibility of the project. Several variants of the
substation may be compared against each other. Then more detailed designs and cost estimates could
be prepared for a small selection of the original high level options (FEED process).
In recent years this process has become more formally implemented as an ‘Optioneering’ stage for the
assessment of alternatives which covers topics such as:
 Review of locations/access/constraints;
 Configurations/grid topology;
 Technology selection;
 Line/feeder selection/interface;
 Preferred options;
 Cost estimation (construction and life cycle considerations);
 HAZOP (Hazard and Operability) study;
 HSEQ (Health/Safety/Environment/Quality) assessment;
 Energy consumption and greenhouse gas impact;
 Material and water consumption;
 Programme implications;
 Operational impact;
 Logistic requirements;
 Operability assessment;
 Expansion/contraction/relocation considerations; and
 Risk assessment and risk management perhaps using a Risk Register.
The degree of Optioneering used should be appropriate to the complexity of the particular project, i.e.
a full Optioneering process could be excessive and spend money and time for little benefit for many
planned projects. A formal Optioneering type approach is also a good input into the development of
standard designs.
Preparation of an initial scope considers design inputs, planning considerations and inputs, design
assumptions and non-negotiables, physical constraints (e.g. access) and preparation of a preliminary
Single Line Diagram.
Technical, Environmental, Commercial Policies

The asset owner’s technical, environmental and commercial policies must be followed in creating the
design concept and scope. They also feed into the material and installation procurement.
An input into the initial stages of any project is consideration of the use of design standards and of
standard designs which, for many projects, can remove the need for much early stage design work as
the review of design options will have been carried out during the development of the standards. See
CIGRE Brochure 389 ‘Combining Standardisation with Innovation’ which provides useful information on
64
this subject [2]. Use of standard designs or standard material can provide considerable long-term asset
management benefits.
It should be remembered that selection of an EPC or turnkey approach for project delivery does not
necessarily preclude the use of standard designs.
Investigate site options including public consultation.
The design process should include procedures to standardise how public consultation is carried out.
Investigate site options including public consultation

The design process should include procedures to standardise how public consultation is carried out.
Possible approaches are:
 Use of company communication or public relations experts to guide the process, make initial
contacts, plan the meetings, deliver outcomes;
 Ensure a joint approach with all company stakeholders, i.e., in addition to substation designers,
include civils, environmentalist, real estate reps, lines designer, landscapers and others;
 Present proposed project with examples of similar installations, photos, graphics, maps to
engage the public;
 Ensure that contact details of all who make contact are collected so that so that ongoing
information and progress details can be provided to attendees; and
 Research and follow best practices used by other successful companies.
Prepare high-level layouts

The results from the public consultation process are reviewed to consider whether the project can
proceed or needs to be sent back to the design concept stage for a further design iteration.
If the project is approved to proceed further, then high level designs are finalised to the level required
for the relevant permitting processes.
Achieve required permits

The design process should include procedures to standardise how any required permitting process is
carried out. Permitting requirements are highly dependent on the locale and are usually left up to those
with the specific expertise in these matters (such as the Environmental Specialist) with technical input
from the designer as required. This is just to add more to the activity itself and to the designers
somewhat limited (although needed at times) role.
Project scope, cost estimates, programme and commercial approval
Following the initial design stages described above the proposed preferred solution is detailed further
and the project scope, cost estimates, programme is prepared. Engineering check lists should be used
to ensure that all relevant issues are picked up and considered during the project scoping and
preliminary design process.
In recent years, similarly to the Optioneering process described above, this process has become more
formally implemented as an ‘FEED (Front-End Engineering Design) and Scope Development stage which
develops solutions to a predetermined accuracy for final consideration. This stage can include
preparation of technical specifications and development of tender enquiry packages. This approach
may be particularly relevant where an EPC or Turnkey approach is being planned for a major project to
minimise the likelihood of costly design changes during the execution phase of the project.
Again, similarly to the Optioneering process described above the degree of formal FEED used should be
appropriate to the complexity of the particular project, i.e. a full FEED process could be excessive and
spend money and time for little benefit for many planned projects. Use of standard designs may also
remove the need for a full FEED stage but where it is planned to use standard designs some time should
still be allocated to ensuring that the standard design is suitable for the requirements of the particular
project.
65
Both the Optioneering and FEED formal approaches are particularly useful in ensuring that sufficient
time is allowed for clearly understanding the problem to be solved rather than going too quickly to the
first ‘obvious’ solution and hence missing a more appropriate approach. This information should be
robustly reviewed and challenged at the final approval stage before capital approval is given.
This process does take time. In emergency cases it is always possible to shorten the process or omit
some steps but this should only be done in full awareness of the risks associated with any short-cuts
and with full assessment and formal acceptance of the impact of these risks if the potential risk event
was to occur. The old saying “more haste, less speed” should be remembered.
Detail design work only starts after this final approval. By then conducting an appropriate design review
at each appropriate stage, rework can be avoided.
Primary detail design

The primary design activities described above are carried out with particular concern for achievement
of high voltage electrical performance requirements, safety of operation and maintenance personnel
and for physical design interfaces with civil, structural, architectural and landscape/environmental
designers.
Secondary system detail design

The secondary design activities described above are carried out with particular concern for management
of electrical design interfaces, safety of operation and maintenance personnel and for management of
interfaces with individual secondary devices, e.g. power supply voltage, achievement of required
redundancy levels, appropriate separation of various DC supplies and management of interfaces with
remote control centres.
Civil, structural, architectural and landscape/environmental design
It is important to ensure that the Civil, structural, architectural and landscape/environmental designers
have a clear understanding of the substation physical design requirements and that the various design
interfaces are carefully managed.
Physical & electrical installation drawings

A check list of all design deliverables required for construction should be used to ensure that all
necessary design information is delivered at the appropriate time.
Construction
It is essential that construction is carried out strictly in accordance with the approved designs. No
changes should be made on site without these changes having been referred back to the designers for
official design sign-off. Exact details of any deviations from the issued designs must be fully marked up
on the design records as they occur to ensure that accurate information is available for commissioning
and for inclusion in the final as-built records.
Commissioning
It is essential that commissioning staff have a clear understanding of the design requirements and are
provided with the appropriate approved reference information. They should not make design changes
without consultation with the designers and any changes made should be accurately marked up to
facilitate the as-built process.
Handover & As-built Records

Given the potential lengthy service life of a substation (50+ years) the importance of a good project
close-out process can often be overlooked. In the interest of long term asset management it is essential
that design changes and details of all equipment and materials used are fully recorded in a coherent set
of as-built records for use by operations and maintenance staff and as starting points for any future
changes or extensions to the substation. Attention to detail is important, e.g. if a different route was
taken to install buried cables or earthing conductors for ease of construction, it must be documented,
even if it was just a few metres or if a corner was cut a little. This would prevent a dig-in for future
66
expansion work. Digging into cables would cause an inadvertent outage of part or the entire substation
which could be easily avoided with an accurate as-built record. Similarly small ‘insignificant’ wiring
changes can cause problems during commissioning or during subsequent changes to the substation if
the changes are not accurately recorded.
As the responsibility for this recording falls on the construction and commissioning personnel it is
important that they are properly motivated to carry out this important task.
Technical and commercial review

A technical and commercial review should always be carried out at the end of each project in the interest
of continuous improvement for future projects to identify both what went well and what did not go so
well. These results should then be fed back for use in subsequent projects.
The outputs from the technical review should be filtered to identify items which are serious enough to
require immediate change and items which could lead to an improved design but could be put aside for
future action in association with other changes. This will ensure that changes to standard designs are
done in a periodic controlled manner rather than having frequent incremental changes.
4.4 USING BEST PRACTICES IN DESIGN PROCESS TO ACHIEVE LOW-COST

SOLUTIONS
Use of a good design process maximises the chances of achieving the lowest initial and life cycle costs
of a new substation. Recommendations to achieve the objectives of value-added engineering and fit-
for-service substations are addressed throughout this brochure. However particular recommendations
on low-cost solutions are addressed here.
It is important to first identify where all the costs are generally incurred for a typical new greenfield
substation, then to recognise where greatest expenditures occur, and finally determine where and how
the most cost savings can be realised.
Typical substation installation costs

To analyse typical costs, a HV/MV transmission-to-distribution substation which is probably the most
common type of substation installed for basic electrification to serve average residential, commercial
and industrial customers is reviewed below. The details have been taken from a recent utility example
in the US and server as a handy reference.
For this analysis, assume the electrical requirements needed by the Planning Engineers will be fulfilled
by a substation with the following conceptual scope:
 Purchase property considering the following for the ultimate installation:
 a load centre and site located in a rural area just beginning to develop;
 the need in the future for a four-transformer substation.
 Design using AIS with internal company resources (electrical, civil, structural, surveying, and
others);
 Construct using contract labour consisting of the following for the initial installation:
 two 138 kV transmission line terminals for a line looped through a single 138 kV busbar;
 one 138/12.5 kV LTC power transformer protected and switched by a circuit switcher;
and
 main and reserve busbars for three 12.5 kV underground distribution line terminals.
Table 4-1 indicates the major costs incurred based on an actual project meeting the above scope of
work. The cost breakdown is by major cost categories with actual costs and percentages of the total
cost. Applicable chapters of this Technical Brochure providing detailed information on each category
are listed. A more detailed discussion of possible low-cost solutions follows this section.
67
Table 4-1 – Summary of Substation Installation Cost
Cost Breakdown of a Typical 138/12.5 kV 12/16/20 MVA Substation

with Technical Brochure chapters recommended for more information
Cost Actual Percent of

General Comments Reference Chapter
Category Cost Total Cost
Property $ 204,000 8% Highly dependent on locale 6&8
Engineering $ 246,000 10 % Relatively lower cost item 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 11 & 12
Material $ 816,000 32 % Usually one of the highest cost 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 & 11
Labour $ 1,004,000 40 % Usually one of the highest cost 6, 7, 8, 10 & 11
Overheads $ 263,000 10 % Highly dependent on organisation 3, 10, 11 & Note 2
Total $ 2,533,000 100% N/A All

Notes:
1. Costs are in US dollars from a 2000 project escalated to the current year 2018.
2. Out of scope and not addressed in detail in this guideline.
3. All costs are representative only and should in no way set an expectation for other projects.
Typically, at least in developed economies, labour and material are the highest expenditures and
relatively equal in magnitude. Whatever can be done to lower these costs, in an effective and justified
manner, will have the most effect in yielding low-cost substations and design is frequently aimed at
minimising the amount of site work required. However this should not always be assumed to be the
most appropriate approach as it may be desirable to use design approaches which provide more
employment during construction, e.g. the use of bolted lattice support structures in comparison to the
use of tubular structures. Of course, in a typical example of the trade-offs required in substation design,
the security implications of such an approach would also have to be considered.
Note that engineering costs are relatively low. This does not mean that attempting to achieve savings
in engineering should be ignored. Use of standardisation can be particularly important in this regard.
Costs related to property are highly dependent on the location of the substation. Costs related to
overheads are generally highly dependent on the type of organisation and its operational and financial
management. As with engineering, these other cost categories that depend on other influences should
still be regarded as targets for innovative ways to seek savings.
Another good example of a cost effective substation has been provided for the CIGRE Paris Session 47
by a group of authors from Brazil which defines an integrated compact substation – SECI [10].
Recommendations on low-cost solutions for substation design

Recommendation for cost-saving solutions to substation design activities are provided below based on
the broad cost categories used in the above simple analysis. Keep in mind that the actual purchasing
of property, procurement of materials, construction of the substation, and management of overheads
are all out of the scope of this brochure.
However, the design of a substation can affect the aforementioned categories and thus affects their
cost. So anything that can be done in the way of design work aimed at minimising the costs of these
related areas will contribute to a low-cost substation.
4.4.2.1 Property
 Minimising total area required while maintaining all necessary space for grading, access, oil
containment and noise abatement not only lowers initial cost, but also ongoing cost such as
property tax and maintenance of the grounds;
 Carefully select all potential sites in the general selected location to ensure widest assortment
of possible sites;
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 Thoroughly evaluate each one in the field with accurate measurements and detailed
assessment, not just on paper, to avoid errors and wasted time in pursuing a termination
possibility (the number that should be evaluated is a project-specific cost-effectiveness
decision);
 Following input from all project stakeholders (transmission, distribution, civils, environmental
engineer and others), prioritise the sites in order of preference to attempt purchasing a site in
the best logical order;
 Compare development costs for each site since the lowest priced site may require the costliest
grading, longest access road, or more stringent security measures; and
 Ensure that the total project cost is included in the comparison since a low-cost site may have
the longest transmission line or longest distribution lines.
4.4.2.2 Engineering:
 Thoroughly study and understand the proposed project plan to know where costs can be saved;
 Study the proposed electrical configuration (i.e. from single busbar to double busbar double
breaker). These grow in complexity and cost and use of configurations which are over-designed
for the actual requirements should be resisted;
 Study the proposed physical arrangement to determine where costs can be saved by optimum
location of equipment (e.g. orienting the footprint on the property to optimise the layout for
transmission or distribution circuit access, access road approach, grading, and future expansion;
or optimising control building placement to minimise cable runs; or shaping the boundary fence
to minimise ground preparation, e.g. grading on steep terrain, in parts of the switchyard which
will not be used;
 Use design standards and modular designs wherever and whenever possible, which are proven
cost savers in engineering time, equipment cost and especially in site installation time. Modular
components that are pre-constructed off-site can reduce overall project costs and delivery time.
The benefits of modular designs however should always be reviewed to ensure that the design
is cost-effective for the particular projects;
 If design standards and modular designs are not available, then it is recommended to develop
them; even if it must be done on an as-needed case-by-case basis over time, they eventually
will be available for use;
 Ensure that design teams are appropriately structured, e.g. composed of new hires, mid-career
designers, and more experienced mentors to transfer knowledge for effective training and
development; the more designers learn from others, the less mistakes will be made that require
time, effort, and money to correct; and
 Communicate every lesson learned from the execution of every project to the entire engineering
staff; leverage the knowledge gained so as not to repeat costly mistakes made by others.
4.4.2.3 Materials:
 Adopt industry standard equipment ratings and built them into your design standards;
 Use well-prepared material specifications covering every aspect of the equipment possible.
Specifications must consider the local availability of materials where relevant. These can assist
in minimising delays when components are urgently needed;
 Particular environmental requirements, e.g. in relation to corrosion protection requirements
must be rigorously policed with manufacturers as they tend to resist provision of standards
beyond their ‘standard’ provision or agree to requirements during tender negotiations which
may not be passed on to the factories;
 Seek out reputable, tested and approved manufacturers that can fulfil equipment needs;
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 Use of formal competitive procurement practices; evaluate bids openly with a team for both
technical and economic acceptability in accordance with declared procedures and award
contracts based on transparent award criteria;
 Use the legal department for approving contract terms and conditions as designers are not
normally qualified in this area and can make costly mistakes in this realm;
 Award purchase orders not just to the lowest bidder, but to the lowest technically acceptable
bidder; this is the way to save cost in the long run. The old advice that “the bitter taste of poor
quality and performance lasts long, long after the sweet taste of low bids have quickly faded
away” still holds true;
 Establish multi-year blanket framework purchasing agreements with approved suppliers to take
advantage of pricing by buying in bulk quantity, and to have manufacture’s equipment
outline/schematic drawings to prepare design drawings without waiting for various suppliers to
send them for every project, and to breed familiarity for the field personnel with the devices for
their maintenance;
 Performance must be policed and appropriate action taken if issues arise with supplier
performance. Depending on the risk associated with non-performance on a particular item it
may be appropriate to include a second-source supplier in the framework contract;
 Note that these suggestions can be applied to the smallest material items such as connectors
to the largest equipment items such as power transformers;
 Incorporate material into the design standards so that it becomes part of the benefits reaped
from the use of design standards and modular designs; and
 If appropriate, enable the creation of material requirements plans (MRP) or material forecasts
from the bill of materials in the design standard program to streamline the ordering of material;
if automated, this can save design time and money spent on the preparation of material orders.
4.4.2.4 Construction:
 Use well prepared service specifications covering every aspect of the construction possible;
 Thorough and accurate drawings will enable the contractor’s estimator to produce a thorough
and accurate bid which translates into manageable construction activities without the
unexpected cost of change orders. Use of sophisticated modelling software can facilitate this
but potentially at considerable cost;
 Provide subsurface core boring data used during geotechnical surveys for foundation design to
the bidders to enable an accurate assessment of possible rock removal and the associated costs;
 Thorough and accurate drawings will enable the contractor’s craft labour forces to construct the
substation to meet the functions requirements set forth by the owner’s planners with minimal
time wasted in interpreting vague depictions; every error and omission on a drawing translates
into time and money lost on the job site; and
 Designers must provide construction support to authorise proposed field changes.
4.4.2.5 Overheads:
Even though overheads (e.g. Allowance for funds-used-during-construction or AFUDC, interest,
administration, management, storeroom overheads, corporate overheads and others) are beyond
the control of designers, if obvious areas of savings are discovered, they should be directed to the
appropriate personnel through the proper channels to implement. This is one of the big benefits of
framework procurement contracts as they save the cost of bidding and issuing individual purchase
orders if a blanket framework purchasing agreement was prepared once for a multi-year contract
so that the designers merely release the equipment for a project when needed. Although small,
70
the savings in supply chain man-hours will accumulate to a large amount when adding in the man-
hours saved by the designers too.
Project duration can have a big impact on overhead costs; use of a good design process will
minimise the chances of delays beyond the planned project duration. Likewise, use of a good
project management process will minimise delays and cost in execution, and a timely closeout will
shut off the accumulation of overheads on the project budget.
4.4.2.6 Project and design review

An appropriate degree of breakdown of costs incurred on substation projects can further pin-point
specific areas where costs can be saved for individual utilities or consultants. Typically this is done
by accounting methods where cost accounts are assigned to finer levels of activities and material
to capture their corresponding expenditures at a finer level. Knowing what is spent at finer levels
allows the organisation to see where potential cost saving can be attained. For example, finer cost
accounts capturing primary electrical versus secondary electrical versus civil versus structural
engineering costs can pin-point where the most design costs are being incurred. Then review of
processes or consideration of the use of different or more sophisticated possible design aids can be
explored (e.g. engineering software packages or professional training) for those targeted disciplines
to reduce their design time and save costs.
In summary, any cost saving no matter how small is worth pursuing especially if it is an improvement
which can be implemented over a wider range of projects. In this case small savings become cumulative
and can become very worthwhile. These savings could for example allow development funds to be
spread to cover additional projects which could be vital for those people who have been waiting for
electric service all of their life.
4.5 SURVEY RESULTS ON DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION & MAINTENANCE COSTS

This section contains the results of the WG survey data collected and analysed regarding the cost factors
related to design. Figure 4-2 depicts the risk factors that were raised by utilities that responded to the
technical survey which is described in detail in Appendix D.
Availability of land and experienced staff rate as the most significant risk factors. Availability of land is
increasingly a universal problem for substation designers which can only be handled by designers who
are aware of the solutions available and are creative in applying them. This can be facilitated by good
consultation processes with the local community combined with a willingness to consider ameliorating
solutions to the issues raised. The experienced staff consideration requires good training and
development processes (see Chapter 12 – Training and Development of Substation Practitioners) as
there is a limited pool of such designers available worldwide. Well trained, competent and experienced
personnel throughout the entire substation delivery process has kept on recurring as a central theme
to the delivery of low cost substations. Utilities should take note that investment in well-structured
learning and development initiatives are a key enabler to low cost substation solutions.
Any possible training opportunity must be taken e.g. including provision of training in all material supply
and turnkey or EPC contracts. Provision could also be made for requiring the use of a certain proportion
of local labour in installation contracts for development purposes. Another approach is to use
manufacturer’s supervisors to supervise the utility’s staff in installation or maintenance work until
sufficient experience is built up for the work to be carried out without such supervision. Even if the
normal construction model is turnkey or EPC there is a case for at least a proportion of construction
work to be carried out by utility staff to ensure that a base level of knowledge is available in-house for
maintenance or repair work.
Purchase of main components was also valued as important. This highlights the role that effective
equipment selection combined with good procurement plays in the achievement of low-cost installations.
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12
10
No. Times Identified 8
Time to complete designs is normally

Software and Design tools
Availability of land
Outage constraints
Experinced staff
purchase of main components
Clearance ssues & space availability,

Changing project scope/requirements
procedures
Lack of accurate information

Obtaining Approvals, public and
cost of new infrastructure,
adequate standards,
very compressed
government
interfaces
Risks
Greenfield substations Brownfield substations
Figure 4-2 - Risk Factors for Design (from Survey Question 5.2)
4.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON DESIGN PROCESS

A good design process is a tool which facilitates the aim of this Technical Brochure, i.e. the development
of the most cost-effective final design of substation which is built in the most efficient manner. Inputs
are needed from so many parties to design and build a substation that management of the timing and
content of the interfaces between these parties is essential to ensure that the most appropriate design
is delivered in the most cost-effective way.
A documented design process identifies all of the relevant contributors, defines the deliverables required
from each of them in the order in which they are required and provides a formalised way of managing
the interfaces between them. There is no single design process available which caters exactly for all
requirements but the outline and detailed process examples given in this chapter provide a basis for
any organisation responsible for design of a substation to develop a process suitable for their own
particular organisation and for their particular design requirements.
A good process defines responsibilities clearly and also includes robust challenge and verification points
at appropriate stages. It minimises the chances of group-think acting against an optimum outcome. It
also recognises that no-one is infallible and that every deliverable must be checked by someone other
than the deliverable producer. The design process also contains change control mechanisms to guard
against hasty responses to the inevitable unforeseen challenges which will arise during a project leading
to a sub-optimum outcome. It is worth remembering the saying “order, counter-order, disorder”. The
early stages of a project provide the greatest opportunity to influence the final outcome and the design
process must put sufficient weight on the initial planning and initial design decisions as any changes
late in the project will have a disproportionate impact on project costs and delivery timeline.
As mentioned in a number of areas in the brochure the appropriate use of standardisation can have a
major impact in promoting cost-effective delivery of a substation, particularly in the context of a major
programme of substation construction. If standardisation is being used then it is essential that the
design process includes an appropriate process for managing changes in the standards as an
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uncontrolled change process will negate most of the benefits expected from the use of design standards
or standard designs in the first place.
A good design process is not a panacea which will guarantee a successful delivery of a cost-effective
substation but it is an essential enabler of such an outcome.
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5. EQUIPMENT SELECTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary objective of this chapter is to show how to optimise substation equipment selection in such
a way that it can be seen as contributing to cost saving. Cost of a substation involves not only the initial
investment for purchasing but also considerable operation and maintenance costs during a certain
service life. The design of a high-voltage substation should achieve the fulfilling of the intended
performance requirements of the network planners and substation engineers for the safe and reliable
operation and maintenance of the equipment. The biggest portion of the substation equipment cost is
made up by the major equipment such as transformers, reactors, switchgear, instrument transformers,
insulators and capacitor banks.
Thus, it is suggested to apply the “Pareto Principle” of 80/20 - perform the 20% of effort that would
return 80% of the benefit and focus on optimising the selection of this equipment to achieve the goal
of low cost substation designs. This does not mean that the other equipment and materials should be
ignored during the cost optimisation process. The main aspects influencing the decisions on the
selection of substation equipment are the following:
 The climatic and environmental conditions of the substation location;
 The network operating and fault condition parameters, such as voltage, load current, magnitude
and duration of fault currents, insulation coordination parameters;
 The location of the substation in the electricity grid, i.e. is it a main transmission substation or
a distribution substation connecting to a customer load point;
 System operations and maintenance requirements; and
 The decision of single-phase or three-phase operation. High voltage power systems are
generally operated as a three phase system, and the imbalance that will occur when operating
equipment in a single phase mode must be considered.
The term cost, here, is associated with the energy transmitted, energy lost and the availability of the
circuits along with the service life. Lifetime maintenance costs should be considered. It is possible to
build a substation with low initial cost, high reliability (if maintained) but requires frequent maintenance
because of the choice of materials and equipment. Low-cost does not mean a smaller initial investment
followed by frequent failures or interruptions of service along the life. This, on the contrary may
represent a high-cost project.
In many developing countries the culture of focusing on a project as a long-term investment is not a
high priority. The focus is mainly in the initial investment and this may act against the aim of a low cost
life-cycle installation.
The design of a high-voltage substation includes consideration for the safe and reliable operation and
maintenance of the equipment. Switching equipment is used to provide isolation, no load and load
switching and the interruption of fault currents. The magnitude and duration of the load and fault
currents is a significant factor in the selection of the equipment to be used. System operations and
maintenance must be considered when equipment is selected. Investing additional funds to have the
ability to monitor the performance and the condition of the equipment represents a beneficial “low cost”
action. It enables optimisation of the operational and maintenance costs by enabling condition based
maintenance of equipment.
An example which is good strategy for a low-cost solution is the use of point-on-wave switches (POW).
These are additional devices used with circuit-breakers typically in systems of voltages 230 kV and
above. They utilise controlled switching to minimise or eliminate switching transients by closing the
circuit-breaker contacts at an appropriate point of the wave. They are mainly used for controlled
operations of energisation of no-load lines, energisation of capacitive loads and to avoid inrush currents.
The reduction of useful life of components associated with overloads (over temperatures) is something
relatively easy to estimate. In part this is why IEC standards bring tables for loading of power
transformers to avoid passing certain limits of temperature. However, it is very rare to find calculations
to assess the loss of life caused by temporary over voltages. Everybody agrees that they cause a
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negative impact but do not assess it. For a 345 kV system the price of a POW switching device (~
USD35.000) is relatively small by comparison to the price of a circuit-breaker (~USD220.000). However,
if one considers using the same POW device associated to a 138 kV circuit-breaker (~USD70.000) most
utilities will not opt for POW due to its relatively high costs compared to the circuit-breaker. It should
be noted that application of point-on-wave synchronisers may require the expertise of experienced
protection engineers for the configuration. This may yield marginal design costs by comparison to
conventional equipment.
For lower-voltage distribution systems, a significant choice is the decision of single-phase or three-phase
operation. High voltage power systems are generally operated as a three-phase system, and the
imbalance that will occur when operating equipment in a single-phase mode must be considered. Areas
with little or no existing network can employ technologies such as SWER (Single Wire Earth Return).
The design approach for a low-cost substation would have to be different from the design used for
multiple transmission substations in a major power system of a large utility. Large utilities usually
standardise equipment current ratings and short-circuit current ratings, after including safety margins.
One likely reason is because the marginal cost associated with the higher-rated equipment is often
offset by the volume discount for bulk orders. This equipment would then be applied across the
network, or across different circuits of the same substation, even if they are over-rated in some
applications. There are benefits in this approach in that the equipment would be largely standardised
across the power system, and maintenance could be simplified across a finite population of similar
equipment.
The key aspect is that, if the primary objective is to attain a lower cost of energy, more time must be
spent during the preliminary or concept design phase to calculate very accurate load flows in the circuits
and busbars, as well as short-circuit currents, over the lifetime of the substation. These values would
then have to be applied without adding safety margins. In this way, it would be possible to select
equipment which will result in the lowest OEM standard ratings.
Ideally the best solution would be to perform a technical economical assessment considering the
investment to be made, failure rates and other factors. In real life, what is frequently expedited, by the
often-smaller engineering teams, is just to follow the knowledge of the more experienced engineers
and previous experience of the companies without much questioning. Thinking more, planning more,
and training people to have a wider view of the balance between cost and availability are keys for low-
cost applications.
Another important aspect for low-cost is having a good understanding of the equipment technical
standards. Following just one type of technical standard as the IEC ones make the selection of
equipment easier. It is essential to have a good understanding of general concepts as presented in IEC
61936-1, IEC 62271-1 and 307; IEC 60865-1 and 2; IEC TR 60943 and IEC 60071 1 [11] [12] [13] [14]
[15] [16].
Using equipment previously tested and having a test report from a third party testing laboratory is a
straight-forward procedure. In many developing countries testing laboratories are not as available, and
this can present a barrier or increased costs. Over the past 20 years, testing and performance
simulations are frequently used and may help in the specification of equipment as well as reduce the
cost of substation delivery, especially in the case of developing countries. There is an increasing reliance
upon simulated testing as a means to verify equipment specification. Testing of equipment is a useful
approach where there is little engineering experience. This requirement needs to be factored in at the
tender stage and made part of the assessment criteria.
5.2 THE NETWORK OPERATING AND FAULT CONDITION PARAMETERS

In an electrical power system, in addition to the normal operating conditions, there are frequently
abnormal situations such as:
 Long-duration overcurrent caused by electrical system overloads (tens of seconds or minutes);
 Short-time overcurrent caused by short-circuits (mostly <1 second);
 Temporary long-duration over voltages (seconds or tens of seconds) caused by disturbances in
the system; and
76
 Very short-duration over voltages (seconds) such as lightning impulses and switching
impulses.
Accelerated ageing or even immediate failures in the installation may occur due to the electrical and
mechanical effects caused by these conditions.
For overloads, the temperature of equipment parts may increase to levels higher than the temperature
rise limits of conductors and insulating materials used. IEC 60943 [15] is a complete document to
reference these concepts for design.
For short-circuit over currents there are two effects:
 High temperatures which can anneal copper and aluminium parts or even melt components;
and
 Large mechanical stresses caused by electrodynamic effects of short-circuit currents.
One must also consider the effects of internal and external power arcs. Internal arcs occur in medium
and low-voltage cubicles when such equipment is energised, and there is a breakdown of insulation due
to environmental effects or a foreign metallic object (possibly being left inside the cubicle). For external
arcs, it is easy to see the so-called power arcs in strings of insulators that occur in transmission towers.
These strong arcs can puncture and melt important mechanical parts causing them to fail and the cable
to drop.
Long-duration (temporary) over voltages (50-60 Hz) can occur with relative frequency, when one of the
phases in three-phase circuits is opened during a fault whilst the other phases remain closed.
The transient over voltages encountered in the electrical systems are those caused by opening and
closing circuit-breakers and disconnectors and the transients due to lightning discharges to which all
equipment installed outside may be subjected.
The variables for reaching a low-cost strategy are to control the above effects above as well as possible
with the minimum expenses. The key factor is to have a good knowledge of the local conditions to
which the equipment will be subjected and to specify the equipment properly for the conditions based
upon relevant IEC standards. It appears quite simple, however many companies simply process new
projects based on what was done in the past on other projects for other locations. If this is the case,
one may be neglecting the low-cost approach.
Current ratings, continuous and overload conditions

Figure 5-1 presents a typical final decision sketch to enable the selection of the rated currents of a new
substation. To arrive at this figure, many calculations were performed with specialised modelling
software. There are many software programs for this purpose, many of which are freely available over
the Internet. The experience of the planning team is used to select the most common or credible
scenarios which can occur in the system as a consequence of the new substation.
The values of peak current need to consider the operation under normal conditions and emergency
loads during network peak demand under credible contingencies. Based on the maximum values of
current obtained for the various configurations, considering circuits in operation during both normal and
contingency conditions, the values of the rated current of the equipment in the circuits are selected. In
this example, the middle (blue) part of substation has a maximum value of 1244 A for low load
emergency conditions; the right side (green) the maximum current is 1280 A for peak load during
emergency conditions. The next step is to select a current rating from standard ratings available in the
IEC standard, in this case 1250 A in the low load emergency condition and 1600 A for the peak load
emergency condition. Many designers would simply acquire all the equipment for 1600 A based on
experience. Unless detailed calculations were performed to conclude this, a designer could easily be
unknowingly departing from a low-cost strategy.
The key practice consists of calculating the likely current that would exist under contingency conditions,
within the anticipated horizon of operation which could span well over 30 years. The new substation
will bring future development for the region, more loads, more industries and consequently additional
pollution. It is not a precise calculation and the idea is not to incorporate significant margins or factors
due to a “lack of knowledge”. In case of doubt, round down and not up. A wise strategy is to leave
spaces for future expansion, which would cover planning oversight. It is necessary to have an open
mind and to consider that in 15 or 30 years equipment could be more advanced and possibly more
77
compact than today. The designer may consider the application of hybrid or mixed technology GIS
where AIS has been used as a conventional technology – this could provide for cost-effective uprating
down the track. Often a counter-intuitive strategy which requires careful thought and departure from
norms could provide substantial success in delivery of a low cost design strategy.
Short-circuit studies, duration of faults and over temperatures,

For short-circuit specifications everything starts with the short-circuit studies. The main sequence to
follow is essentially similar to the one explained for overloads in the previous section. The difference is
that another type of software tool is used for simulation purposes. One of the best is ATP-ATPDRAW
(other applications are available) which is freely downloadable from the Internet. All electrical engineers
and technicians who are engaged in substations should know how to perform these studies. Anything
that one could imagine doing, has probably been done before by someone else, and it is likely accessible
over the Internet. Some examples are presented in the book, “Switchgear, Busways & Isolators and
Substations and Lines Equipment” [17].
Figure 5-1 – Typical decision sketch to enable the selection of the rated currents in a new
substation
The objective of the short-circuit studies is to specify the short time and peak currents and
corresponding durations as well as the making and breaking capabilities of switchgear such as circuit-
breakers, fuses, reclosers, and all other circuit interruption devices. In these studies, the designer can
determine the X/R of circuits and L/R time constants; the short-circuit currents and their asymmetry
and peak values; the durations and the values of breaking currents at the moment of separation of the
contacts of circuit-breakers. The parameters for the transient recovery voltages (TRV), first pole to
clear factor and others relevant to the specification of circuit-breakers and other protection equipment
are also obtained. After performing the calculations the “planning team” usually prepare a table such
as in Figure 5-2. In addition to the short-circuit currents the designer will obtain the durations and first
crest values. The next step will be to specify the breaking capacities of circuit-breakers by finding the
first normalised values existing in IEC standards. In the example of Figure 5-2, these currents are 31,5
kA and 40 kA. Some companies prefer to procure all equipment to the highest value (40 kA in this
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example) despite not all circuits returning such high values. A possible reason is because the cost
associated with the higher rated equipment is often offset by the volume discount for bulk orders, and
the reduced cost of critical spares stock holding (keep only one type of equipment instead of various
different units). This is especially applicable to voltage levels of 145 kV and below. The values of the
short time withstand current are the same as for the breaking capacity.
Figure 5-2 – Selection of short-circuit currents
The decision to specify the duration of short-circuits is also very important. IEC 62271-1 [18] mentions
that standard value of rated duration of short-circuit is 1 s and, if it is necessary, a value lower or higher
than 1 s may be chosen. The recommended alternative values are 0.5 s, 2 s and 3 s. For example, if
the detailed calculations found that the maximum expected duration is 0.95 s and then it is decided to
include a safety margin of 10% then this number will become 1.05 s. However, the standard indicates
that the next rated duration is 2 s. The problem is that, for example for a disconnector, which supports
high fault currents of the order of 40, 50 or 63 kArms for 1s will in all probability not support the same
current for 2s. Thus the contacts will need reinforcement – this leads to further expense in developing
the substation.
Just using the formula presented in Equation 5-1 ( [17] pages 117-118) it would be necessary to have
a contact area 41% greater if a duration 2 s was to be used instead of 1 s. If 3 s is used, the area will
need to be 71% larger. If this concept is applied to circuit-breakers, disconnectors, current
transformers, busbars and other components in series, the costs would escalate substantially which
could lead to a significant departure from the low-cost approach.
 Adiabatic process: Q = mass x specific heat x temperature variation
 The conductor cross section shall be sufficient to avoid that conductor at an initial
temperature 1 does not reach the annealing temperature (180C for aluminium or
200C for copper)
𝐶 × 𝜌𝑑
𝐼𝐾 × 1000 × √𝑇 = 𝑄 × √4.184 × × ln[1 + (𝛼 × (𝜃𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝜃1 ))]
𝜌𝑟 × 𝛼
IK = short circuit current rms symmetrical (e.g 50 kA)

T = duration in seconds (e.g. 1 sec)
Q = conductor cross section (mm2)
C = specific heat (e.g. copper = 0.0923 cal/gm K)
 = density (eg copper = 8.9 g/cm3)
20, 1 = density at the desired temperature 20C or 1
1 and MAX = initial temperature and annealing temperature
 = temperature coefficient (e.g. copper 0.004)
Equation 5-1 – Calculation of temperature rise of conductors under short-circuit
79
Short-circuit studies and electrodynamic forces

The value of the short time withstand current is associated with the first peak which would occur during
a short-circuit ( [17] pages 125 to 138). The higher the currents and the first crest (asymmetry) are -
the higher are the forces and mechanical stresses which will act in the equipment (Figure 5-3). The
other influencing parameters are the geometry (horizontal vs. delta busbar configuration) and distances
between phases, materials used and distance between insulators. The forces and stresses are
proportional to the square of the passing current. If there are higher forces then there is a need to
have stronger supports and insulators and more insulators to support them. For equipment like a circuit-
breaker or a disconnector (not busbars), the only low-cost factors which can be controlled are the values
of the short-circuit current and its asymmetry. Hence the more precise the values of the short-circuit
currents and X/R of the circuits are calculated, the more optimised the cost of the equipment will be.
For busbar systems there are other parameters which can be optimised using a complete calculation
method and not approximation as assuming that all the conductors are parallel (Figure 5-3).
IEC 60865 [12] presents a complete calculation method for electrodynamic forces. IEC TR 62271-307
[14]. Although made for medium voltage switchgear and control gear, this is still applicable for most
types of equipment and presents all the design parameters for:
 Temperature rise calculations;
 Electric field calculations;
 Mechanical stress calculations;
 Short-circuit current calculations; and
 Internal arc pressure rise calculations.
Simulation methods and easy-to-use tools, can be used to perform such types of calculations which
contribute to consolidating the substation project and equipment specification. Through the simulation
of costly laboratory type tests, it is possible to prepare more accurate specifications avoiding the use of
onerous “safety factors”. Some examples are presented in the reports in reports within references [19]
[20].
Figure 5-3 – Electrodynamic forces in insulators and mechanical stresses in conductors during
short-circuit
Short-circuit, internal arc and interruption

The values of short-circuit currents obtained in the short-circuit studies as presented in the previous
sections can be used to specify precisely the internal-arc capabilities of cubicles, control rooms and
buildings where power arcs may occur. When rooms and buildings are designed from the beginning
to exhaust the hot gasses of internal arcs, sensible economies and gains in safety can be achieved
(Figure 5-4). Brochure CIGRE 602 / 2014 [21] is the most complete document in this theme.
80
Deflector
Duct
Cotton indicators
(horizontal and
panel vertical)
panel
No deflector and no duct
panel
Figure 5-4 – Design options for internal arc consequences protection
5.3 CLIMATIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF THE SUBSTATION

LOCATION
Air-insulated high voltage electrical equipment (AIS) is generally covered by standards based on
assumed ambient temperatures and altitudes. Ambient temperatures are generally rated over a range
from -40˚C to +40˚C for equipment that is air insulated and dependent on ambient cooling. Ambient
temperatures above 40˚C and/or altitudes above 1000m may require derating of equipment
specifications and may therefore lead to additional cost.
At higher altitudes, air density decreases, hence the dielectric strength is also reduced, and derating of
the equipment is recommended. Phase-phase and phase-earth clearances must also be increased to
compensate for the reduction in dielectric strength of the ambient air. This results in a larger substation
footprint and higher costs.
The current ratings generally decrease at higher elevations due to the decreased density of the ambient
air, which is the cooling medium used for dissipation of the heat generated by the load losses associated
with load current levels. Equipment specified for high altitudes and/or high ambient temperatures will
in all likelihood be more expensive. Utilities whose power systems span across various altitudes, will in
all likelihood standardise on equipment that is rated for the highest altitude, and use the same
equipment at sea level. If the proposed low cost substation is situated at low altitude, there exists an
opportunity to select equipment with the lowest applicable altitude rating. The same philosophy can be
applied to ambient temperature.
Creepage distance is defined as the shortest distance, or the sum of the shortest distances, along the
contours of the external surfaces of the insulating parts of an insulator, between those parts which
normally have the operating voltage between them. Creepage distance is also a critical parameter as
it has a large influence on the power frequency flashover voltage of an insulator when its surfaces are
polluted. This key dimension is often expressed as ‘Specific Creepage Distance’ which is the total
creepage distance divided by the phase-to-phase system highest voltage and thus has the units mm/kV
(Um) [22]. The standard minimum pollution level for substations shall be specified for all equipment
whose performance is affected by pollution. Areas of light pollution requires creepage distance values
of 16mm/kV, medium pollution 20mm/kV, heavy pollution 25mm/kV and very heavy pollution 31 mm/kV
(coastal or industrial areas). The higher the creepage distance, the higher the cost of equipment. A
decision can be made by a utility to standardise on one or two creepage ratings across all sets of
equipment in order to benefit from bulk buying. This would obviously be dependent on the pollution
extremes experienced by the utility. However, if it can be ascertained that the proposed low cost
substation is in a clean environment, the cheapest option would be to choose equipment with the lowest
81
creepage value i.e. 16mm/kV. It should be noted that one option chosen by utilities to deal with
insulator pollution is periodic cleaning of insulators or the use of coatings on insulators. However, this
is a solution that may lead to increases in maintenance and increased lifecycle costs in addition to
deterioration of reliability performance. The marginal cost of increased insulation creepage is a sensible
cost savings measure over the service life of the substation.
More utilities are opting for polymeric insulation which is becoming increasingly cheaper and performs
better in a high pollution environment than traditional porcelain insulators. However, the porcelain
insulators have a distinct advantage of having higher mechanical strength which can be advantageous
if the piece of equipment is serving a secondary function as a conductor support. In this instance, there
may be a saving by reducing the number of support insulators. Furthermore, the designer needs to
account for the fact that porcelain insulation invariably outlasts the service life of the substation by a
substantial margin whilst the service life of polymeric insulation is substantially lower than that of the
primary substation equipment. This leads to the need to conduct insulation replacement during the
service life of the substation leading to increased overall lifecycle costs. The trade-off is that there is
far less likelihood of insulation breakdown and associated loss of supply arising from polymeric insulation
whilst porcelain insulation requires routine cleaning and/or secondary coating at relative expense to
assure its integrity during operations, especially in areas that are subject to higher pollution levels.
There is usually no history of the intensity of pollution that could be considered for new substations in
little or previously non-electrified areas. IEC 60815-1 [23] presents a method that assists in selecting
the severity of pollution. A point to remember is that severity of pollution should be specified by looking
at what the local environment could present into the future, for example 20 years later and not
necessarily just at the time of substation development. Using the proper classes for normal and special
service conditions among the ones presented in IEC standards help in the low-cost strategy.
5.4 INSULATION COORDINATION

Basic Insulation Levels across the various voltages are characterised by the withstand voltages used
during design tests. For voltage levels below or equal to 245 kV there are two parameters for the
insulation strength. They are the “Rated Short-duration Power Frequency Withstand Voltage” and the
“Rated Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage”.
Rated Short Duration Power Frequency Withstand Voltage is the voltages to be applied during testing
to represent the temporary over voltages which may occur in the system during events such as sudden
loss of load, unbalanced faults to earth, disconnection of inductive loads, connection of capacitive loads
and connection of no-load lines. These over voltages are usually below 1.5 pu and have durations of a
few seconds. They occur at power frequency or sustained harmonics for poorly damped conditions.
Rated Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage represents the atmospheric impulses that may occur during
lightning strikes or during the switching of circuit-breakers and switches. The duration is of the order
of microseconds and the over voltages are in the range 3 to 6 p.u. The durations for testing are
respectively 1.2x50 µs and 250x2500 µs.
The reason for having, in IEC standards, different alternatives for insulation levels, within the same
nominal system voltage can be understood looking at Table 5-1 which is extracted from IEC 61936
tables [13]. As an example, in the systems rated to the 145 kV highest voltage level there are 3
alternatives. Originally these values represented practices in the different countries which participate
in IEC working groups to prepare standards. These numbers reflect that there are different climatic
conditions, different levels of pollution and different types of over-voltages considered. As time has
passed, many alternatives that have been used, even in the same power utility, to accommodate for
equipment installed in areas with different pollution conditions (such as proximity to coastal conditions
leading to salt pollution). Selecting the most suitable level of insulation for the specific area is essential
for reaching the low-cost objective.
After performing a detailed insulation co-ordination study, it may be possible to specify equipment with
the lower possible value, and this may represent a significant cost saving. Insulation on equipment with
windings (such as transformers) can also be specified as non-graded, partially-graded or fully-graded.
Graded insulation implies that there is less insulation closer to the neutral point, and this can translate
into a significant cost savings dependent upon design selection.
82
Table 5-1 – Standard Voltages and Insulation - Extracted from IEC 61936-1 [13]
Minimum phase-to-
Rated earth and phase-to-
Highest Rated lightning
short-duration phase
voltage impulse
for power- frequency clearance
withstand voltage
withstand voltage a
Voltage installation
N
range
Up Indoor Outdoor
Um Ud
installation installation
r.m.s. r.m.s. s s
(peak value)
kV kV kV mm mm
20 60 120
3,6 10
40 60 120
40 60 120
7,2 20
60 90 120
60 90 150
12 28 75 120 150
95 160 160
75 120 160
17,5 38
95 160 160
95 160
24 50 125 220
145 270
145 270
36 70
170 320
I 52 95 250 480
72,5 140 325 630
b b
123 185 450 900
230 550 1 100
b b
145 185 450 900
230 550 1 100
275 650 1 300
b b
170 230 550 1 100
275 650 1 300
325 750 1 500
b b
245 275 650 1 300
b b
325 750 1 500
360 850 1 700
395 950 1 900
460 1 050 2 100
a The rated lightning impulse is applicable to phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
b If values are considered insufficient to prove that the required phase-to-phase withstand voltages are met,
additional phase-to-phase withstand tests are needed.
5.5 PRIMARY EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS

The main aspects to be considered for most of the equipment were presented in the previous sections
of this chapter. However, there are further aspects to be considered for the primary equipment in a
substation associated with a low-cost approach as follows.
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Power transformers
The power transformer is usually the highest cost item within a substation. As with other items in a
substation, their specification covers most of the aspects related to current, overcurrent, voltage and
overvoltage. Tests to be performed are, by their nature, very costly. One key aspect for a power
transformer is that it is usually designed for cyclic operation – for the most part, they operate at lower
loads by comparison to their rating whilst for short durations they may be required to operate under
controlled (not always) overloads. IEC 60076 series presents the general and specific requirements
including loading guides. The overloads produce higher temperatures, which if exceeded, will reduce
the life expectancy of the insulation (see Table 5-2).
The concept is to not exceed these temperature limits for any significant period of time. If the
transformer is in an initially cooler state of operation, higher values of cyclic overloads could be tolerated.
Similarly, if the initial temperature of the transformer is higher, then overloads must be limited to lower
levels to avert insulation ageing. With the use of on-line monitoring of hot spot temperatures in a
practical manner it is possible to optimise the maximum possible overloads without breaching
temperature limits that lead to accelerated insulation ageing. Monitoring the temperature in the hot
spots is possible by pre-installed sensors and by pre-calibrated simulation models. Such applications
may enable optimisation of transformer specifications for the life of the unit leading to reduction in
costs. Naturally cooled transformer designs may lead to further savings without the need for auxiliary
power to operate fans and pumps.
Table 5-2 – Loading guide for power transformers (extracted from IEC 60076-7)
Distribution Medium power Large power

Type of loading
transformers transformers Transformers
Normal cyclic loading:
Current (p.u.) 1.5 1.5 1.3
Winding hot spot temperature (◦C) 120 120 120
Metallic hot spot temperature (◦C) 140 140 140
Top-oil temperature (◦C) 105 105 105
Long-time emergency loading:
Current (p.u.) 1.8 1.5 1.3
Winding hot spot temperature (◦C) 140 140 140
Metallic hot spot temperature (◦C) 160 160 160
Top-oil temperature (◦C) 115 115 115
Short-time emergency loading:
Current (p.u.) 2 1.8 1.5
Winding hot spot temperature (◦C) * 160 160
Metallic hot spot temperature (◦C) * 180 180
Top-oil temperature (◦C) * 115 115
(*) see 7.2.1 in IEC standard
Note: The temperature and current limits are not intended to be valid simultaneously. The current may
be limited to a lower value than that shown in order to meet the temperature limitation required .
Conversely the temperature may be limited to a lower value than that shown in order to meet the
current limitation requirement
Another economic consideration requires that all auto-transformers and all star-connected windings of
132 kV and above should have graded insulation and must be solidly earthed. Star-connected windings
of 88 kV and below are partially graded and can be either earthed where this is required for other
reasons (e.g. single-pole auto-reclosing) or left unearthed. The insulation level of the neutral end of
the winding is able to withstand the maximum voltage resulting from a surge on one phase only (67 %
of the protection level held by the arresters normally connected in front of the transformer) but to allow
for the possibility of an incoming surge on more than one phase, surge arresters should be connected
between the star point and earth. The rating of these neutral surge arresters needs to be carefully
calculated based on the phase voltage and insulation level at the star point of the winding.
Transformer fire is one of the major risks the designer must consider. An option is to consider
transformers with natural Ester oils instead of mineral oils. These ester oils have a flash point much
higher than the normal mineral oils. The likely higher cost of transformers with this insulation medium
84
could be counteracted by the associated reduction in costs required for the fire protection equipment,
including fire walls and environmental protection measures such as the separate onsite oil holding sump.
The designer needs to consider oil handling as natural ester oils can polymerise upon contact with air.
The transformer will require an earthing/grounding transformer if a delta winding is specified or if earth
fault levels need to be controlled to a specific level. This can also serve as an auxiliary power transformer
to derive site supplies, which are essential for operating the site equipment, like any fans or pumps and
the battery chargers.
Circuit-breakers
A circuit-breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal and short-circuit conditions. Circuit-breakers are rated for a breaking current at maximum
system voltage, but this does not automatically mean that operation at a lower voltage will permit a
higher value of breaking current.
The device rating and capability is determined by the duty it will see in the substation. Rated short-
circuit breaking current refers to the 100%, three phase, symmetrical breaking current. Making and
breaking tests specified in IEC standard IEC 62271-1 [18] cover current levels such as 10%, 30% 60%
and 100% of the breaking capacity. Circuit-breakers break different current levels, depending on the
distance to the fault point. Another reason that may determine a selection of a specific rating for a
circuit-breaker, for example 31.5 kA, is because it is expected that this short-circuit duty level will be
reached later on in the life of the substation although it is much lower at the initial development e.g.
10% or 30% of the actual rating.
Circuit-breakers are generally classified according to the interrupting medium used to extinguish the arc
in the breaking chamber. The types are Air magnetic, Oil blast, Air blast, Vacuum and SF6 gas.
Currently, SF6 and Vacuum circuit-breakers are the most common technology available in the market.
Circuit-breakers are also available as live-tank or dead-tank designs. Live-tank design has the breaking
chamber at line potential (with minimal quantity of oil or gas for arc interruption) and insulated by a
post insulator or series of post insulators and a long-insulated operation rod allowing for operation from
ground level. This design is usually a candle stick type, Vee head or Tee head interruption chamber.
Dead tank circuit-breakers put the breaking chamber in a grounded metal enclosure. Breaking
chamber/interrupter maintenance is at ground level and seismic withstand is improved. Bushings are
used for line and load connections, and this has the distinct advantage of permitting the installation of
bushing current transformers at a nominal cost. It is also possible to incorporate a GIS type disconnector
in the bushing. Combining equipment results in space and cost savings especially where real estate is
at a premium, but makes access for maintenance or replacement more difficult.
A key aspect is the selection of circuit-breakers is endurance capacity, i.e. classes E1 and E2. Circuit-
breakers required to have an extended electrical endurance capability are classified as class E2. Circuit-
breakers requiring basic electrical endurance capability are classified as class E1. The same applies for
classes M1 and M2. Class M1 means a circuit-breaker with normal mechanical endurance (2000
operations) and class M2 is applicable for special service requirements (10.000 operations).
Hybrid Switches
A Disconnecting Circuit-breaker (DCB) provides the functionality of a circuit-breaker and a
disconnector combined in a single unit. Without the need for separate disconnectors, up to 75% less
space is required. Unplanned outages are reduced by up to 70% according CIGRE report on high-
voltage circuit-breakers reliability [24], which translates to a significantly lower life-cycle cost. The
disconnecting circuit-breaker with the current transformer on brackets and busbar on top reduces bay
footprint by approximately 75% as detailed in Figure 5-5 below.
85
Figure 5-5 – Disconnecting circuit-breaker with the current transformer on brackets and busbar on
top
Circuit Interrupters are switches (rated for switching load current, but not clearing faults) usually
designed for primary-side application on substation transformers, where operation is infrequent and
continuous-current requirements are modest, Figure 5-6. These devices provide the features needed
for reliable transformer protection—and eliminates the cost of those that are not. With simple
installation and low periodic maintenance needs, they provide a low installed and operating cost, and
can be mounted on many substation structures, or even directly onto the transformer.
Figure 5-7 depicts a manufacturer’s representation of the hybrid switchgear concept that combines
SF6-encapsulated components and air-insulated devices into a single unit of switchgear in which most
of the components are insulated by SF6. The application of gas insulated components increases
availability of the switchgear through reduction in downtime for routine maintenance.
Figure 5-6 – Low cost circuit interrupter
The, gas-insulated components are specified where their performance needs to be far more reliable
than air insulated components due to the encapsulation and protection from the environment.
Conversely, the internal repair and maintenance of components for the switchgear would require highly
specialised personnel which may be limited in the country of application. Furthermore, safety can be
enhanced by separating gas compartments, e.g. between the circuit-breaker and disconnector. The
hybrid circuit-breaker is a compact arrangement of several functions needed in a substation. The
components of this compact switchgear are a dead-tank circuit-breaker, fitted with one or two current
transformers, one or more disconnectors, earthing switches and bushings as applicable for connection
to the busbar system. Due to the compact design and the flexible use of predefined modules, different
layouts can be realised with a minimum of engineering effort.
86
The level of encapsulation and the design of the switchgear unit can be defined in accordance with the
requirements of the individual substation layout and the system operator’s project budget.
Figure 5-7 – Manufacturer’s Depiction of Hybrid switchgear
This combining of a number of substation items will greatly reduce the substation footprint leading to
reduced civil works. The encapsulation of most of the switching components in a gas insulated
environment can lead to lower maintenance cost in the overall life of the substation.
Power Fuses (expulsion type and current limiting)

Power fuses are a generally accepted means of protecting power transformers in distribution
substations. The primary purpose of the fuse is to provide interruption of permanent faults. In low-
cost installations at lower voltage levels fuses may be an economical alternative to switching devices
and can exhibit fault current peak limitation that may benefit cable and switchgear sizing downstream.
Fuse protection is generally limited to voltages from 12 kV to 69 kV, but in some cases has been applied
for protection in the range of 132 kV transformers. In some companies, to provide the greatest
protective margin, the procedure used is to select the smallest fuse rating possible. This has the
advantage of providing backup protection for some secondary faults.
Fuses are available with different characteristic curves (standard, slow and very slow) to provide
coordination with other system protective equipment. Fuses are not voltage sensitive and may be
applied to any voltage equal to or lower than their rated voltage. Fuses have the advantage that they
do not typically require additional structures or auxiliary systems and can be generally mounted on the
incoming line structure, resulting in space and cost savings.
A point to note regarding fuse use is that fuse links, which are not addressed in the requirements (tests)
of IEC standards, may be cheaper. They are a significant source of circuit interruptions “without
reason”. In general, in such cases, the reason is the premature aging of the fuse link which, after
ageing, have been found to melt at a current lower than their rating. This is a good example of cheap
solution that could become an expensive one.
A disadvantage of using fuses is that they must be physically replaced, so if the substation is remote in
relation to the servicing staff customers might be subject to extended outages, which is not desirable.
Lower cost versus increased detriment need careful consideration prior to selecting fuses for installation
of substations.
IEC series 60282 presents a large body of information about fuses and their applications and should be
part of the designers’ reference materials [25] [26].
Disconnectors (isolators) / Earth switches

A disconnector is a mechanical device used to change connections within a circuit to isolate a circuit
from its power source and is normally used to provide isolation of the substation equipment for
maintenance. It is typically located on either side of an important piece of equipment to provide a
87
visible gap to confirm that the equipment is de-energised prior to applying working earths. Figure 5-8
represents a good example of differing types of disconnector devices with typical ratings for reference.
Figure 5-8 – Sample of Disconnector Types and Ratings as presented by Manufacturer
Disconnectors are designed to carry continuous load currents and carry short-circuit currents. They are
designed for no-load switching although some disconnectors are designed to open or close on low load
currents (only where there is a parallel current path). They are used for busbar selection, busbar
sectionalising, busbar coupling, bypassing of circuit-breakers/equipment and for isolating circuits.
Interlocking is available (either mechanical or electrical) to prevent unintended operation.
Disconnectors can be designed for single phase or three phase operations, although three phase
operation is favoured. Operating mechanisms are accessible from ground level, which allow an operator
to open or close the device. A motorised option can be chosen for remote operation, or for additional
safety, but this comes at a cost. There are various types of disconnectors, namely, vertical break,
horizontal break, centre break, centre rotating double break, hook stick switches and pantograph type.
The phase spacing is usually selected in accordance with the operating voltage. Most of the aspects
described in the previous sections apply. A typical specification for a disconnector is presented in Table
5-3.
It is important to point out that transmission substations usually provide earthing switches alongside or
combined with disconnectors and disconnector switches. Many lower cost applications in substations
substitute earthing switches with locations for portable earthing disconnects (PEDs). This is a cost
saving measure but requires careful observance of field working instructions and field work practices to
assure that all assets are safely isolated and earthed prior to enabling or permitting access for de-
energised works.
88
Table 5-3 - Disconnector typical specification items
Technical data Parameter Requirement
Rated voltage Rated voltage (phase to phase) 138 KV rms
Maximum continuous operating voltage (ph-

145 KV rms
ph)
Frequency Rated frequency 60 Hz
Closed to ground 230 kV

Insulation levels Power Frequency withstand voltage
Open contacts: 275 kV
Lightning Impulse withstand voltage 650 kVcr
Power Frequency withstand voltage (auxiliary

3 kV
and control circuits)
Number of poles 3
Rated current Rated current 2000 Arms
Short-circuit Short time withstand and crest 31,5 kArms during 1s / 80 kAcr
Surge Arresters
Substation overvoltage protection is achieved in three ways, adequate insulation, surge protection -
coordinating gaps (arcing horns) and surge arresters. Cording gaps protect by causing the overvoltage
to flashover across its terminals rather than the device it is protecting (e.g. transformer insulation or
SF6 GIS insulation)
The flashover of insulation or a gap will result in a fault to ground the resultant protection operation
and loss of service. A surge arrester, however, will clamp the overvoltage at the point of installation,
but importantly not cause a flashover, protection does not operate and therefore service is not affected.
A surge arrester is a device used to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients caused by
external (lightning) or internal (switching) events. Damage caused by lightning strokes cannot be
completely prevented, either technically or on economic grounds.
Selecting the proper rated voltage of an arrester is a compromise between protective level and over-
voltage capability. Increasing the rated voltage increases the capability of the arrester to survive
temporary over-voltage but reduces the margin of protection provided by the arrester for a given
insulation level.
The possibility of choosing a lower rated voltage depends on how well the system parameters are known
for the specific application. The greater the knowledge one has about earthing conditions and
temporary over-voltages, the lower the rated voltage which can be chosen. On the other hand, if
uncertainty exists for the application, one should bear in mind that too low an arrester rated voltage
could increase the number of arrester failures. Therefore, one should be very careful while selecting
the minimum permissible arrester rated voltage.
Since the continuous operating voltage of the arrester depends on the method of its connection in the
system, it must be clear that the rated voltage for an arrester connected phase-phase cannot be the
same as that for an arrester connected phase-earth at the same location. The most common connection
is between phase-earth in a three-phase system, but cases of phase-phase and neutral-earth
connections are not uncommon. A typical specification of a surge arrester is presented in Table 5-4.
89
Table 5-4 – ZnO surge arrester typical specification items
Parameter Value
System rated voltage (phase to phase; kVef) 138
Rated frequency (Hz): 60
System maximum continuous operation voltage (phase to phase; kVef) 145
Maximum continuous operation voltage (phase to neutral kVef): 95
Surge arrester rated voltage (kVef): 120
Rated discharge current (A): 10.000A
Long duration discharge class (IEC 60099-4) KA
Pressure relief withstand current 40 kArms
Component AC of the high intensity current (kArms):
Pressure relief withstand current 100 kAcr
Maximum peak current (kAcr):
Pressure relief withstand current 800
Low intensity current (Arms)
Minimum withstand temporary overvoltage divided by rated voltage of arrester for the
durations 0,1 s / 1,0 s / 10,0 s 1,15 / 1,10 / 1,05
Maximum residual voltage wave 8/20 µs at 5kA 285
Maximum residual voltage switching impulse wave 30/60 µs -1 kA 240
Energy absorption capacity 4 kJ / kV
System rated voltage (phase to phase; kVef) 138
Rated frequency (Hz): 60
System maximum continuous operation voltage (phase to phase; kVef) 145
Maximum continuous operation voltage(phase -neutral kVef): 95
Surge arrester rated voltage (kVef): 120
Rated discharge current (A): 10.000A
Long duration discharge class (IEC 60099-4) KA
Pressure relief withstand current 40 kArms
Component AC of the high intensity current (kArms):
Pressure relief withstand current 100 kAcr
Maximum peak current (kAcr):
Pressure relief withstand current 800
Low intensity current (Arms)
Minimum withstand temporary overvoltage divided by rated voltage of arrester for
the durations 0,1 s / 1,0 s / 10,0 s 1,15 / 1,10 / 1,05
Leakage current at the rated voltage and frequency. (mA):
Daily switching protection – Maximum voltage for 100 A rms A:
Porcelain Minimum distance along insulator
Energy absorption capacity 4 kJ / kV phase-to-earth
90
Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are used to transform high voltages or currents to values that can be measured
safely, with low internal losses. In the case of current transformers (CTs), the primary winding carries
the operating current, while with voltage transformers (VTs), it is connected to the operating voltage.
The voltage or current magnitude of the secondary winding is intended to be proportional to the value
on the primary side with the same phase relationships, except for the error of the transformer. Primary
and secondary sides are always electrically independent and insulated from each other as required by
the operating voltage.
It is critical to ensure that the CT and VT secondary circuits are earthed at one point only as multiple
points may lead to short circuits or splitting of currents that would lead to incorrect measurements.
Maintenance procedures must therefore include appropriate steps of adding (and later removing) extra
earthing if the circuits are to be fully isolated within the secondary wiring.
The main additional requirements in specifications of CTs and VTs are related to their operation for
measurement and protection purposes.
Voltage transformers can operate at no-load but must never be exposed to small burdens/ short circuits
that would exceed current rating that would create a risk of explosion.
For Measurement class CT cores, the secondary current shall be within a specified accuracy for currents
in the range of the normal rated current, but the secondary currents are limited to safe values due to
low saturation levels during short-circuits.
There are six Protection CT classes defined in IEC 61869. The two most commonly used are the class
P for applications where connected burden and accuracy are critical, and class PX where identical
physical construction and transient performance is required for correct performance of the protection
equipment. Protection class CTs must be specified to operate without saturation, based on the
maximum total burden connected to the secondary terminals, up to the required maximum current.
Generally this maximum current is the maximum grid short-circuit fault current of perhaps 20 or more
times the line rating. However CTs must not ever be exposed to open circuit or excessively high burdens
that would cause internal voltages above knee point that would lead to potential explosion. It is
therefore critical to provide appropriate CT shorting and isolation links (along with isolation and test
procedures) at various places in the CT secondary wiring at the outset as they cannot easily be added
in once the CTs are in service.
Overall it is not unusual that there will be at least four, up to six, CT cores per phase per location to
cater for duplicated line protection, bus protection and metering. This can create significant physical
size and weight issues for mounting of all the required cores.
From the point of view of a low-cost strategy, the instrument transformers are arguably not currently a
high impact item. However, there may be many individual cores at various locations in the substation
which results in thousands of individual terminations of hundreds of individual wires from the CT to
marshalling kiosks to the control room to the secondary panels to the individual secondary devices. All
these wires and terminations require extensive numbers of engineering drawings, wire/termination
numbering, large cable trenches and of course numerous phases of checking and testing. Even if
retaining conventional CT/VTs with associated Merging Units, the impact of IEC 61850-9-2 Sampled
Values over copper Ethernet or optical fibres is a huge reduction of engineering with less wires and
terminations between the CTs and the relays and much improved testing requirements. IEC61860-9-2
also creates consequential reduction in cable trench size and cost affecting substation footprint and a
vast improvement in response and recovery from catastrophic substation events affecting the cable
trenches [27]. There are several CIGRE references to this technology [28] [29].
In addition, some technologies of non-conventional instrument transformers (LPIT – Low Power

Instrument Transformers) have been developed and are becoming available (e.g. Rogowski coil or
optical using Faraday or Pockels Effect) which, when combined with appropriate relays and most likely
using IEC 61850-9-2 Sample Values [27], has the potential to reduce the overall number of cores per
phase at each location. Optical sensors are already well proven technologies since the late 1980’s and
offer vast ranges of performance linearity which can eliminate the need for separate cores for protection
and metering. Having the possibility of using CTs and VTs without a physical connection to ground
(e.g. optical CTs) are deemed relevant and applicable for low cost substations.
91
Earthing System
The earthing system serves the safety, protection, functional, operational and lightning protection
grounding as well the equipotential bonding. It is required to perform this function for the life of the
electrical network for which it is installed, for the range of configurations of the network and nearby
infrastructure that are foreseeable. It must meet these requirements:
 Mechanical strength and corrosion resistance
 Thermal control of the highest fault current
 Avoidance of damage to property and equipment
 Ensuring the safety of persons with regard to occurring contact voltages on earthing systems
during the highest ground fault current.
To ensure conductivity and corrosion resistance, surface and buried grounding conductors are made
out of copper. Earthing conductors embedded in concrete are often made of galvanised steel earthing
wire. Unfortunately being made of solid copper makes these connections attractive to theft for metal
recovery and maintenance regimes must include regular inspection where physical prevention of theft
is not possible.
As a main plant grounding in high-voltage systems, the copper strips are 40 x 3 mm, with each other
meshed, laid in the ground. To obtain the lowest possible grounding resistance, the copper bands are
upright in 0.8 to 1 m depth and embed humus in approximately 25 cm on all sides. In the soil laid
tapes are joined together by press connectors while visible laying the connections to be soldered. The
mesh size of the earthing network must be in the range of high voltage apparatuses are kept as small
as possible. Connections to high voltage equipment must be part of a mesh and must not be let down.
Basically, one is possible to strive for strong meshing.
The foundation earth and the grounding network of a switchgear building are made as a mesh based
on earthing rope. The task of the grounding network is to ensure uniform potential equalisation in the
building. The grounding network will be in concrete in all floors, ceilings and walls integrated. The
mesh size must be less than 10 m x 10 m. In the area of GIS the grounding network is reduced to a
maximum mesh size of 3 m x 3 m. The grounding network is connected with each other at each
crossing point and in the building.
The lightning protection consists of an external and an internal lightning protection. The external
lightning protection protects the building during a direct lightning strike, in which it directs the lightning
current in the earth conducts. It includes catch and discharge lines on the building as well as grounding
around the building. The internal lightning protection is a surge protection. It protects against indirect
effects of a near lightning strike, such as voltages induced by the magnetic field.
For permanently installed or sensitive systems such as complex control systems consistent overvoltage
protection is essential. Therefore various measures such as spark gaps, varistors, Z diodes should be
provided.
The earthing system is required to ensure proper operation of protective devices such as protection
relays and surge arresters to maintain system reliability within acceptable limits. It is intended to provide
a potential reference for these devices and to limit the potential difference across these devices.
5.6 SECONDARY EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Secondary technology includes all auxiliary devices that are used to ensure safe operation of the primary
part of a substation. Secondary technology can consist of combinations of digital Intelligent Electronic
Devices (IEDs) such as protection relays and various electromechanical devices such as switches and
auxiliary relays connected by control cables up to a Substation Automation System (SAS). The SAS
comprises many types of IEDs including protective relays, sensors, condition monitoring, measurement,
metering, LAN/WAN communications, controllers, alarms, time clocks, Supervision Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) remote terminal units, gateways, bay controllers, human machine interfaces and
cyber security facilities connected together by a high proportion of optical fibres.
Data acquisition refers to acquiring, or collecting, data. This data is collected in the form of measured
analogue current or voltage values or the open or closed status of contact points. Acquired data can
be used locally within the device collecting it, sent to another device in a substation, or sent from the
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substation to one or several remote databases for use by operators, engineers, planners, and
administration.
Operators and engineers monitor the information remotely on computer displays and graphical wall
displays or locally, at the device, on control and alarm panels or on automation system control screens.
Control refers to sending command messages to a device to operate the primary and/or secondary
system devices. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems rely on operators to
supervise the system and initiate commands from an operator console on the master computer in the
control centre. Control facilities are also normally available from the substation control room from
control panel switches or from an automation system HMI computer. Typically local control facilities are
also available at primary devices, principally for maintenance or emergency use.
Although a separate electrical engineering specialty or discipline in projects to install substations,
protection and control is a fundamental part of substation design. There is a joint effort is required to
determine the initial and future control and protection panel requirements which must be used to
properly size the control building. This would include space for AC power panels and DC panels and
battery (or batteries), as well as SCADA, metering, and communication equipment. The objective is to
lay out the best panel arrangement for day-to-day operations, safe working space, and emergency exits
inside the building. If applicable, proposed raceways (i.e. conduits, cable ladders, cable trench, etc.)
should be discussed and agreed upon to ensure cable requirements are compatible with installation
methods. The design engineers must closely coordinate the exact cables required (conductor count,
size, insulation, jacketing, shielding, etc.) to bring measurands, status indication and alarms from the
equipment to the control relay panels and to take control trip/close signals back out to the switchgear
devices, as well as all related AC and DC power cables, fibre optics, SCADA, communication and security
cables. From the perspective of secondary technology, the following switchgear technologies are
relevant:
 Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) and hybrid switchgear; and
 Air-insulated switchgear (AIS)
To some extent the switchgear technology determines the location of the field control arrangement and
the associated available space. Ideally selection of the most appropriate substation control technology
should be independent of the switchgear technology chosen.
For GIS and hybrid switchgear, the field control technology is installed in the associated local control
cabinet which is supplied with the switchgear. This cabinet can be either mounted on the switchgear
(which reduces the required footprint) or ground-mounted adjacent to the switchgear. Mounting the
cabinet on the switchgear also reduces the process cabling installation and cable connections to a
considerable extent and allows assembly and testing in the factory. For AIS switchgear local control is
always provided in a separate cabinet. The process cabling installation and connection and testing
takes place on site and leads to increased effort for the planning of cable laying and the assembly
suburb. Control facilities should be provided adjacent to the switchgear for any powered switchgear to
facilitate maintenance operation.
The field control technology for a transformer is typically housed in a separate cabinet mounted on the
transformer.
Substations are generally remotely controlled and monitored. In normal operation there are now
typically no staff normally on site. It is always worth considering what level of remote control is really
necessary, e.g. are motorised disconnectors and earth switches really necessary or is local manual
operation all that is really required. In a single busbar substation there is a strong argument the manual
operation is all that is required as typically they are only operated for maintenance when maintenance
staff are present on site anyway. In a double busbar station however considerable operational flexibility
would be lost if at least the busbar disconnectors were not motorised to allow remote-controlled
operation.
The second level control of a substation is therefore located in a control room with a third level provided
at one or more network control centres connected which are in constant communication with the
substation. The arrangement of secondary systems depends on factors such as:
 Physical size and layout of the HV plant (voltage level, AIS or GIS and other plant factors);
 Type of control equipment employed and type of internal connections;
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 Environmental conditions; and

 Overall cost of installation.
In their choice of equipment for protection and control, utilities generally tend to demonstrate a
conservative attitude, favouring long-established and familiar components. These precautions have
resulted in satisfactory performance but have involved an extensive use of manpower. Varying levels
of installation of modern digital control and protection systems allow for improved functionality such as:
 Unmanned substations due to remote control of substations;
 Automatic switching sequences within the substation;
 Equipment based upon SCADA and operational technology; and
 Bulk data transmission within the substations.
This will increase the complexity of the substation, but on the other hand allows for shorter erection
time, easier maintenance and therefore reduction of maintenance staff as well as improved reliability
due to condition-based monitoring.
The secondary system in a substation is hierarchical according to the following levels:
 Remote Telecommunication level;
 Station level related to the entire substation;
 Bay (field) level; and
 Process (apparatus) level.
The physical arrangement of the SAS IEDs can be chosen to suit the types of primary equipment (e.g.
indoor metal clad switchgear or outdoor AIS/GIS). Originally relay systems were based on a single
function per box of electromechanical technology. However multi-function IEDs have been in common
use since the 1990s which allow combination of various functions e.g. impedance and overcurrent
protection or impedance and differential protection into single smaller boxes. The introduction of IEDs
has also introduced the facility for digital communication with the devices greatly reducing wiring
between protection and SCADA systems. This communication system has evolved from simple RS
232/485 communication to advanced Ethernet/TCP IP Local Area Network (LAN)-based communication
with the most comprehensive solutions being provided within IEC 61850. This “virtualisation” of
functionality over a LAN provides many new options for optimisation of functions and devices whilst also
providing some enhanced reliability and resilience in the case of IED or LAN failure. Optical fibre LANs
are now commonly used for their immunity to electrical interference (EMC) in the substation, but also
for their simplicity of connection and large bandwidth capability suitable for handling the large volume
of data now available on the LAN.
Detailed engineering of protection and control is not subject of this technical brochure. The scope of
this brochure and chapter is related to substation design and how the substation design engineers must
interact with the protection and control engineers.
Economic aspects
Economic considerations are very important in relation to secondary systems. To get the life-cycle cost,
initial investment, commissioning, operation, personnel cost as well as the cost of extending the system
at a later date have to be considered. For present-day digital substations, a life time span of 15-20
years is to be expected for IEDs. Secondary systems in future will have to be evaluated from a
completely different economic perspective. A shorter life cycle, of the order of 10 years compared to
up to 35 years life cycle of conventional electromechanical systems, combined with rapidly changing
technology will mean that the complete replacement of the secondary system hardware will have to be
considered at shorter and shorter intervals. Together with other cost implications, this will require
careful assessment.
In HV substations with a conventional secondary system, the initial investment for the secondary system
will be about 10 to 20 % of the total cost of the substation. The life expectation of the secondary
system is equal to, or greater than, the life expectation of the HV equipment.
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The architecture of the system including precisely-defined and co-ordinated interfaces plays an
important role and can have a significant influence on the economic assessment. At present there
remain multiple solutions for system architecture and the appropriate degree of integration of control
and protection functions is still a subject of debate.
As for low-cost solutions, it is important that substation design engineers early in the engineering of the
secondary system verify the work done in order to eliminate omissions and errors in the design that
cause rework in design and construction.
The flexibility of software and its customisation makes estimating cost difficult. The only way to achieve
acceptable costs of systems is to use standardised products. For secondary systems, it is recommended
that a standard configuration be developed with detailed specifications for the different functions and
for all important system parameters and interfaces. Furthermore it is advisable to establish strong
standards and guidelines for control and protection (e.g. standard relays, panels, schemes, devices, and
other inter-related items) that will effectively contribute to cost saving in design as well as construction
and operation and maintenance of the secondary system and the substation. Simplicity of secondary
systems is recommended for low-cost substation solutions, this could often lead substation design
engineers toward tried and tested simpler secondary systems.
Protection systems
The principal role of the protection systems is to keep the power system stable by isolating only the
components that are in a fault condition, whilst leaving as much of the network as possible still in
operation. Operating conditions, measured values and fault waveforms are typically recorded by various
devices in the system and summary information provided on control screens as well as individually
displayed in message lists, measured value lists and alarm lists available locally on alarm systems and
fault recorders, on the substation human-machine-interface (HMI) or at the Control Centre. Certain
information may also be displayed by menu and/or indicators on the protection relays themselves.
IEC60255 [30] specifies common rules and requirements applicable to measuring relays and protection
equipment including any combination of devices to form schemes for power system protection.
Redundant or back-up systems ensure that if one protection system fails to clear the fault for any reason
(out of service, wrong settings, lack of coverage, open/short circuit wiring, communications system
failure), the second system should still detect and clear the fault to maintain system stability and
minimise the duration of outage as a consequence of the damage to the primary system that may be
caused by the fault. Various philosophies are used in the selection of redundant equipment such as
completely different manufacturer and/or completely different operating principles (e.g. distance and
differential) to minimise the potential for a common mode failure of both protection systems.
Operationally there may be limits imposed for the duration over which the section of power system is
allowed to remain in service if one of the protection systems is out of service for any reason, including
the communication mechanisms that is used by the protection system. In the past redundancy has
generally been implemented as two totally independent systems, i.e. physically duplicated in all respects
of CTs, relays, auxiliary supplies, trip coils and wiring. However the advent of local area network (LAN)
based secondary systems does provide mechanisms where both systems use the same infrastructure,
i.e. LAN cables and switches so care is required to understand the functionality of the system to ensure
that the required level of redundancy is being provided. The LAN arrangement can be such that any
single failure will not impair either system typically by using so-called “bumpless” architectures as High-
availability Seamless Redundancy (HSR) or Parallel Redundancy Protocol (PRP) defined by IEC 62349-3
[31].
The primary plant generally defines the types of protection systems to be used. This forms part of a
protection specification with related protection and control single line diagram. The design of the
protection and control system, and indeed the selection of equipment suppliers, may be required to be
in accordance existing company standards. A cost effective design will have an impact on the cost of
the secondary systems technology in the network. As incorrect application and/or parameterisation of
protection may result in significant consequential damage, potential incorrect blackouts and/or injury or
death, protection design must be undertaken by protection specialists with appropriate review by
experienced protection engineers. Unfortunately at this time there is no global qualification assessment
or certification of protection engineering expertise so some close attention should be paid to assessing
claimed expertise in this area.
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Protection systems comprise seven generic components:

 Current and voltage sensors to measure the relevant primary voltages and currents and
transform them into appropriate signals for the protection relays;
 Protective relays with various functions to sense the fault and initiate a trip (opening) of
the minimum number of circuit-breakers required to isolate the fault;
 Circuit-breakers which open their main contacts when initiated by the protection;
 Protection auxiliary supply batteries and chargers to power the relays and circuit-breaker
trip coils;
 Time synchronisation mechanisms for the IEDs;
 LAN/WAN telecommunication facilities between IEDs (perhaps), between substations and
between substation and Control Centre.
Protective relays control the tripping of the circuit-breakers surrounding the faulty part of the network.
They can be equipped with automatic operations such as auto reclosing or system restart.
There are several types of protection used today. For radial HV/EHV networks, distance protection
devices are commonly used which operate on the apparent measured impedance, determined by voltage
and current signals, from the relay location to the fault being nominally proportional to distance. Due
to increasing grid complexity including multi-ended lines, difficult fault in-feeds, short lines and various
other factors, line differential protection with distance back up has become far more common where
appropriate communication facilities between substations are available. At lower voltages, graded time
overcurrent protections are more common. Various other voltage, frequency and watt-metric based
protections are used to provide an overall protection scheme. These protection functions are often
realised in a combination device now referred to as an Intelligent Electronic Device (IED) providing a
vast array of functions beyond “just” protection functions.
A key principle of any protection system is that at least two independent protection devices must be
able to “see” any particular fault and operate to clear that fault within the maximum critical clearing
time taking into account appropriate accuracies, margins and operating times including that of circuit-
breaker fail scenarios. This may be arranged as duplicate protection systems (from CT to trip coil) each
capable of clearing the fault in similar operating times, or as a main and time delayed back up protection.
The appropriate provision should be in accordance with an overall protection policy for the network
which has been developed to achieve cost-effective overall protection performance.
The protection system will typically provide specialised functions for
 Line protection (e.g. distance, differential overcurrent);
 Busbar protection (e.g. high impedance, centralised/decentralised low impedance);
 Transformer protection (e.g. differential, overcurrent, overvoltage, auxiliary, mechanical);
 Generator protection (e.g. differential, watt-metric, rate-of-change-of-frequency);
 Reactive plant protection (e.g. overcurrent, overvoltage, unbalance); and
 Plant rating and overload (e.g. plant overload protection – definite time / thermal / energy).
Whilst the protection systems may be duplicated in some form, the circuit-breaker itself is a unique non-
duplicated piece of plant critical to clearing the fault. Therefore to provide effective fault clearance in
the event of a failure of the circuit-breaker to open for any reason, the protection system often includes
a circuit-breaker failure (CBF) functionality that will seek to clear the fault at the next set of circuit-
breakers from the failed circuit-breaker. Naturally this increases the area of blackout caused by the
initial fault, but this is a safer alternative than a cascading un-cleared fault.
Dependability is the assurance that the protection system will operate correctly for in-zone faults.
Security is the assurance that it will not operate for out-of-zone faults. Both dependability and security
are reliability issues. Fault-tree analysis is one tool with which a protection engineer can compare the
relative reliability of proposed protection schemes. Quantifying protection reliability is important for
making the best decisions on improving a protection system, managing dependability versus security
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trade-offs, and getting the best results for the least money. In case of an event, protective IED relays
and the disturbance (fault) recorders (if provided – they have larger capacity than protective relays and
often provide full waveform data capture) measures and stores relevant waveforms and sequence of
events until they are retrieved for further analysis of the correct and/or incorrect operation of the
protection.
Whilst protection and control systems have traditionally been based on IEDs allocated on a per bay or
per CB basis, there are various trials of systems where a single IED is used for the protection and control
of multiple CBs or bays. This type of architecture may offer some reduction in the number of boxes
needed to create the SAS, but the overall functionality provided must be carefully assessed to ensure
that the desired redundancy performance is retained as well as the reliability and testability
requirements.
Substation control and automation systems
The substation control systems are used for the switching of the components such as breakers as well
as measurement of values for voltages and currents. The commercial-relevant bays are also equipped
with a revenue-standard metering where the applicable national regulations (e.g. metering code) must
be observed. To prevent faulty switching, interlocking and check-synchronising logic is incorporated
where appropriate.
The display and operation on the bay level is carried out by means of control switches and indicating
devices or through Human-Machine Interfaces (HMI) on bay control IEDs or combined
control/protection IEDs where all field data is displayed on pictures or in lists. More information will be
displayed on the LEDs of the devices.
The display and operation at the station level takes place through control switches and indicating devices
on a control panel in local mode via a workstation or (HMI). The workstation is connected to the
substation LAN station bus and is typically based on an industrial PC particularly ruggedised for operation
in the harsh EMC environments of a substation. Both approaches enable local monitoring and operation
of the substation in case of failure of the network control centre connection. As an essential point of
control for the substation, some consideration should be given to location and mounting of this HMI in
order to prevent or minimise risk of theft or disconnection from the LAN.
Digital data exchange between all devices at the station and field level takes place via a standardised
station bus.
The supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is the control system architecture that uses
computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level process
supervisory management. The accompanying diagram presented in Figure 5-9 is a general model which
shows functional manufacturing levels using computerised control.
Level 4 Computer
Production Scheduling Center
Level 3 Coordinating Coordinating

Production Control Computer Computer
Level 2 Supervisory Supervisory Supervisory Supervisory

Station Level Computers Computers Computers Computers
Level 1 uC uC uC uC uC uC uC uC
Bay Level
Level 0 Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant

Process Level
Figure 5-9 – Substation Automation Hierarchy
Aligning the model presented in Figure 5-9 with the definitions within IEC61850 architectures, the
following analogous cross references should be noted:
 Process level = Field Level;
 Bay level = Direct Control;
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 Station level = Plant Supervisory;

 Plant Interfaces and Sensors = Plant; and
 IED = µC.
The time synchronisation facility in the substation has in the past really only been required to establish
reasonably correct Sequence of Events records with say one millisecond accuracy. The advent of real-
time systems operating on signals exchanged between the IEDs, particularly IEC 61850-9-2 [27]
Sampled Values, has required far greater accuracy and coherency of the time known by each IED to
the sub-microsecond level. Time synchronisation takes place by means of a central time server linked
to a GPS satellite or WAN based Master Clock providing the absolute time. A time pulse is distributed
to the various IEDs. Various time distribution mechanisms have been used in the past requiring their
own cabling or are somewhat crude in their accuracy or coherency due to latency from one end to the
other. However IEC 61850-9-3 (IEEE 1588 v2) [32]provides a highly accurate, and more importantly
for the SAS interaction between the IEDs, time reference using the same LAN architecture as the SAS,
provided the LAN switches are compliant clocks and the IEDs support the Standard.
Communication is the backbone of substation automation systems. Numerous protocols have been
used since the mid 1980’s (Modbus, Profibus, LONBus, Kbus, DNP3, IEC 60870-5 and others), however
whilst these have provided some form of real time communication typically limited to just SCADA system
applications, the vendor variances and confusion in their implementations has led to a disproportionate
engineering effort at the same time as an explosion in the amount of information being communicated.
After some 12 years of development, IEC 61850 [33] was first released in 2004 with the objective of
creating a vendor-agnostic engineering process to configure IEDs to communicate and which would
allow a significant reduction in the overall cost of a substation. The Standard introduced four critical
components to establish a means for achieving interoperability:
 An engineering process for the exchange of design information between engineering tools,
(IEC 61850-6) [34];
 A universal semantic for every piece of information and setting available in the SAS (IEC
61850-7-1/2/3/4) [35];
 Three forms of real-time communication mechanisms (protocols) tailored to electrical
infrastructure performance requirements (MMS and GOOSE IEC 61850-8-1 [36] and
Sampled Values IEC 61850-9-2 [27]); and
 A defined compliance testing regime to allow users to reliably choose IEDs that will behave
interoperably in their application (IEC 61850-10) [37].
The net result of IEC 61850 [33]engineering is that effectively all the information traditionally shown in
secondary wiring diagrams and all the device configuration files are effectively embedded into a single
XML based file for the entire SAS from which individual IED configurations can be extracted.
There are now a large number of installations based on IEC 61850 principles to some degree or another
from 11 kV to over 500 kV in an ever expanding range of domains of protection, SCADA, condition
monitoring, metering, wind, hydro, storage, electric vehicle and even home automation [33]. Those
relatively small number of electrical facilities that have been deployed using more complete engineering
processes and components according to the intent and structure of the Standard are reporting 10-30%
savings in the cost of the substations secondary installations compared to their traditional approaches.
Furthermore there is increased reliability of proven schemes that can be repeated in the next project
without human intervention, far more so than just using template drawings. There are also estimated
possibilities of major savings of some 50-70% in the cost of subsequent substation secondary system
augmentations and refurbishments based on existing IEC 61850 systems. Naturally this is not achieved
by simple specification of using “compliant IEDs”, but is a combination of equipment, tools and expertise,
all of which must be developed in the lead up to any first project, and then continue to be evolved
based on the learnings of each subsequent project. On the other hand, those that have taken a more
“proprietary” approach to the engineering process and/or limited technology deployment and/or limited
staff training would claim the experience is not worth the effort, or that it is somehow “not mature”,
but clearly this is not the fault of the Standard.
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Use of digital communication between protection relays and the SCADA interface has become quite
common as has the use of digital control interfaces at bay level. However implementation of the full
digital substation involving digital communication between all devices and the use of digitised measured
values of current and voltages has been slow. The perceived advantages are obvious in replacing
thousands of control cable connections by a small number of optical fibre connections which simplifies
installation and reduces the copper theft issue considerably but the downside has been the slow
development of generic tools to facilitate engineering of the digital implementation of the required logics
and inter-communication and full inter-operation between IEDs from different suppliers required for
these systems and perhaps also a nervousness among users about the various implications of adopting
this step change in design technology.
Fault-finding of any problems requires specialised skills compared to those required in traditional
installations. Each utility needs to plan its staff training programme to allow an appropriate introduction
of these new technologies if it want to avoid becoming totally dependent on third-party support.
In order to engineer a low cost substation, it is important to consider what the minimal requirements
for the data points are, that are routed through the SCADA system. Engineering, operation and
maintenance of these data points can become rather costly throughout the substations of a network.
Telecommunication systems
The RTU connected to substation equipment through control cables or the LAN gateway connected to
the station bus contains the serial, redundant interfaces for communication with the network control
centre and, if applicable, other entities. The gateway acts as a single “portal” and converts the data
available within the substation to the required remote protocol(s) (IEC 61850, IEC 61970, IEC 60870-
5-101, IEC 60870-5-104, DNP3, Modbus and others as may be required) [33] [38] [39].
In case of failure of the gateway (Watchdog) or failure of the redundant connection to the network
control centre an emergency alarm device is activated. In addition, signal grouping is performed in the
gateway to the number of network control centres to optimise signals to be transmitted and group them
into standard groups.
The data exchange to all remote locations outside the substation (network control centre, independent
system operator partner control centre, remote meter reading, protection signal transmission, service
interfaces, and others) via the utilities telecommunications network.
For the data exchange within the substation, these passive and active system components used:
 Universal cabling for the connection of the data terminals (workstation PC and printer,
telephone;
 Control cable or fibre optic cable for the connection of the field devices including billing
counter and the devices at the station and communication level; and
 Network devices / elements (switches, routers) in the office and operational Ethernet based
infrastructure.
The advent of communication systems also brings the need for effective cyber security. This applies to
the real-time operational data exchange but also the remote engineering access. These issues are
discussed further in Section 8.2.7 in the context of cyber security considerations.
Auxiliary systems equipment

Auxiliary systems play a vital role for the safe and reliable operation of a substation. They are designed
to suit individual equipment requirements at a specified voltage and in the right form, whether it be AC
or DC.
This includes all primary technical equipment such as drives for circuit-breakers, disconnectors and earth
switches, tap changers, coolers and oil pumps for transformers and the building infrastructure (heating,
ventilation, air conditioning, fire detection, fire suppression, crane systems and outdoor lighting).
Furthermore all secondary technical equipment such as control, protection, alarm and monitoring
equipment as well as counting and measuring equipment, all higher-level guidance systems and
communication and transmission systems. The connected capacity (kVA) of all substation loads should
be tabulated with a demand factor for each of them in order to get an overview of the total demand.
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Substations can be categorised as base-stations and supply sub-stations based on their importance for
the stability of the network. Depending on the importance of a category, the supply redundancy for
the DC system and the AC system shall be appropriately defined.
Various sources are used for the AC auxiliary system including:
 House transformers connected to a connection from the local distribution system;
 One or more house transformers connected to a distribution voltage busbar in the
substation;
 One or more house transformers connected to tertiary windings of HV power transformers;
 Back-up generators (diesel or other fuels which can be stored on site)
 A direct connection from a specially designed ‘power’ voltage transformer (VT) connected
to the HV busbar or to one or more of the connected HV feeders; and
 Increasingly available technology using small wind turbines and/or photo-voltaic panels.
The DC auxiliary system is fundamentally how the substation ‘rides through’ AC supply interruptions
and can continue to function when the rest of the network is down (black start and others). The
requirements for the time to operate autonomously without an external AC supply needs to be
considered. The period the substation needs to be self-sufficient (autonomy) is based on the network
rebuild scenarios. In the case of a major failure, an autonomy time for substations of up to 24 hours
or longer may be required if access due to bush fires and/or long travelling distances are involved.
Thought should be given to which substation functions are essential and should have a dedicated
services board (protection, control, communications and others) and which are non-essential (e.g.
lighting and heating). Depending on the size and function of the substation, there may be a need for
separate systems. If so, consideration should be given to how these two are distributed across the
substation and supplied from the DC or AC auxiliary supplies.
The battery system is to be designed according to local requirements. Current technology is based on
lead-acid battery or Nickel-Cadmium. These have the highest reliability, are characterised by a good
price / performance ratio and longevity. For the dimensioning of the battery system, a typical load
profile is created for the corresponding autonomy time to determine the minimum required battery
capacity. The battery room is placed in the substation building in a location that is not prone to flooding.
Due to the weight of the batteries, special attention shall be paid to the floor-loading and to access for
replacement. The battery compartment must be designed as a "sealed tank", the flooring must be acid-
resistant. The entire amount of electrolyte used must be in the sealed space. Alternatively, special
tubs can be used in the area of the batteries. A ventilation of the room designed for the battery system
is necessary, which should use natural rather than forced ventilation if at all possible. Appropriate room
temperature control systems may be required to obtain the maximum service life from battery
installations.
5.7 CONCLUDING GUIDELINES ON EQUIPMENT SELECTION

As seen in this chapter, the selection of the substation equipment to achieve low cost in substations
over the entire life cycle of the substation does not only depend on the capital cost of the equipment.
Below is a basic Guide to Equipment Selection:
1. Understand the system requirements, such as expected initial load, expected load growth,
available generation, paralleling operation of transformers, rate of return on investment (if
applicable);
2. Understand the service conditions of the project requiring the equipment. Not only the
normal or usual conditions must be known, but equally important are the abnormal or unusual
conditions. Normal ratings would be such items as continuous current, maximum system
voltage, and corona inception. Abnormal ratings would be such items as emergency overloads,
short-circuit currents and transient over voltages.
3. Understand the location, environment and climate of the project requiring the equipment.
These items impose limits on the equipment such as, delivery constraints (restrictions due to
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bridges, tunnels, and roadway weight limits) or temperature constraints (requiring fans for
transformer cooling) or pollution levels (requiring extra insulation creepage);
4. Understand the functions and parameters of the equipment being selected; both electrical
and physical. Basic fundamental knowledge of a device is needed to interpret the above three
items so as to apply the right equipment for the situation. It is also needed to speak the
language of the industry and the manufacturer;
5. Properly use the applicable industry Standards to specify the technical details of the
equipment in question; and always use the latest version of the standards. For example, the
designer selecting a power transformer must know whether the standard used specifies the kVA
power rating at the input (IEC) or the output (IEEE/ANSI);
6. Use a thoroughly thought out and well-prepared Specification for the ordering process to
document all that is required. Manufacturers will not do something if the buyer does not call
for it in the documentation (i.e. specification and purchase order). If one needs something that
was not include in the specification (e.g. transformer dimensional constraint requirement), it
will cost substantial amounts to add it later and it could delay delivery. Conversely, if one does
not need something and do not exclude it from the specification (e.g. an unnecessary atypical
factory test), it will add cost since it will be done;
7. When specifying, avoid ambiguities such as “good quality” oil. Also avoid over specifying
such as selecting the “highest” BIL available when a lower one would coordinate adequately
with the system BIL;
8. In a request for an inquiry or quote, be sure to formally and clearly communicate exactly
what is needed and what is expected to be delivered;
9. Use Technical Data Sheets to request all data required for the technical and economic
evaluation of the bids to make the final selection (e.g. for transformers, request losses,
impedance, bushing type);
10. Perform both a technical and economic evaluation of the bids to make educated decisions
for procuring the equipment. Compare all vendors on an equal basis. Include all ancillary costs
like delivery, off-loading, assembly cost as well as life-time costs such as losses, maintenance,
replacement and disposal. Final selection should be based on lowest cost technically acceptable
bid, not simply the lowest cost bid;
11. Know how the specific requirements for the equipment will affect the cost. Again,
having a basic understanding of the equipment with all options and accessories, as well as the
proper application of the device, will give the designer an advantage in seeking the best low
cost alternative that a supplier can provide;
12. Use the manufacturer’s expertise to one’s advantage. Be open to alternatives and options
that may offer ways to reduce costs. For example, a transformer manufacturer may offer
alternate load tap changer (LTC) designs than what were specified. Those LTC’s perform
equally well with a good track record and may be a low-cost, low-maintenance alternative;
13. Use interaction with the manufacturer to one’s benefit. Use their expertise to address any
questions or concerns that one may have. Understanding alternatives that they can provide,
along with company knowledge of the device, can facilitate selecting the optimum equipment;
14. Know the manufacturer’s philosophies on design, manufacturing, management and
business. Vendors can vary widely in their practices and methods. Knowing their capabilities,
plant capacity, material suppliers, Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QAQC) programs, their
failure rates, and others can help the designer/procurer to obtain low cost but fit-for-purpose
equipment;
15. Once ordered, teamwork between the buyer and seller is important with regards to design
reviews, drawing approval, shipping, field assembly, claim resolution, factory service;
16. Be aware of how the equipment will interface with the whole design:
a. The equipment must be supported on a structure or foundation. Will the equipment
mounting provisions be of adequate strength and size to match its support? Or will
custom designed adapters be required?
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b. The equipment must be connected to adjoining busbars. Will the terminal pads be
of sufficient strength and size, and of compatible material, so as to support the
static and dynamic loads of the leads to be attached?
c. The equipment must be grounded safely and properly. Will the grounding terminals
and leads handle possible short-circuit current without failing?
d. The equipment must be controlled. Will the terminal enclosure have a sufficient
number and size of conduit knock outs? Will the termination blocks be of sufficient
space and size for the size and number of control cable connections?
e. The equipment must be operated and maintained. Will the Human Machine
Interface (HMI) serve the needs of the human adequately? Will control cabinets
be set at adequate heights for personnel? Will gauges be easily and accurately
readable? Will arc flash safety be properly addressed?
f. Is the equipment to be used for a Greenfield or a brownfield project. Will there be
any special needs for a retro-fit and upgrade? Will there be any special physical
dimensional and/or weight restrictions that the manufacture must know about if
reusing yard space, foundations, structures or bays? Will there be any special
electrical requirements that the manufacture must know about such as impedance
matching for paralleling transformers? and
17. Get involved with professional organisations that create the industry standards. It has been
said that “he who writes the standards, dictates the details of the equipment”. Limitations in
utilities’ budgets often limit their participation in creation of standards. This usually leaves the
manufacturers to dominate this process. Manufacturers may not be as aware of the utility or
users’ needs (such as reliability, minimal maintenance, low failure rates, long lifecycle,
minimising cost for their customers, and others) as they are of their own needs (such as
economising on the use of materials, prescribing required tests and maximising profit).
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6. SITE SELECTION, ACCESS AND

CONSTRUCTABILITY
Considering that the objective of this technical brochure is to identify and discuss opportunities to lower
the cost and risk of substations through the design, construction, operation and maintenance, the
purpose of this section is to provide the design engineer with an awareness and understanding of the
important factors concerning site selection, access to, in and around substations as well as factors
impacting on initial and subsequent (greenfield and brownfield) substation constructability.
“Safe work by design”, also referred to as “safety in design” refers to the integration of hazard
identification and risk assessment methods during the planning and design phases of the project to
eliminate or minimise the risks of injury during the construction phase as well as during plant operating
activities. It is therefore important to incorporate this during the design phase as it will impact on the
final project cost.
It must be noted that there is a distinct link between site selection, access, constructability and safety
in design and that these factors cannot be divorced from each other. Although interdependent, site
selection, access and constructability will be discussed separately.
6.1 SITE SELECTION DEFINITION

Site selection is basically defined as the practice of choosing the best location for an anticipated use.
Very specific criteria are used in determining the best location depending on the nature of the plant.
Site selection is also referred to as siting (of the substation), and both terms will be used interchangeably
in this brochure.
6.2 ACCESS DEFINITION

In the dictionary access is defined as “a way of approaching or reaching or entering”. In the broader
context when referring to access it also includes egress, which is in line with our considerations with
regard to access to the substation, access into the substation and the accessibility of equipment in the
substation.
6.3 CONSTRUCTABILITY DEFINITION

In recent times “constructability” has been adopted as a project management technique to review
construction processes from start to finish during the pre-construction phases of the project life-cycle.
During the concept to detail design phases the focus should therefore be to identify obstacles to prevent
possible design or construction errors, delays, and cost overruns during construction.
For the purpose of this Technical Brochure, substation constructability will focus on how the design can
influence the ease and efficiency of substation construction, and how to possibly make construction
even more efficient and easier. Although this might seem straightforward, it is actually dependent on
a degree of knowledge and experience in the design and construction fields to balance technical
requirements, project goals and local resource constraints during project implementation.
6.4 SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

Selection of substation site locations for the transmission of electrical energy must be an acceptable
balance of engineering, environmental, and public factors while maintaining compatibility with system
safety, reliability, economics, construction, and maintenance policies.
During the project planning phase the planning engineer will determine the (long-term) load centre and
as a result the desired substation position. Generally this position is taken as the point where the
substation shall be positioned, especially when the various project team members are not experienced
enough to highlight other important factors to be considered. Of importance in determining the required
or actual final substation position are a number of factors that should be taken into consideration by
the project team.
Project team members/departments/functions other than the planning and design engineers that should
typically give inputs on the location of the proposed substation position are Environmental Management,
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Engineering Survey, Construction Department, Operating Department, Maintenance Department,

Finance (the budgeters, accountants, real estate agents, and other commercial personnel) and anybody
else that will be affected by the decision. This group of people must ensure that the procured site is
not only as big as the substation fenced area indicated, but is big enough to provide for other services
as required.
Access to and from the substation is one of these important factors to keep in mind when deliberating
on the final substation position in that it can add a lot of initial cost to the total project. Refer to the
section covering access considerations.
The following are important factors to take into consideration in determining a feasible site for the
substation.
Site dimensions
It is critical that the dimensions of the site acquired are bigger than the proposed substation footprint
in order to provide for additional requirements, typically:
 Grading cut and fills to produce the required terrace;
 Space for drainage ditches and cut-off drains (if required);
 Storm water retention ponds (if required);
 Oil containment if required off terrace;
 Access roadways around the substation (if required);
 Lay-down areas for construction (material storage, vehicles, and field office trailers, etc.);
 Area for mobile substation equipment if required and not accommodated for inside the
substation fenced area;
 Buffer space if needed for noise abatement or mitigation for adjacent residential areas, and
 Transmission and Distribution line egress, for multiple circuit poles and guying, or duct banks
as might be required.
On the other hand, if an adequate site cannot be obtained based on the above requirements, a change
to more advanced and capital intensive technology will be necessitated, e.g. Mixed Technology
Switchgear (MTS) or Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS). These technologies have many ramifications
(impacts and risks) in terms of design and standardisation, as well as maintenance.
As far as possible, the future, or ideally the ultimate configuration (end state) of the substation is to be
considered in procuring a site.
Legislative and environmental factors

It is necessary to coordinate with the appropriate public regulatory and permitting agencies to ensure
maximum compatibility of the substation. Confirm legislative requirements to ensure the land is properly
zoned for the intended use. Allow adequate time for lengthy permitting processes that might be
required.
Due to the requirement for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), it is essential that environmental
factors are taken into consideration in the early stages of any proposed development in order to ensure
that:
 Legal requirements are adhered to;
 Customer requirements are met;
 Environmental, legal and financial risks are minimised; and
 Construction will be in line with the applicable environmental policy and strategy criteria.
In most countries it is compulsory to submit an EIA and Environmental Impact Management Plan (EIMP)
for the intended construction work to be undertaken. The requirements of these differ somewhat from
country to country so it is important that the applicable design team members take cognisance thereof
and ensure that it they are addressed appropriately.
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Environmental factors affecting system reliability

‘Conventional’ AIS substations initial asset costs are relatively inexpensive compared with GIS
substations, and easy to maintain, but are exposed to environmental factors that have an influence on
reliability. The land acquisition costs for AIS substations may be far higher than that of GIS substations
due to the substantially larger footprint required – where land costs are high, this could offset the
perceived lower asset costs. A life cycle cost approach to substation costs should not be ignored as
costs could be landed at different stages.
Whilst environmental factors may generally influence the suitability of a site, the conditions may prevail
throughout the area requiring the substation installation. These factors cannot then be avoided, but
will rather require appropriate mitigation in accordance with the environmental conditions.
Lightning: Installations that are exposed to lightning require due consideration of insulation
coordination involving the following areas of the design:
 Lightning shielding to limit the possibility of damaging direct strikes to the installation. An
effective lightning protection system will prevent penetrations of stroke magnitudes that will
result in over voltages which exceed the equipment insulation levels;
 Lightning arresters with the appropriate protective characteristics must be placed in suitable
positions in relation to the protective distance;
 Equipment lightning impulse withstand levels must be chosen with care. The insulation level
must be coordinated with the arrester protective levels; and
 Earthing for transient performance. The earthing system should be designed for adequate high-
frequency performance such that transients are effectively dissipated.
Areas with high lightning flash density and mean peak stroke magnitude will require more stringent
designs in respect of the above factors. This will have an impact on the initial project cost, but should
be offset by an associated lower operating cost.
Atmospheric pollution: Ideal insulations exhibit zero leakage current, whereas ‘real’ insulation always
has some ‘small’ resistive leakage current comprised of components through the insulation material and
across the surface of the insulation. The leakage current across the surface insulation is dependent on
the presence of a conductive electrolyte formed from certain types of airborne contaminants (generally
‘pollution’) and moisture. If the resistivity of the surface layer is such that the resulting surface current
density is sufficient for ‘dry band’ formation, a power frequency flashover may result. This flashover
represents a phase to earth fault and is cleared through the operation of a circuit-breaker resulting in a
possible outage. Pollution is related to the steady state (power frequency) performance, and not
transient (lightning) performance, of the system. Various types of atmospheric pollution can be
deposited on insulating surfaces; the following are significant for insulation performance:
 ‘Coastal pollution’ comprised of sea salt;
 Different industrial pollutants with ionic chemical structure that readily dissociate in water to
form an electrolyte;
 Conductive particulates such as cement and carbon dust;
 Fires may result in flashovers, particularly on overhead lines;
 The type (thundershower or drizzle etc.) and frequency of rainfall that will influence washing of
the insulators; and
 Wind direction and intensity, which will affect dispersion of pollution from the source, or carry
pollution over considerable distances to an electrical installation. Wind also affects the insulator
cleaning.
Identification of contamination: Visual inspections of the area surrounding the site and, if present,
other substations in relative proximity, can reveal several indicators as to the presence of atmospheric
contaminants. These indicators may either be the noticeable presence of contaminants, corrosion of
existing infrastructure or unusually high levels of audible corona activity on existing electrical equipment.
Excessive corona could also indicate the presence of pollutants on insulators. However, this must be
considered in relation to various other factors that affect corona such as humidity, altitude and the
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design of the installation with respect to the system voltage, etc. The level of audible corona discharge
or Ultraviolet (UV) emission as measured by a UV camera during light to moderate wetting conditions
(i.e. fog or light rain) can also be used to evaluate relative contamination levels.
Pollution level assessment by equipment performance evaluation: The optimum method to
evaluate the level of contamination is to assess the performance of existing equipment in the area under
consideration. Within certain limits, there is a linear relationship between the total creepage distance
of an insulator and its steady-state pollution performance. Therefore increases in creepage length will
result in near proportional improvement in performance under the same conditions. This characteristic
can consequently be used as a convenient means to relate the previous performance of the insulation
with the prevailing pollution level and washing conditions in the area.
In the area under study, the existing installations will have different insulator string lengths relating to
different pollution performance levels. The existing insulator strings are to be inspected for signs of
erosion of the insulator or pin corrosion. The maintenance history of the insulators shall also be taken
into consideration. The shortest string length that has no significant damage or requires no
maintenance can be used to determine the pollution level.
Topography
The aim of selecting the optimum site is to minimise construction costs and duration. The following are
important points to consider in the choice of a suitable site:
Site grade: The ideal site is mildly graded (sloped) such that earthworks (‘cut and fill’) are minimal.
The ideal gradient of the natural ground is in the order of 1:150. Furthermore, such a site will permit
the entire substation to be constructed on a single platform. If the area has a steep slope steps or
terraces can be used but this complicates easy access to all areas in the substation. Slopes need to be
stabilised with cover as soon as possible to prevent erosion.
Storm water management: Sites with the preferred grade will typically not require a special storm
water drainage design. The drainage design will result in additional costs that will affect the viability of
the site and will necessitate additional maintenance. Low-lying areas where flooding could occur and
areas where the water table could be high or even above ground at times of heavy rainfall are to be
avoided wherever possible.
High water table, flood plains and undermined areas: Sites with high water tables, areas that
are prone to flooding and areas that have been undermined must be avoided as these issues pose
numerous risks that that must be mitigated and will add to the initial cost as well as long term
maintenance costs.
Landscaping and screening: Depending on the area under consideration it might be necessary to
provide for additional space for natural screening, planted screening, and noise abatement based on
the future development of adjoining properties. Landscaping should typically be considered when
substations must be located in residential areas.
Influence of topography on communications: The topography affects the application of certain
types of telecommunication media. Line of sight to the nearest suitable high site is applicable for
microwave communications, and to a lesser extent area radio. Topography plays a vital role in
microwave communications between the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) master
station and the Radio Terminal Units (RTUs) in the field.
Microwave transmission, which uses high frequency radios, requires line of sight between the antennas.
In order to ensure efficiency of transmission, the airspace between the towers needs to be clear of any
obstructions that could possibly block signals to the receiver. Topography thus plays a vital role in
microwave communications between the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) master
station and the Radio Terminal Units (RTUs) in the field. Microwave transmission is normally used
extensively in the backbone of the Transmission Telecommunications networks and from the repeater
site to the SCADA master station.
For UHF and VHF area radio line of site is not a mandatory parameter as with microwave transmission,
topography does however play a vital role in communications over the air. The signal decays over a
finite distance and additional factors such as curvature of the earth, obstructions (hills, mountains,
buildings etc.) contribute to the degradation of the signal. In order to establish an acceptable radio
path design, coverage plots need to be developed in order to ascertain if the degraded signal meets the
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minimum telecommunication requirements. This can be supplemented with field testing in order to
authenticate the results of the designed coverage plots.
Geological and geotechnical considerations
It is advisable that the soil type is determined as early as possible in the site selection process. Test
holes should be excavated and the suitability of the subgrade (soil and ground water conditions)
evaluated. The ideal soil is a well-graded mixture of gravel and sand. If possible areas with moderate
to high clay content are to be avoided if possible, as this will result in costly foundations due to the poor
bearing capacity of the soil. With clay, there also exists the potential for ‘heaving’ (shrinkage and
expansion) with seasonal soil moisture variation. Cohesion-less sand conditions are also to be avoided,
as they result in costly foundations. Rocky conditions (either hard or soft/decomposed rock) also result
in costly foundations despite the high bearing capacity, since excavation is difficult and may even require
blasting. Areas with depressions or sinkholes could indicate subsurface voids caused by deep-mining
subsidence or natural caves. Further research of geologic databases or mining records is warranted to
confirm viability of such a site.
The soil electrical properties should be investigated before finalising the substation site if at all possible
to ensure it will facilitate a safe and economical earth electrode. Soil resistivity that is very high will
result in a very expensive earth electrode, whereas a very low soil resistivity will normally make it easier
to develop a cost-effective earthing system, although it is an indication of a very corrosive soil that will
increase long term maintenance costs.
Access and access roads

Good access is needed to construct, operate, maintain, and deliver equipment. Avoid sharing of access
with private owners if at all possible. Refer to the section below titled “Main access to the substation”
for access considerations during site selection.
Line corridors
The site must be chosen with the line routes in mind. Ensure that the initial site planning provides for
all lines of all applicable voltages to be routed and connected to the substation.
It is less costly to integrate the substation into the network by means of overhead lines. Proximity to
existing line corridors greatly affects the suitability of a site. In some cases, particularly in urban areas,
where access cannot be obtained for overhead lines, integration via an underground cable network may
be necessary.
It is important that the substation is orientated to align with the lines in such a manner that line crossing
are minimised as much as possible.
Substation security considerations

When choosing the site it is important to also consider possible future security aspects. These are linked
to socio-economic factors and might have an impact on the long term security of supply. Site and asset
protection should not only be a consideration during the construction phase, but also the operation
phase and should not be compromised on as this may inadvertently lead to a security of supply risk.
For this reason it is important to include physical security risks in the site selection criteria.
6.5 ACCESS CONSIDERATIONS

Access is a specific form of the general concept of accessibility to be suitably designed, constructed,
kept free from obstruction and to be well maintained.
In addition, when access to the substation is discussed it should also include egress out of and away
from the substation. Although this might seem like a trivial distinction to make some
thought/planning/design has to be put into it, i.e. the route into and around the substation might be
properly designed for heavy duty trucks to bring the power transformers into the substation, and remove
them as and when required. What is often overlooked is how the same trucks should turn around or
manoeuvre in and around the substation to exit, possibly causing unnecessary damage in the process.
Substation access has to be considered at a multitude of levels. All aspects with regard to accessibility
have to be considered from the project onset. The common belief is that the substation design
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engineers should only concern themselves with access in the substation itself, but that is not necessarily
the case.
Access considerations should not only be limited to physically getting to, into and out of the substation
but also the availability of suitable access and right-of-way to the site by overhead or underground
transmission and distribution circuit infrastructure. This right-of-way must also include sufficient side
clearance to vegetation and trees, provide for construction vehicle access to the lines, and space for
guys and anchors if required. It does not add any value for a substation to be established if no or
limited transmission and distribution circuit infrastructure can be connected to it, or the costs of making
these connections are excessively high.
Although an extremely important consideration in the overall project, access associated with
transmission and distribution circuit infrastructure falls outside the scope of this brochure and will not
be addressed further herein. However, it is important for the designer to have an awareness of this
concern.
Main access to the substation

The selected site has a profound impact on the access to the substation. As mentioned previously, one
of the main endeavours is to position the substation as close to the (future) load centre as possible.
This should be done considering existing roads in the site vicinity as well as new or additional access
requirements. As a result of the associated cost of constructing new access roads the distance from
main roads to the substation must be kept as short as possible.
Access roads have to be adequate to sustain heavy equipment under all weather conditions. Long
access roads require design considerations similar to most secondary local roads. As an example, any
culverts or sewer crossings also need to be designed for anticipated heavy equipment loads. All road
designs must comply with the required standards and specifications applicable to the area/country
applicable. Important factors to keep in mind when considering access roads design are among others:
 The manoeuvrability and mass of the vehicles necessary for the delivery of power transformers;
 The width and turning radius, as determined by the manoeuvrability of types of vehicles to be
used in the various areas;
 The road foundation design as necessitated by the axle loads of types of vehicles to be used;
 The slope of the access road in relation to the wearing surface, as determined by the gradient
ability (this is a function of traction) of the types of vehicles to be used;
 The traffic volume and type, as well as erosion potential, possibly necessitating a wearing
surface (note that the initial substation access road might in time become a general access road
into the area with increased vehicle volumes affecting the condition of the road);
 The construction of bridges necessitated by natural watercourses;
 Any special requirements of emergency and fire fighting vehicles sometimes mandated in the
permit/approval process;
 Any requirements related to the joint use of an access roadway. For example, the original
property owner may reserve the right to use the road for farming or business purposes. In
cases where a roadway is shared, there may be a common gate with multiple locks, which
requires a joint-use agreement; and
 For EHV substations, if railroad access is a possibility, a railroad siding constructed into the
substation may be the best solution to deliver the power transformers.
Figure 6-1 is a typical example of the type of problem that can be created if the suitability of the access
route including road width, turning radii and manoeuvrability are not confirmed and the appropriate
right-of-way obtained all the way from the main road right into the substation.
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Figure 6-1 – Example of inadequate access for main transformer – Courtesy: Bob Slebodnik,
Allegheny Energy
The right-of-way is required to prevent other parties from modifying routes without inputs from the
interested and affected parties. Situations like these only add to the interruption time duration and
should be avoided at all cost. The designer should be careful to make sure that main access to the
substation is sufficiently designed to afford the movement of the heaviest equipment (power
transformer main tanks) without compromising the structural integrity of the access way itself. Often
the underground primary cable ways can cross the main access and the structural integrity of these
needs to be taken into consideration.
Access in and around the substation

It is important to ensure that all equipment in the substation is easily accessible for routine maintenance
activities, but also for replacement without undue impact on the remaining supply during emergencies,
i.e. reducing the outage time through proper access design.
Many distribution substations (HV/MV) do not need any specific driveways or roads within the fenced
yard. The entire yard can be considered as drivable by light traffic, including the vehicles that can be
used to move inherently smaller transformers. This is however not the case in transmission and sub-
transmission substations where extra heavy or abnormal vehicles are needed to move transformers and
other equipment. In these substations it is necessary to have dedicated roads or access ways to get to
all equipment.
In many cases it will be required to make provision for crane access to install/remove power
transformers, or other special facilities i.e. a basic rail system to manoeuvre big transformers into
position. Of importance is that not only access around and inside the substation are considered, but
also access the way to and from the main centres where these equipment have to be transported
to/from. Figure 6-2 is an example of a compact transformer installation that would result in extended
durations for replacement because it will be necessary to remove other equipment that is in the way
(VT installation in the foreground on the right), only to be replaced again afterwards.
In compact substations it might not be possible to access all areas from within the substation and then
it will be necessary to provide additional access points through the fence by way of gates or removable
fence panels. Of importance is then to provide access around the substation to be able to make use of
these entrances. Refer to Figure 6.3 indicating additional access points into the substation yard. Where
additional access is provided on the side where lines enter the substation it is important to ensure that
the line termination towers are positioned in such a way that they do not negatively impact on the
designated access points.
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Figure 6-2 – Example of access constraints around transformer for replacement - Courtesy: Bob
Slebodnik, Allegheny Energy
Figure 6-3 – Example of multiple access points into a substation yard for accessibility – Courtesy:
Theunus Marais / Eskom South Africa
After the basic layout has been completed, specialist studies should be done for lightning protection,
flood and security lighting, transformer fire/blast walls, cable trenches, and any other studies that might
be required. Ensure that access is checked and readdressed after infrastructure additions as a result of
these studies. The same is applicable after any other infrastructure additions, i.e. oil holding facilities,
and others considerations.
Figure 6-4 indicates the proposed access routes to equipment in a single busbar HV/MV outdoor
substation for maintenance or equipment replacement. It must be noted that this layout has been
optimised to provide a certain level of supply redundancy at an acceptable cost/size ratio, based on the
applicable detailed planning proposal. Included in the layout are lightning/lighting masts as well as the
above-ground portion of the oil containment facility to ensure those requirements are met without
hampering access to equipment. Excluded are the cable trenches mainly to reduce drawing clutter.
The positioning of the HV line terminal towers will have to be chosen in such a way that access to the
HV equipment through the indicated gates is not hampered.
Make sure that culverts and cable trenches are also designed for anticipated heavy equipment loads
moving across it at the designated points.
As stated above, access roads must perform under all weather conditions, so too must the access inside
the substation be maintained during extreme weather. In cold climate zones, ploughing of accumulated
snow is a concern if needed during emergency repairs. Roadway side markers/reflectors and bollards
will keep the plough on track to prevent broken cable trench and foundations. In tropical climates,
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heavy rain and flooding may become a concern if proper yard slope and drainage measures are not
included in the design.
Figure 6-4 – Example of proposed access routes to equipment
Make sure that culverts and cable trenches are also designed for anticipated heavy equipment loads
moving across it at the designated points.
As stated above, access roads must perform under all weather conditions, so too must the access inside
the substation be maintained during extreme weather. In cold climate zones, ploughing of accumulated
snow is a concern if needed during emergency repairs. Roadway side markers/reflectors and bollards
will keep the plough on track to prevent broken cable trench and foundations. In tropical climates,
heavy rain and flooding may become a concern if proper yard slope and drainage measures are not
included in the design.
If space constraints dictate that adequate space for access cannot be provided all relevant parties
(management, field staff, maintenance staff, customers, and other stakeholders) must be made aware
upfront of the negative associated consequences with regard to possible extended outages. Although
all parties might agree to this during the initial design phase it will all be forgotten at the first major
incident and the design engineer will most probably get blamed for a poor design.
In addition to vehicle access to equipment it is important to ensure safe approachable distances to
equipment to avert injury during operation and maintenance activities. Vehicle access may also be
controlled within the substation by Vehicle Access Barriers to prevent vehicles passing under low
clearance structures or equipment or where people standing on trucks with hand tools may breach
critical clearance distance.
Access into and out of buildings

From a building perspective (to house control or switchgear) the physical points where one enters or
exits, including emergency exits must be carefully considered and properly designed. This includes
vehicle access to the building entrances which must be positioned in such a way that entry/exit is not
impeded while installing or removing equipment (control equipment or switchgear). Depending on the
size of the equipment to be moved into and out of the buildings fork lifts might have to be used. In
such cases the buildings must be designed with this in mind and provide adequate access as required.
Substation security considerations are addressed elsewhere in this technical brochure, but it must be
noted that a single standard can not necessarily be applied for both transmission and sub-transmission
substations. As a result of their importance to total security of supply, a higher level of security is likely
to be applied to transmission substations compared to sub-transmission and distribution substations.
For that reason another consideration especially for sub-transmission and distribution substations in
remote or sensitive areas is to design the building in such a way that employees can work inside the
building with the doors open without being visible from the outside so as to reduce the risk of armed
robberies while working. This should be done is such a way as to still make work conditions bearable
inside the building, i.e. provide enough ventilation and proper temperature control. In many developing
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countries where this is a risk it is achieved by adding a foyer with angled access and security gates in
such a way that the inside of the building is not visible while the doors are open. Emergency evacuation
routes should also be considered. Refer to Figure 6-5 for an example of how this can be achieved. The
substation perimeter security fence also extends around the control building and the intention is that
when work needs to be done inside the building, the personnel can park inside the fenced area and lock
the gates for added security. An additional fence is provided demarcating this parking area from the
HV yard to prevent personnel entering the HV yard without authorisation. If this arrangement cannot
be accommodated, other options like a small simple parking space or lot may be sufficient.
Figure 6-5 – Example of building foyer to facilitate personnel safety while working inside
Another aspect that must be considered when sizing buildings for the installation of medium voltage
metal clad switchboards is arc-flash design to avert injury during operation. Enough space must be
provided for, or alternatively remote switching/operating facilities. Another option is to keep the
protection and control equipment in a separate room from indoor switchgear to minimise the risk of
possible arc-flash incidents during operating activities. Substation buildings containing MV switchboards
are subject to certain health and safety requirements being statutory or not, for the purpose of
evacuation during emergency. This should be accommodated in the design to allow personnel to egress
during emergency conditions. This is also valid for battery rooms as per Figure 6-5.
Impact of other services on access to equipment

Once the basic layout has been completed and access provided for, specialist studies should be
completed, i.e. lightning protection and flood lighting. These can only be started once the initial layout
has been completed, but might necessitate equipment and/or structures to be moved. Alternatively,
lightning/lighting masts might be added to optimise the results. If this is the case the access will have
to be verified again to confirm adequacy. This is obviously an iterative process until all requirements
are met or an acceptable design compromise reached. It is however important to note that access
requirements for vehicles that must transport transformers should not be compromised on.
This is applicable to the addition of any additional infrastructure including transformer oil-holding
facilities/dams, fire/blast walls, deluge system, power and control cable racks/ducts, line terminal
towers, storm water retention ponds, and other items. A point often overlooked is verification of access
to and through additional gates after the line terminating towers outside the substation have been
positioned. This is usually done by line design engineers after the substation layout has been completed,
and the substation design engineers are hardly ever given the opportunity to give inputs at this stage.
Power line routes around the substation might also impact on or hamper access into the substation and
must be verified. The associated guys and anchors for overhead lines and duct banks and manholes
for underground lines may impact access. Line and shield conductor tensions, heights, and angles must
all be coordinated with those of the substation termination structure. Therefore, close cooperation
between the substation and lines design engineers is therefore of the utmost importance.
When additions to existing substations are made the impact of access to existing infrastructure is often
overlooked. This is especially in the case when additional transformer bays are added to already
compact substations, boxing the transformers in to such an extent that:
 A dramatic failure to one unit can inadvertently negatively affect adjacent equipment;
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 Access to all units are negatively affected and will extend the removal/replacement durations;
and
 In many cases additional structures/supports/equipment/sections of fence will have to be
removed to access faulty equipment and will then have to be reinstalled afterwards, adding
unnecessarily to the outage duration as well as the outage recovery cost.
Access for mobile equipment
One of the primary advantages of temporary mobile equipment is its ability to be used at more than
one location. Should the substation operational plan include the use of temporary mobile equipment
during maintenance, emergencies, extensions or refurbishment operations access should be considered
as early as the initial design phase already. To accommodate the installation of the intended equipment,
access roads, substation entrances and internal access to the points of connection should be evaluated,
planned and designed in such a way to ensure enough space is available to manoeuver, position and
connect the equipment.
Important aspects to consider when planning access for the use of mobile equipment are:
 Size and manoeuvrability of the equipment;
 Installation location and provisions;
 Electrical and working clearances;
 Primary and secondary connections;
 Grounding/earthing;
 Auxiliary system requirements, including temporary power points;
 Safety requirements; and
 Temporary fencing for a mobile unit if it is required to be set-up outside the main substation
fence.
Neglecting to include this consideration as part of the layout design if required will result in additional
modification and cost requirements at a later stage of the substation lifecycle. Finally, keep in mind
that the mobile equipment must not hamper the real work at hand such as upgrading transformer or
replacing a failed unit. Space and clearance will still be needed to stage a crane, park the transformer
hauler, set-up an oil processing rig and tanker.
6.6 CONSTRUCTABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

In gathering information during the development of this technical brochure the main risk factors
hampering construction in developing countries were listed. Figure 6-6 is a representation of these
indicating the impact of the various factors on a scale of 1 – 10 with 10 having the biggest impact on
substation construction and 1 the least. There is a close correlation between the concerns listed for
Greenfield as well as brownfield projects. It can be seen that most of these factors are applicable to
the project implementation phase and cannot necessarily be addressed through the design.
The risk factors can however be addressed by the design engineers and are represented in Table 6-1.
For new installations many constructability issues occur as a result of a lack of communication within
the design team and between the design engineers and the construction company during the design
phase. This is especially applicable with design-bid-build projects where the contractors are only
appointed after design completion. Design engineers by their nature are not always experienced in
construction methodologies which can aggravate the situation. Following are a few factors to be
considered that can improve constructability of substations.
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Figure 6-6 – Main construction risk factors
Table 6-1 – Addressing construction risk factors

Factor Resolution
 Competency of construction In the design this might be catered for by making use
management, contractors, labourers of more basic structures or equipment that do not need
and tradesmen specialised tools or skills to implement, i.e. making use
of standard and modularised designs.
 Design quality Definitely a design concern. The design should include
all required detail to facilitate proper implementation
including clear and detailed design drawings as well as
construction guidelines.
 Design Complexity Considering the location, competencies of contractors
and others, the engineer should ensure the complexity
of the design that matches these factors. This can be
further augmented by additional drawings and
installation instructions.
 Isolated location of the sites obtained Possibly, although this is a function of the load centre,
is dependent on the factors discussed in section 6.3 as
well as the other project team members/
departments/functions.
 Lack of proper assessments (ESIA) and Possibly, as far as it falls within the responsibility of the
obtaining approvals/permits design engineers. This will vary from company to
company and country to country.
 Site access problems Definitely if it is a specific design concern. Not so much
if it is general concern.
 Site conditions Definitely if it is a specific design concern. Not so much
if it is general concern.
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Constructability reviews
Although constructability reviews are a project management technique to review construction processes,
the focus of this section will be on basic design considerations to facilitate repeatability which will impact
on the ease of construction, operability, maintainability and expandability.
The main objective of a constructability review should be to minimise or eliminate possible deviation
orders and schedule delays during construction by ensuring that the construction documents are fully
coordinated, complete and buildable. A constructability review and analysis comprises a review of
documentation and its completeness and adequacy for the task at hand, and an analysis of buildability,
logical sequencing, scheduling and complexity of project elements.
The complexity analysis determines if project elements can be simplified. As an example, rather than
specifying a number of different equipment foundations, standardising on a single type of foundation
could save construction cost and time by reducing construction complexity and minimising formwork
required.
Constructability reviews should ideally be performed by the contractor, but this is not always practical.
As an alternative these reviews can be performed by peers with construction experience, or external
consultants can be contracted to perform the reviews. It might however be challenging to find external
experts who are willing to perform these peer reviews when not directly involved in the project. Another
possible alternative is to establish a panel of reviewers made up from the expected tendering
construction companies. This will familiarise them with the project details as well as prepare them for
the tender phase. If internal company construction crews are available as resources in a utility, consult
the substation crew leaders for input on the constructability review. They would be the most
knowledgeable on system facilities and their installation and maintenance.
Contractor specific requirements such as space for a temporary portable construction office (trailers are
sometimes used), a material lay-down area, perhaps shipping crates used for secure material storage,
parking for construction vehicles (cranes, fork lifts, bull dozers), maybe a small fuel tanker, etc. are
often overlooked and will generally be identified during these reviews. If these requirements are not
included in the substation space requirements and substation positioning on the procured site it will be
necessary for the contractor to obtain a separate temporary construction camp or site removed from
the actual substation site. This will add additional costs to the project as a result of the additional site
rent, daily relocation of equipment and materials, and other logistical considerations for instance power,
water and sanitation requirements.
Of importance is that the design engineers use these reviews and their outcomes as learning or
developmental experiences and thereby improve their design skills and subsequent designs. Of equal
importance is the sharing of the lessons learned with other designers for the continuous improvement
of their skills and designs. Finally, it is important to consider future extension due to expansion. The
concept of future expansion should be considered throughout the design process and identified during
the constructability reviews.
Improve constructability through modular designs

As indicated in the Design Philosophy section, a design on paper is worthless if it cannot be readily built
in the field. It is important that the design engineer understands the competency of the workforce that
will be involved in the construction of the substation. Although not directly a design consideration, the
design can compensate for lower competency levels.
One way is to modularise certain aspects of the design. This can be realised on different levels, i.e.
compile a set of standard layouts or building blocks. Standard equipment layouts can be defined and
used to build up complete (identical) bays, and the identical bays are then used to build up the
substation. These identical bays must be used in all subsequent new substations. In this way designers
know what works, inexperienced contractors get to know what should be done and operational staff
will be more familiar with their substations if all have identical bays.
When this principle forms part of the business design strategy it is import to ensure that specifications
for new equipment contracts facilitate backward compatibility. This is important to ensure that new
equipment will be able to replace existing/old equipment without having to modify the existing
installation (that is modifying or replace the foundations and/or support structures and/or
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dropper/jumper conductors and clamps). This modularisation will ensure reduced outage times and
also facilitate easier future expansion installations.
An example of a typical standard bay module for multiple substation applications is given in Figure 6-7,
indicating the bay section and foundation layout views as well as pertinent information of the main
equipment indicated. As an example the section and front views of the standard current transformer
module layout is given in Figure 6-8. Note that the labels A – M list all the material items needed to
facilitate the installation and is listed in Table 6-2 as an example.
Another modularisation concept with potential for significant cost savings is for the construction of the
substation control room and low voltage switchroom. Rather than construction and fit out of the building
on site, which of course may be quite remote, transportable buildings can be fitted out at the
constructors premises and shipped to site when Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT) has been completed.
As a complete tested building arriving on site, it then only requires connection of the site services and
cables to the proven control room. This gives maximum interaction with and access for the designers
to rectify any design issues and minimises logistics associated with site rectification of errors found
during Site Acceptance Testing (SAT) and Commissioning. This also has the advantage that room
layouts can be standardised across all substations, avoiding technician and operator confusion, and with
a standard set of mechanical fixtures necessary for correct and safe operation of the substation
throughout its life.
Figure 6-7 – Example of a standard line bay module
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Figure 6-8 – Example of a standard current transformer module
Table 6-2– Example of a BoM for a standard current transformer module

MATERIAL
REF STD DRW DESCRIPTION UM QTY
NO
A E-SUP-5206-1A MEDIUM EQUIPMENT SUPPORT FOUNDATION N/A ea 3
B E-SUP-5206-2C 2.5M MEDIUM EQUIPMENT LATTICE SUPPORT 0182752 ea 3
C E-SUP-5206-2H MEDIUM EQUIPMENT CAP M1 0182753 ea 3
D EQUIP-6190 CT 132 kV 2500A 40kA 2P2M2B1600 31 0180034 ea 3
E COND-3136 COND, AAC BULL 38.25D UNGRS 0403047 m 18
F CLAMP-6013 CLAMP: EYC-B;2X38.3 COMP 38 BOLTED 0DG 0005663 ea 6
G OTHER-6114 BRACKET, PHASE COLOUR DISC 0172425 ea 1
H OTHER-5047 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT LABEL SPECIFY ea 1
I MISC-6097 BOLT, HX GALV M16x45mm W/HX NUT 0163715 ea 12
J MISC-3014 WASHER, RD FLAT M16 29.6D 18.25D HL 0404344 ea 12
K MISC-3014 WASHER, TAPER M16 38SQ 18.0D HL 0163917 ea 12
L OTHER-6065 BRACKET, CONTROL CABLE 0164297 ea 12
M CLAMP-6087 SPACER:ES-B; COND 2X38.3MM;150MM CRS 0402559 ea 6
Note the following:
REF: Item reference in the drawing STD DRW: Standard detailed drawing number
DESCRIPTION: Material item short description MATERIAL NO: Company specific in-house material number
UM: Material unit of measure QTY: Quantity required
Plan and design for future expansion requirements

In addition to existing requirements being addressed by the design, future upgrades and extensions
must also be considered and provided for in the initial layout design. The intention should be that these
future upgrades and extensions can be implemented without any, or with minimal interruptions to
existing supplies and customers. The design should be completed for the expected final, also known
as end-of-life, layout followed by a reduction of the scope to what is required initially considering the
constructability of the future extensions.
If the substation layout as given in Figure 6-4 is taken as the expected end-of-life layout, but only one
HV line, one transformer and three MV lines are required initially the total layout can be reduced to
something as indicated in Figure 6-9. The expected substation end-of-life final terrace should typically
be designed and depending of the extent of work required the total terrace can be prepared, or only
the portion initially required. In this way future extensions can be added with minimal interruptions to
customers while at the same time access to equipment, technical and design requirements are satisfied.
If the initial requirements include space to be made available inside the substation fenced area for a
temporary mobile transformer bay should something happen to the only transformer in the substation,
space can be made available by moving the fence on the right by about six meters. In this way the
temporary mobile transformer bay can be connected to the HV and MV busbar disconnectors already
provided for through cables.
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Figure 6-9 – Example of initial layout in relation to final layout
Another option is to design for and develop the complete site for expected substation end-of-life
requirements, including fence and earth/ground grid but only equip the bays initially required with
equipment. Both options have advantages and disadvantages that should be weighed up in reaching a
final decision on which option to implement.
As highlighted in the previous section, modularisation will facilitate easier future expansions, because
the design engineer already knows the standard bay.
It is good design practice to provide for future substation expansion even if the initial medium to long
term plan does not foresee any or only minimal load increase requirements. This is especially prudent
when the initial requirements call for a very basic substation. Development and load growth will
increase, often beyond initial expectations once an electrical supply has been introduced into an area.
In such cases, still procure a property bigger than required and site the initial substation in such a way
that both primary and secondary sides can be extended. Size the control building to be bigger than
initially required so that it can accommodate additional panels with having to increase its size. In
addition, position the building in such a way that it can be extended if required in future. Always try to
cover unforeseen future possibilities as far as practicable.
In general, a designer should take into consideration past experience, best judgement and advice of
mentors.
Design aids and other practices

Making use of advanced design tools such as 3D CAD can have a profound impact on the substation
design process [40]. A number of specialised packages are available on the market and typically offer
solutions that can greatly simply and help to validate the design, as well as perform advanced analysis
such as conductor and tubular sag calculations, lightning shielding verification, phase to phase and
phase to earth clearance analysis to name but a few. In addition, it can automate the compilation of
Bill of Quantities (BoQ) and Bill of Materials (BoM) and construction drawings. The 3D models created
can also be printed as interactive 3D pdf files to support the contractor during the implementation. In
these files the various levels can be switched on and off to represent the different construction phases,
i.e. foundations only, foundations with support structures, or foundations with support structures and
equipment together and so on. It must however be highlighted that these tools are costly and that a
lot of time will be needed to set the system up, custom configure it and train employees to make optimal
use of it. This might not be an implementable solution for certain companies, but is an option to specify
if designs are outsourced.
Not all design and support tools have to be professionally developed or be very expensive to make a
positive impact on the design. Basic self-developed in-house database or spreadsheet tools can also
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make a big difference on design time and calculation integrity. Of importance is that the correct
reference material is used to base the tools on, and that the final product is peer reviewed to ensure
correctness.
As previously mentioned, it is important to produce an implementable design. This means that if the
competency of the construction management, contractors, labourers or tradesmen is questionable (with
reference to Figure 6-6) the implementation of the design must be straightforward and basic practices
and equipment must be catered for in a bid to reduce construction errors. It must be noted that any
design decision has advantages and disadvantages so these must be evaluated and the best option
applied. As an example the following can typically be considered:
 Using easy-to-erect tubular steel structures over lattice angle structures that require field
assembly and is more difficult to level and “plumb”. If designed and applied properly these
structures can also be used to hide control cable if provision is made to access through the
foundations. The higher material (steel) cost compared to the equivalent lattice option is
typically offset by the ease of construction and associated reduced labour cost. Figure 6-10
indicates the previously shown standard current transformer module but utilising tubular
support structures.
 Using bolted electrical connectors/clamps over compression type to ease installation with a
simple torque wrench instead of hydraulic presses and dies. This might however have a
maintenance impact in that if not properly torqued, hot connections might develop over time
and if over-torqued, the conductors will most probably be damaged.
 Using pre-cast cable trench (the commercially available component system with brackets and
sidewalls) over the more labour-intensive formed and cast-in-place cable trench for ease of
construction.
 Using pre-cast concrete slabs for MV breaker foundations over the somewhat more labour-
intensive formed and poured pads. It is important the pre-cast slab is adequately sized for the
application, and that the compaction around it is done properly to ensure the required bearing
pressure is achieved.
 Using pre-fabricated self-framing sheet metal control buildings or complete pre-fabricated
buildings instead of the built on site brick buildings. These can be fitted out with all protection
and control panels in the factory and properly tested before shipped out to site. This will reduce
onsite installation and testing times. Standardised cable interfaces in the control room and yard
junction boxes can be utilised to facilitate a plug-and-play scenario.
 Using smaller lighting masts on each MV/LV bay and HV line terminations over a set of
independent free-standing lightning poles and spans of shield wire.
When there is a premium to be paid in developing these tools it might be better to keep it simple and
basic, and rather outsource the services to providers or consultants who undertake a large volume of
designs for various clients, thereby being able to provide these services more cost-effectively.
Figure 6-10 – Example of a standard current transformer module with tubular support
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Substation commissioning considerations

As with substation construction, operation and maintenance (COM), the substation testing and
commissioning (T&C) is out of the direct scope of this Technical Brochure which focusses mainly on
substation design elements. Technical Brochure 354 provides a good reference point for the testing
and commissioning phase of a substation and is regarded as a handy reference [41]. T&C is just as
important an activity as with COM in the overall project of installing substations for the electrical
infrastructure of any region. Although it is not intended to make any one activity in the process of
installing a substation more important that all others, in a sense T&C is of vital importance and possibly
could be the most important individual element that has a direct impact upon the success of the project.
The reason being is in the fact that if all of the T&C related activities are not performed flawlessly, there
could be dire consequences for the project success in the long-term. The results could possibly be that
part of or even the entire substation trips out of service, potentially taking adjoining parts of the system
with it, or even catastrophic failure of vital parts of the substation or even the entire substation itself.
Therefore, due to its significance related to safety, economics, and reliable service obligations, an
emphasis is due to the subject of T&C. Although applicable to troubleshooting, repair, and maintenance
activities, the T&C discussion has been placed here in the constructability chapter as T&C is first
encountered immediately after initial construction and just before initial energisation. T&C logically and
sequentially fits right there in the process of installing or expanding a substation. This is where the
designer will have the most positive impact (and eliminate negative impacts). The T&C activities that
occur during O&M situations are somewhat independent of and after the fact of the initial design and
construction.
The related discussion here for T&C will be with the same perspective as given to COM, as well as all
other related but non-scope substations activities such as asset management, project management,
costing, procurement, as so forth. The broad object is to integrate T&C into the interdependent
elements of substation design activities. The designer has to incorporate what the Commissioning
Engineer (CE) needs to achieve a fit-for-purpose, low-cost substation. The desired outcome is that the
designer understands the importance of giving the CE the accurate detailed design and equipment
documentation required so they have the confidence needed that the substation will not trip out or blow
up in part or in total.
Certainly based on historical experience, T&C is a key phase of any substation project, and basically all
the engineering, quality assurance and control measures lead up to being able to safely commission
and energise the equipment, and ultimately the entire facility. Some of the most critical considerations
for designers to provide what is needed for the commissioning of substations are:
 First and foremost, a thorough review and understanding of the project plan proposed by the
network planning engineers will ensure that, from the start, the design will fulfil the electrical
needs intended;
 Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) measures during the creation of design drawings
are vital. This is usually in the form of a Front End Engineering Design (FEED) phase; formal
drawing reviews at multiple stages in the detailed design process by a senior engineer; inter-
disciplinary engineering checks of design interfaces (i.e. between electrical and civil, substation
and lines, and other elements); and final approval by the project engineer or engineering
management;
 Accurate specification of equipment with regards to obtaining the necessary documents (both
hard copy and electronic) from the suppliers and manufacturers as part of the contracted
deliverables. Obtaining suitable outline and schematic drawings, factory tests, installation
manuals, field test and maintenance manuals, and so forth will equip the CE with the information
and data they will need to establish a robust testing and commissioning plan;
 Formal procedures to transmit the design drawings and manufactures documentation to those
needing them, in this case the CE. Drawings and specifications are of little value if they are not
in the hands of the right personnel at the right time;
 Field support should be provided in a timely manner by the designer and good teamwork with
the CE to will help them to address any questions or concerns they have during T&C;
 Change management procedures in well documented and communicated formal processes are
necessary to capture any field changes by the designer and construction amendments so that
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the CE has the full, accurate picture when they initiate their work. Likewise for any final as-
built revisions. Post-construction maintenance years later will only be as good as the records
made by the design and construction personnel after initial installation;
 The T&C Plan is a vital element of the process. It is most important that detailed risk assessment
of the testing activities is undertaken so that critical safety considerations are observed during
the testing phase. Many utilities have experienced an increase of significant safety incidents
during the process of commissioning due to parallel operations whilst commissioning assets.
These issues stem from the partial state of energisation of the substation assets during testing.
It is most important that a well-documented testing and commissioning plan be established,
risk assessed and then choreographed to ensure that the testing process is undertaken in a
methodical and safe manner. Single point accountability for the site during testing and
commissioning is imperative to ensure that there are is no overlap between various testing
parties working adjacent one another simultaneously, and where there are likely overlaps, these
are conducted in a way that there is no risk of conflicts between parties; and
 Training and education of designers will ensure that the objective of understanding the
importance of being able to give the CE what is needed to fulfil their part of the overall
installation. Although a CE may have very specific training and certification needs, the
substation designer should have enough basic training in the subject of T&C to be conversant
in and knowledgeable of the activities and needs of the CE.
In keeping with the low-cost solutions theme of this Technical Brochure, one can conclude that if the
designer is prudent in providing for the needs of the CE, their testing and commissioning activities will
proceed in an efficient and timely manner and will effectively result in a truly reliable and fit-for-purpose
substation. Once energised there will be a significantly low likelihood that errors and omissions in
engineering and equipment specifications result in safety hazards or potential inadvertent operations
which could result in extremely costly equipment damage, extended outages, loss of service, loss of
profitability, or worst of all, loss of life or limb.
6.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON SITE SELECTION, ACCESS AND CONSTRUCTABILITY

As previously mentioned in this document, engineering is a mix of both “art” and “science”. The “art”
of knowing what works best in each situation, which is gained through experience, will guide the
“science”, which is gained through education, to achieve its best results.
Although it might be concluded that incorporating all the aspects discussed in this chapter will increase
cost, the opposite is actually true. Careful consideration of the substation site can reduce initial
construction cost, have an impact on the cost of access roads (either positive or negative) as well as
lower long term maintenance costs. The same is applicable to constructability reviews if they are
focused on the issues that affect buildability.
Proper consideration must be given to the factors impacting site selection to ensure that the best
possible site is procured, minimising unnecessary expenses associated with construction, operation and
maintenance activities. Not taking care during the site selection process will have a negative impact on
the total project cost and might add long term maintenance concerns.
Proper access in and around the substation, including to and from equipment and buildings can reduce
outage durations for normal maintenance as well as during emergencies, thereby reducing outage times
and associated inconvenience to customers. The upside is also that the duration of unserved energy
will be reduced and thereby income maximised.
Careful planning of the access into buildings might also make these buildings inherently safer for
employees while working, especially in remote or sensitive or volatile areas.
In conclusion with regards to access, important questions to be answered are:
 How must vehicles get to and from the substation?
 Of importance is that access all the way to and from the main centres where spare
equipment (especially transformers) have to be transported to/from;
 Carefully consider the main access all the way from the public road right up to the
substation; and
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 Ensure sufficient rights-of-ways are obtained if required.

 How must vehicles get into and out of the substation?
 Consider access to general areas;
 Consider access to equipment for maintenance;
 Consider access to equipment during emergencies; and
 Consider access for cranes to install/remove transformers.
 How must vehicles move around inside the substation?
 Plan access to equipment;
 Plan access for mobile (temporary) equipment if required;
 Make sure access routes in the substation are well defined, marked and known; and
 Install cable trench ramps and similar elements to prevent unnecessary damage to
infrastructure.
 Access for which types of vehicles must be considered?
 Motorcars, SUV’s and pickups to general areas;
 Medium-sized trucks, to all equipment; and
 Big trucks, heavy vehicles, abnormal vehicles and cranes to main equipment and
transformers as required.
Always ensure that the property procured is big enough not only to fit the substation on, but also to
accommodate all the other services required during the construction phase. The space procured must
make provision for all current and future requirements as well as what might be required during the
construction. Of importance is that the space procured must be used wisely.
As indicated in this chapter, it is not necessarily the big design changes or ideas that will have the
biggest impact on constructability. Of more importance is knowledge of the local constraints and
concerns, and then addressing those in the design. Figure 6.6 lists typical concerns that have been
highlighted as applicable to substation design and construction in developing countries. It is always
important to find out what the local conditions and concerns are and then to cater for those in the
design.
The use of standard building blocks and modules in the design can increase constructability, especially
in areas where resource constraints include lower competency levels. Making use of standard building
blocks also promotes low-cost and low-risk design practices and will also have a positive impact on
operating as it promotes familiarity with operating staff.
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7. OPERABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter is designed to provide a simplified overview of the operability and maintainability aspects
of substations for consideration by the designer. It is intended to equip the designer with a toolkit to
execute design in a pragmatic manner to reduce exposure to cost as far as reasonably possible. For
more detailed information pertaining to maintenance of substation assets, Technical Brochure 660,
“Savings through optimised maintenance in air-insulated substations” presents a substantial body of
knowledge with regard to the emerging trends in the asset management and the maintenance of
substations [42]. There is also a relevant publication of design configurations for substations with
substantial information pertaining to the assessment of different substation configuration in Technical
Brochure 585, “Circuit Configuration Optimisation” [43].
Maintainability and operability requires that the substation is designed in such a way as to provide
sufficient access to equipment as well as sufficient flexibility being provided to limit the impact of
maintenance and repair on the operation of the substation to assure maximum availability of supply
[44]. Operation and maintenance of electrical assets represents the most enduring element of the
lifecycle of the electrical power system. This element of the asset lifecycle could span from little over a
decade through to nearly a century. The operation and maintenance lifecycle of assets (O&M) also
consumes the most cost over the life of the asset – for substations the O&M cost is only likely to be
exceeded by the initial infrastructure costs. For this reasoning, substation design practitioners must
consider the operational and maintainability aspects of substations as an essential element of the
substation design process. The maintainability of the substation forms an integral part of the design
process – the design of the substation is interdependent with the utility maintenance and operating
policies and this significantly affects the lifecycle costs as well as the performance of the substation
during the operational lifecycle.
A prudent asset management approach requires that the designer assures the safe and reliable
operation of substations for a specified economic or service life. Consideration of lifecycle has been
precipitated through a greater drive to extend asset life within constrained capital replacement
programmes coupled with the development of more robust equipment for substations. It is also
becoming more prevalent to extend the operation to well beyond estimated technical life through many
lifecycle extension methods. Maintainability and operability considerations are important and they are
also quite simple in their consideration with regard to substation design. Modern substation circuit
equipment is rapidly evolving toward a more compact format whereby many maintenance activities
have become non-intrusive (coupled with condition-based corrective actions). Nowadays equipment
maintenance shutdowns have been combined to include complete bays with multiple crews that has
reduced the time required for outages as well as reduced the frequency of outage and thereby increased
circuit availability. Modern circuit devices are able to be quickly replaced in situ whereby intrusive
maintenance of the device could be conducted offline at a designated repair centre. This approach has
also led to optimisation of circuit configurations to take advantage of value engineering coupled with
lower capital expenditure [43]. There is a gradual move away by electricity entities from traditionally
designed substations which have a higher degree of operational flexibility through redundancy toward
more cost efficient infrastructure. This has been driven by cost constraints combined with evidence
that substation asset failure rates are very low. Contemporary planning criteria are also evolving to
take account of modern equipment trends and configuration. This is compounded by the need to cater
for assets of different lifetimes – primary is decades, secondary is 10-20 years, batteries a few years,
software less than 5 years.
Prior to exploring operability and maintainability considerations in more detail, the most important and
valuable element for the designer to consider is the relationship and ongoing communication with the
field operations and maintenance personnel within the organisation. Through a close working
relationship, the designer is able to gain an in-depth knowledge and understanding of the operational
and maintenance challenges within the utility and this could be applied as a learning toward the
optimisation of the substation design. In fact, many experienced substation designers have substantial
operation and maintenance experience that translates to substations that enable simple operations
whilst being maintainable. The field learnings are valuable and it is very important that there is
interaction between the field teams and the design team ahead of the development of the design.
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7.2 GLOBAL SURVEY DATA ANALYSIS

The analysis of survey data with regard to substation operability and maintainability yielded valuable
results with regard to what designers considered to be significant risk and cost factors affecting
substation design. A summary of the significant risk factors affecting substations from an operability
and maintainability perspective is presented in Figure 7-1 below.
14
12
10
8
Rating
0
Experienced Maintenance Outage Proper testing Spare parts Weather Well
O&M Budget Availability equipment availability related developed
technicians outages maintenance
program
Risk Factor
Brownfield Substations Greenfield Substation
Figure 7-1 – Summary of Risk Factors from an O&M Perspective
The data presented with regard to risks is based upon credible responses from 25 of the technical survey
respondents within developing countries. The predominant risk factors identified during the survey
analysis were all related to the maintenance activities including personnel, tools and availability of
suitable spare parts. Other factors such as budget, availability of outages, weather effects and
maintenance programmes rated much lower by comparison. Note that for both Greenfield and
brownfield substations, experienced personnel rates as the most significant risk factor for operations
and maintenance. Spare parts availability rates as the most significant risk factor for existing brownfield
substations and to a much lesser extent for new or Greenfield substations. The conclusion to draw from
the analysis is that it is important for designers to consider the risk of suitable and available spares
during the equipment selection in the design process at the very beginning of the life of the substation.
Utilities are recommended to establish either a well-organised programme of recurrent training that
assures a competent workforce enabled to maintain substations; or robust long-term contracts to
facilitate the procurement of substation maintenance services [42]. This is best facilitated during the
substation design phase so that selection of equipment does not lead to a high risk of not being able to
maintain the substation equipment.
The cost factors that were identified from the global technical survey are presented in Figure 7-2 below.
There were only 20 respondents that presented credible responses to the cost factors for substation
operability and maintainability. Budget adequacy appeared to be the most significant cost factor
followed by the cost of labour. This provides a key consideration for designers so that substations are
established with minimal impact upon long-term cost. Procurement of modern substations is tending
toward the capitalisation of long-term maintenance upfront as part of the contract to establish the asset.
Design of substations that minimise the impact upon labour are also likely considerations – movement
toward equipment that does not require intervention over a long term could be excellent considerations
(for example: hybrid technology with dead-tank equipment for circuit-breakers and disconnectors).
Actual costs, spare parts, sustainability and weather impacts related as quite low by comparison to more
dominant factors.
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5
Rating
0
Adequate Labor cost Maintenance Operation of Outage costs Spare parts Sustainability Sustainability Weather
maintenance cost equipment of related
budget to failure experienced delays
engineers
Cost Factor
Brownfield substations Greenfield substations
Figure 7-2 – Summary of Cost Factors from an O&M Perspective
7.3 ASSET MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

ISO 55000 asserts “Effective control and governance of assets by organisations is essential to realise
value through managing risk and opportunity, to achieve the desired balance between effective cost,
risk and performance” [3]. Contemporary wisdom through the application of prudent asset
management requires that assets are established to satisfy pre-defined performance criteria within an
envelope of cost combined with the balance of risk. Chapter 3 of this TB provides the designer with an
insight into the concepts of contemporary asset management within electricity utilities.
O&M considerations are attracting an ever increasing importance within the substation design phase as
there are many opportunities to exercise value engineering during the design phase that can present
long-term benefits to the organisation. Traditionally O&M was covered as being implicit in substation
configuration that allowed lengthy outages for equipment due to a high level of redundancy. When
considering the asset management lifecycle of substations, three significant criteria have been identified
as follows [45]:
a. Cost expressed in financial terms. This is a combination of aggregated risk mitigation expense
(maintenance labour, materials, specialist contracts, tools and other) and direct enabling costs
(fuel, utilities and consumables). For electricity substations, there are usually very limited direct
enabling costs to be accounted for. Cost nowadays factors in more modern approaches which
includes the opportunity costs associated to un-availability of assets due to outage – usually in
the context of electricity utilities it is referenced as the cost of unserved energy. There are two
significant revenue considerations:
 Revenue is lost during outages due to inability to sell power; generally, it could be
more serious if it is a generator or a step-up transformer, but also applicable to
complete substations; and
 Costs associated to buying replacement power elsewhere from alternate sources or
dispatching uneconomic generators.
With a greater knowledge of operational costs, designers are increasingly able to consider
substation design options based upon lifecycle costs as opposed to being limited to the initial
capital expenditure as a basis for comparison. Increasingly the use of objective economic
analysis which includes the operation and maintenance of substations is readily becoming a
more credible alternative to using intuition alone.
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b. Risk is a situation involving exposure to danger, harm or loss. Risk expressed as the residual
or target risk (based upon an established corporate risk matrix) to the delivery of the desired
performance. Risk assessment is based on the evaluation of likelihood of adverse
consequences, for example the likelihood of supply disruption that results in loss of revenue,
reputational damage and consequential damage claims; and
c. Performance considers quantifiable criteria associated to maximising reliability, availability,

maintainability and supportability (RAMS) whilst minimising exposure to asset failure risk.
Performance is the achievement of a given task measured against pre-set known standards of
accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed. The most widely used index for transmission systems
is circuit availability and it is expressed as a percentage of the actual circuit available hours
over the total circuit hours per annum. This performance measure provides a very simple basis
for supply availability and is often expressed as a percentage of time, say 4 nines = 99.99%
available which translates to an average unavailability of 52 minutes 33.6 seconds per annum.
The theory of 9’s finds its origins in modern computing and is usually applied to a system or
subsystem as a set of equipment – a substation transformer bay for example. It is important
that desired performance is expressed in simple terms and one should guard against complex
performance indices.
The “art” of good substation design practice serves to best balance the risk by way of assuring a
desirable performance within a reasonable cost. The focus of this Technical Brochure is to maximise
cost efficiency, therefore the performance and risk assessment becomes significant to the design
consideration.
7.4 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR MAINTAINABILITY AND OPERABILITY OF SUBSTATIONS

Electricity network systems are largely static and by comparison to mechanical processes there is a
relatively low level of maintenance activity required to assure operation to pre-determined performance
criteria over an extended period. Usually when significant equipment failure has occurred (which is rare
by experience), part or the entire substation can be rendered inoperable for a considerable time leading
to substantial direct costs to customers. It is very difficult to justify sufficient redundancy to mitigate
the loss of availability that stems from major plant failure. The type of load is a key determinant for
the level of redundancy catered for within a substation. The sensitivity of the loads and/or the impact
upon the overall network provides a basis for the designer to consider multiple redundant elements
within the substation.
The first consideration for the design of a substation with maintainability in mind is the establishment
of performance criteria for the operation of substations. The designer must initially identify the agreed
or specified criteria for performance of the substation – this is usually established by the planning
engineer during the planning stages of the electricity network. The network development plans take
account of the type of loads to be supplied and this forms the basis of the performance criteria.
Once the performance requirement has been established, the designer needs to account for numerous
substation reliability drivers that could impact upon the performance criteria. Taking these into account,
the substation design could then be evolved to satisfy the underlying performance criteria. This
approach provides the designer with the ability to deliver a design that meets specified performance.
The assessment of maintainability and operability criteria for substation design is initiated during the
preliminary design and optioneering stage (FEED) whereby the designer commences the process of
developing a range of options to meet the overall performance criteria. Most electricity utilities may
already have an excellent basis for network and substation performance based upon the historical trends
of performance of their existing asset base – this is often an excellent basis upon which future design
could be based and generally this could be used as a valid approach to securing optimisation along with
improved cost.
Substation Performance Criteria
Most electricity utilities state the planning and performance criteria for substations. The performance
criteria are a quantifiable set of measures aimed at stating the desired performance of a substation. In
certain jurisdictions where there are mature regulatory environments, overall planning and performance
criteria are regulated by the independent regulatory authority. These criteria include the following:
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 Economic and Technical/Service life of the substation – for utilities subject to an

economic regulatory environment, the economic life is pre-determined to identify the regulated
return on asset for a set rate of depreciation. Often the technical life of an asset could exceed
the economic life (set by a regulator) of the asset by a considerable margin. Ordinarily for
primary substation assets, 40 years has been established as a generic economic life of asset –
this is a traditional assumption and not necessarily a life expectancy. Deterministic economic
life expectancy of substations hails from accounting practices whereby electricity assets have
been depreciated by way of a straight line method over a set time and usually these models
are overly simplistic. The technical life of substation assets could often exceed the economic
life by a factor of two and there are a growing number of electricity substation assets that are
nearing a century of service. It is very important to the designer to determine the life
expectancy of the substation prior to developing the design as it can substantially influence the
configuration and equipment selection and thereby have a significant impact upon initial capital
investment. One should bear in mind that the life expectancy of the substation follows from
the type of customer that it should serve – resource intensive operations such as mines may
only require short-lived and moveable/re-deployable substations (that are easily expandable);
in many cases the substation would be required for less than 20 years whereas substations
providing supply to residential and commercial customer bases could be required for an
undetermined period, often exceeding a century. There are growing practices for substations
to be modular and/or demountable where short lives are a factor; this enables re-use of
infrastructure for alternate locations once the substation is no longer required. The design
solution based upon estimated life expectancy will vary significantly.
 Profitability – another consideration for substation maintainability is how it affects the bottom
line on the utilities balance sheet. Note that this factor is largely a function of the specific
economic regulatory environment of the utility where the designer is located and local economic
regulations should be consulted. Generally, after a substation is installed, all assets are brand
new and are put into the rate base so that the utility can start to recover costs from the
customers. As the years go by, those assets age and depreciate in value and eventually can no
longer be figured into the rates charged by the utility. Beyond depreciation is deterioration
where future work on those assets essentially amounts to maintenance just to keep them
working. Depending on the regulations, maintenance and repair costs are sunk costs that are
not allowed in the rate base. They amount to a loss for the utility. However, replacing old
assets with new allows the utility to capitalise the new assets, add them to the rate base, and
earn money on them. For example, the substation metallic chain-link fence may be corroding
and deteriorating on one or two sides and is badly in need of repairs. Spot repairs and painting
will last a while and will consume the maintenance budget. Eventually other sides will also soon
need attention. Retiring the old fence in its entirety and replacing it with new fence as a capital
expenditure will permit it to go into the rate base for recovery (as well as making a maintenance
headache go away). So the planning decision to categorise a project as either “capital” or
“maintenance” (with respect to accounting) can have an impact on profitability.
 Availability and Reliability of Supply – most mature electricity utilities are regulated to
provide performance to international benchmarks such as Circuit Availability (transmission),
System Minutes (transmission) and system average interruption index (SAIDI) and system
average interruption frequency index (SAIFI) for distribution systems. Substations contribute
to the overall system reliability of supply and the reliability criteria should be known prior to
developing a design. The reliability targets can be broken down into the contribution afforded
from substations and lines. These could be established as criteria for the expected unavailability
(downtime) resultant from unplanned outages as well as preventative or corrective
maintenance. Expected availability is being utilised as a key input to the configuration as well
as equipment selection for substations, especially where capital constraints are a significant
consideration. With a clear specification for availability the designer can establish various
options regarding configuration and/or equipment selection to assure robust design.
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Considering that the capacity of the substation has been established as pre-requisite, the
simplest way of expressing the desired performance of the substation is by way of circuit or
system availability where the following argument is commonly referred to in Equation 7-1:
𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐢𝐭 𝐚𝐯𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐡𝐫𝐬)

𝐂𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐀𝐯𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐚𝐯𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 (𝐡𝐫𝐬)
Equation 7-1 – System Availability Calculation
The estimated circuit availability could be determined by combining the average planned outage
time required for maintenance with the anticipated forced and unplanned outage time
normalised to an annual basis. The designer could utilise the availability data to best determine
the optimal configuration taking account of likely performance.
There is an emerging body of research into normalised equipment failure rates and global
trends. Many transmission operators collaboratively participate in facilitated annual
benchmarking exercises on a commercial basis to determine the best approaches to assuring
performance of assets through analysis of trends. Benchmarking studies are usually only open
to participants on a commercial basis with results not being freely available for wider application.
One could assess the likely reliability performance of the substation through the aggregation of
the nominal performance of each asset class which forms the critical path of the substation.
The comparison of options utilising these indices remains quite complex and not widely utilised.
There are, however, a number of texts and calculations available that demonstrate the value of
such an exercise [44] [46] [47].
 Quality of Supply – with the advent of quality-of-supply criteria and targets, the designer is
under increasing pressure to consider the impact of the substation design on supply quality.
This is especially relevant where there are distinctly different types of load being sourced from
the substation. The best example of such is where heavy industrial loads are being supplied
from a substation that supplies sensitive commercial and residential customers. The industrial
load could present adverse power quality for the more sensitive commercial customers. The
designer would have to consider the impact of each customer type upon one-another, e.g. load
busbars on substations feeding industrial furnace loads would benefit being split away from
commercial loads to avert the impact of flicker on the commercial installations. Another
example is the power quality and stability issues arising from the power electronics in the
inverters connecting solar photovoltaic arrays to utility distribution systems. This is on the rise
with Distributed Generation (DG) or Distributed Energy Resources (DER) becoming more
common, the rise of harmonics from inverters can cause power quality issues for customers on
those circuits.
 Relative Cost – the delivery of electricity substations is a costly undertaking and most
electricity utilities are capital constrained or are under strict scrutiny of regulators to optimise
investment for assets. Where there has been a prior history of substation build over time,
utilities are in a better position to more accurately set the budgets for establishing substation
infrastructure. The designer must factor the cost of construction into the design of a substation.
 There are a number of distinct cost drivers for the development of a substation. The designer
has the task of balancing the reliability/availability and quality of supply considerations with the
cost of the substation. Upfront cost elements include the following considerations:
 Dependent upon substation configuration, the footprint of the substation may vary quite
significantly. The more complex the configuration or the more redundant primary
systems, the greater the area or footprint will be and this will have a direct impact upon
the site acquisition costs. Simpler, lower footprint substations will likely drive lower
land acquisition costs. The operability and maintainability considerations may lead to
more complex configuration which could drive the site costs upwards considerably;
 A significant cost driver for substations is the transformer bay. The more transformer
bays proposed, the greater the overall cost for the substation. Usually additional bays
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are designed to provide redundant circuits for the purpose of flexibility. The most
common transmission configurations present an N-1 redundancy (the system can
tolerate the loss of a single circuit element under a credible contingency and remain to
provide uninterrupted supply) that utilise two or three transformer bays. Where there
are 3 transformer bays, it is usually presented as a 3 into 2 system whereby the total
capacity is represented as being at least two transformer bays at any given time. Where
there are multiple transformer bays available in such a configuration an outage on any
of the bays for maintenance or unplanned failure has little to no impact upon the ability
to provide supply continuity.
 Taking a simplistic view of the availability of such configurations and factoring
consistent maintenance as well as similar asset failure rates, a 3 into 2, N-1
configuration is likely to present a reduction in un-availability of as much as 60 times
less than that of a single bay. A simple 2 transformer bay installation in an N-1
configuration presents a reduction in un-availability of in excess of 198 times less than
a single bay. There are several texts that provide designers with a very detailed basis
for comparison of various configurations utilising models of varying complexity [47]
[46].
 The busbar configuration presents a significant cost driver for the substation and the
designer needs to factor these into the design options. There are a vast array of busbar
configurations that are utilised within transmission substations [43]. For the purpose
of cost-effective transmission substation development the following classic busbar
switching arrangements or configurations are likely considerations [44]:
• Single busbar
• Single busbar with busbar section (either sectionalised by double busbar
disconnectors and/or circuit-breaker)
• H3, H4 and H5 configurations;
• Main and transfer busbar – single and double busbar;
• Ring busbar;
• Breaker and a half circuit-breaker; and
• Double breaker double busbar
Each of these configurations presents varying degrees of flexibility for the purpose of
operability and they differ vastly in cost. The designer must carefully consider cost
versus flexibility during the design phase of the substation. An example of the relative
capital establishment cost impact of various configurations is presented in Table 7-1
below [44]. These comparisons are made upon four-circuit arrangements with circuit-
breakers on each circuit. This comparison provides the designer with a perspective of
comparative costs for the development substations. It is important to note that the
overall lifecycle costs which includes the operational and maintenance costs have not
been incorporated into this comparison. It is recommended that more detailed
estimates are made of differing configurations during the consideration of design
options. The detailed estimates should consider the likely costs as well as the
maintenance challenges presented by each configuration once it has been constructed.
Whilst it may be quite attractive for designers to opt for the least cost approach which
is a single busbar, the designer must factor necessary redundancy for larger
interconnected substations. Deferring to the least cost up front may be very costly due
to the complete loss of a large area during a fault event without any operational
flexibility.
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Table 7-1 – Busbar Switching Scheme Relative Cost Comparison
Busbar Switching Approximate Relative

Operability Considerations
Configuration Cost
Lowest cost and most easily expandable combined
Single busbar 100%
with lowest reliability and no operational flexibility
Higher reliability with loss of only part of substation
Sectionalised busbar (5 CB H5
122%-150% for breaker outage. Sectionalising may cause
arrangement)
interruption of unaffected circuits.
Flexible – substation protection retained whilst
conducting circuit-breaker maintenance. Easily
expandable. Additional breaker is required for
Main and transfer busbar 143%
busbar coupler. Failure of circuit-breaker causes loss
of substation and complex switching required for
removal of circuit-breaker.
High reliability and flexible. Isolation of busbar
sections and circuit-breakers without disrupting
circuit operation. Double feed to each circuit.
Ring busbar 114% Expandable breaker-and-a-half configuration. Each
circuit requires its own potential source from
protection. Limited to no more than 6 position
system with significant challenges for expansion.
High reliability and flexibility. Can isolate busbars
and/or breakers for maintenance without loss of
Breaker-and-a-half circuit- supply. Double circuit feed and switching done with
158%
breaker circuit-breakers. Costly due to number of circuit-
breakers and protection is complex due to centre
breaker required to isolate faults on either feed.
Highest reliability and flexibility with double feed to
Double breaker – double each circuit and no interruption to service due to
214%
busbar busbar faults. Very high cost due to number of
circuit-breakers.
Elements that impact the availability of substation elements

This section describes the elements that impact the availability of the circuit elements of substations
and this guides the designer on the best approach to integrating the factors into the finalisation of the
design.
There is a distinction between reliability and availability: reliability measures the ability of a system to
function correctly whereas availability measures how often the system is available for use, even though
it may not be functioning correctly. In the context of substation design, these terms are being used
interchangeably as it is intended the circuit to be functioning correctly when it is available – hence it is
reliable whilst being available. Electricity network reliability measures take the form of a combination
of customer-based reliability and circuit availability. Circuit availability is most widely used in the context
of transmission substations.
From the utility industry perspective, reliability is defined through metrics describing power availability
or outage duration, frequency, and extent. Reliability within the utility industry is managed to ensure
the system operates within limits and avoids instabilities or the growth of disturbances. Most utilities
continue to improve their reliability practices and implementation methods to respond to ever-increasing
consumer expectations. Typical approaches to reliability include reinforcement, investment, and
redundancy to prevent disruptions from reasonably expected hazards [44].
The reliability of the substation is a function of the following considerations:
 Substation configuration;
 Substation site location / environment;
 Equipment type and configuration;
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 Utility maintenance policy and practices; and

 Distance of substation from service depot or service crew.
There is a logical and quantifiable process to establish the optimal configuration for a substation which
has been described in TB585 Circuit Configuration Optimisation [43]. This process assists the designer
in the selection of an appropriate substation configuration to address the particular substation design
criteria. This criteria based around assessing three fundamental factors which have an influence on the
substation configuration:
 Service Security analyses the substation configuration in terms of preserving continuity of
supply during network or substation contingency events;
 Availability during maintenance analyses the ability of the substation configuration to maintain
feeders energised during maintenance of disconnectors and circuit-breakers; and
 Operational Flexibility analyses the ability of the substation configuration to allow feeders to
be rearranged or the substation to be split into two or more parts.
Whilst it is the responsibility of the planner to identify the performance criteria for a substation, the
designer is accountable to ensure that the design assures that the substation is compliant through its
pre-determined configuration.
It is important that the designer has a good understanding of the factors that could affect the availability
of supply afforded by the substation. Firstly, it is important for the designer to have an elementary
understanding of the likely events that could adversely affect supply availability. There are two distinct
type of event affecting the supply availability afforded by a substation as described in the following
subsections.
7.4.2.1 Unplanned and Forced Events

Unplanned events are outages precipitated by unforeseen failure of assets or impacts upon the
substation assets that causes interruption to supply. These events occur without warning and are often
difficult to predict. They range from uncontrolled equipment failure through to environmental impacts
upon the substation equipment for example: a supply interruption to a distribution busbar due to a
phase-to-earth fault arising from a snake climbing onto a busbar to plunder a bird’s nest located on a
busbar disconnector (common in riverine environments where there is an abundance of wildlife).
Forced events are supply interruptions that have not been planned and are required to effect repairs or
replace assets that are assessed as likely to imminently fail, e.g. the need to isolate a gas insulated
busbar due to a sudden loss of gas pressure to a dangerously low level. The factors driving forced
events are largely similar to that for unplanned events. The only distinction is that the utility has become
aware of an imminent failure and elects to remove the circuit from service to effect repairs prior to
failure of the device.
Unplanned and forced outage events usually present the most significant contribution to substation
unavailability and taking a realistic consideration of their impact is very important. These are
precipitated from the following array of causal factors and include:
 Weather and/or environmental impacts:
 Insulation co-ordination, selection of the necessary Basic Insulation Levels (BIL) as well as
shielding and surge diversion techniques can return significant reductions in supply
interruptions due to severe lightning. Designing with the lightning protection shielding level
approaching as close as possible and justifiable to 100% full coverage will minimise related
failures for field crews to deal with. The design of a more robust earth/ground grid will
help in regard to overvoltage incidents. The lightning density and soil resistivity provide
the designer with substantial knowledge to enable a robust design;
 Wind loading effects upon busbar structures affects the robustness of a substation to
withstand severe weather events; also, wind-related, Aeolian vibration must be mitigated
by busbar damping devices;
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 The structural configuration will influence the susceptibility of the substation elements to
the impact of seismic events. The designer must take localised seismic impact into
consideration as part of the design; this is addressed by specifying seismically rated
equipment, by proper structure design, and by use of slack, flexible leads interconnecting
busbar and equipment;
 Many substations are located where there is a tendency for adverse weather impacts such
as flooding and tidal surge. The designer needs to take this into account and present flood
mitigation plans where this is considered a high risk. The designer should also consider
environmental impact upon site access. Having sufficient yard grade elevation provided for
in the grading plan will ensure the station is above the flood plain. Also, specifying higher
control cabinet mounting and a higher control building foundations will provide an extra
measure of clearance if flood waters do encroach in the substation;
 Pollution, whether manmade or natural has a significant impact upon the reliability of
substations. Insulation creepage levels appropriate to the prevailing environmental
conditions (as well as likely future man-made impacts) must be accounted for. Correct
insulation creepage design and insulator selection will have a profound impact upon the
reliability of the substation;
 High ambient temperature and humidity will significantly affect equipment performance for
items that are not within climate-controlled environments. The capacity of electrical
equipment, especially transformers and conductors are eroded exponentially as
temperatures increase. The designer must take consideration of the location of the
substation as well as containment of assets to ensure that the capacity of the substation is
not constrained due to rise in ambient temperatures. Humidity can present significant
adverse effects upon the integrity of primary and secondary equipment which can result in
the substation becoming unreliable. This effect could lead to a high frequency of
interruption. Note that most areas where electrification is required are based in tropical
and equatorial environments whereby temperature and humidity considerations are
material. Where derating is required, the designer should be careful to clearly identify
constrained operations. The designer should also account for temperature and humidity
impacts when considering equipment selection. Large temperature differentials will cause
expansion and contraction of busbar tubing necessitating the use of expansion couplers and
connectors to accommodate dimensional changes in the tubing which can otherwise break
bushings and insulators. Also, the location and orientation of transformer fire/blast wall
should be such that they allow normal air flow to promote cooling and do not block its
passage causing heat to be trapped around the transformers;
 Low ambient temperature will also significantly affect equipment performance. Tank
heaters may be required on SF6 circuit-breakers to prevent the liquification of the gas at
low temperatures thus compromising the properties of the insulating and interrupting
systems. Low temperatures in humid climates will condense atmospheric moisture inside
of control cabinets and test switch enclosures leading to corrosion of the devices. This is
prevented by using small heaters to drive out the moisture;
 Wildlife has a significant impact upon unplanned events. With any location one must deal
with the indigenous wildlife. Typical animals entering substations are birds, snakes, small
and large rodents, and insects. The most common problem is inadvertent contact causing
an electrical fault resulting in an outage that may require corrective maintenance. Proper
provisions to protect energised equipment from contact with wildlife will eliminate
extraneous maintenance work. The following protective methods can be used: increase
separating distances, longer insulators, animal guards, protectors, insulated cable,
conductor wraps, heat shrink tubing, barriers, fences, electric fences, scarecrows, decoys,
coatings, sonic devices, end caps in busbar tubing, plugs or caps on unused future conduit,
and metallic shielded cable. Problems are also present due to animal nests, droppings, and
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gnawing of cable insulation. These present health and safety hazards such as stings and
bites from nesting insects. Droppings can contaminate insulators requiring maintenance in
the form of cleaning to prevent flashovers; and
 Altitude of substation will have an impact – the higher the altitude the lower the breakdown
of voltage, therefore insulation co-ordination becomes more critical for higher altitude
electricity networks.
 Load-related impacts:
 Often the historic design capacity of substations can be exceeded due to a combination of
unplanned growth and limited funding available for the expansion of substations. This is a
long-term effect and could lead to supply interruptions due to equipment being overloaded
excessively over increasing periods of time. Integrated resource planning ahead of
substation design could be implemented to pro-actively offset load related supply
interruptions through assuring a more accurate long-term view of load as well as
establishing expandable substations to enable augmentation when loads reach a certain
threshold;
 Busbars, conductor, and equipment should not only be sized to the continuous current
rating based on planning load flow studies, but they must be sized to handle both winter
and summer loads, which could be much different depending on local climate. More
importantly, they must be sized to accommodate temporary overloads due to system
contingencies such as the loss of a major transmission line or power transformers in a
substation. Then the current path needs to be capable to withstand handle conditions such
as a short-term emergency; a long-term emergency; or a load dump. These too can vary
seasonally. Company or transmission system operator (TSO) load-ability rating tables must
be consulted to provide the optimal conductor for the application;
 A Sudden increase in customer load can often lead to supply disruption due to operation of
protective devices. It is important for the substation design to include correct protection
device design to include plant overload protective schemes (POPS) as opposed to setting
fault protection devices to operate under load encroachment to isolate under overloaded
conditions; and
 The establishment of dynamic ratings of the thermal devices in substations (transformer

bays in particular) is valuable during the design. Most loads are cyclic in nature and defining
the device specifications clearly, enables the operation of these devices to pre-determined
levels without eroding the technical life of the substation.
 Substation Physical Layout:

 In addition to the necessary design details such as general arrangement, ground grid, bill
of material attention must be paid to the O&M details. For example, proper access road
with slopes and turning radius within the tolerances of large equipment haulers; access
aisles in the substation yard with sufficient clearance for vehicles, personnel, and
equipment; adequate space to simultaneously park a transformer hauler and stage a crane
for safe off-load with minimal outages; and more space to park an oil tanker and oil
processing rig during transformer assembly and processing. It is better to be looking at
space than for space. Along with the initial layout of the substation, consider extra space
and provisions for easily staging a mobile sub when needed during upgrading a power
transformer or replacing a failed unit. Be sure to consider how the mobile substation HV
and LV leads will connect to the substation busbar without issues. The ultimate layout
should cater for future load growth necessitating expansion of a substation. The designer
is best advised to assume that this will occur sometime in the future and layout the ultimate
substation so as to facilitate expansion. For example, never buy the minimum amount of
property needed; always buy more land to account for growth. Then centre the fenced
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area on the property so that expansion can take place in any direction so as to accommodate
either transmission and distribution lines that the planners need to serve new load;
 Control Building & Auxiliaries: As for the substation yard, provision of future control panel
space in the control building avoids costly, labour-intensive structural additions. Likewise,
for the AC and DC power panels. Spare panel positions to provide for future needs will save
expanding these facilities when needed; and
 The strategic insertion of disconnectors (e.g. on the ends of busbar sections) will allow
future busbar to be built up to the de-energised side to those disconnectors and then be
easily connected to the existing busbars by simply closing the switch. This may avert the
need for extended outages to expand the busbar or to install a mobile substation to carry
load while the construction takes place;
These steps could eliminate future unnecessary headache for the construction, operations, and
maintenance personnel during repairs and expansions.
 Equipment failure:
 Failure of substation equipment remains inevitable. The effect of equipment failure upon
supply interruption and duration of interruption is largely a function of the substation
configuration. More robust and redundant design (which is more costly) generally affords
a greater resilience to minimise or avert loss of supply altogether. The criticality of loads
and overall network impact of the substation would drive the redundancy of configuration
which will have a direct impact upon the time to restore supplies;
 Extent of substation equipment failure is a function of equipment specification, manufacture
quality, maintenance/care, equipment (over) utilisation and operating environment. Design
consideration of these aspects has a significant impact upon the risk of failure. Many utilities
where there is cost constraint are left with little option but to operate on a run-to-failure
basis which often leads to significant recovery costs far in excess of the cost of conducting
preventative maintenance. It is important to point out that implementation of simple
preventative and condition-based maintenance programmes could yield significant direct
cost savings for the design of substations. Technical Brochure 660 provides guidelines for
substation maintenance considerations [42];
 The increase of redundant circuit elements generally drives an increase in reliability impacts
upon the system. With an increase of equipment, there is a natural increase in the number
of plant items available for operational and maintenance flexibility. The more circuit
elements within the system, the more items that may require maintenance or are prone to
failure;
 Accessibility to major elements of the substation is an essential consideration in the design
of a substation. Experience has shown that many substations have been established
without acknowledging the need to remove and replace major assets such as power
transformers. This is particularly important where high capacity transmission transformers
in excess of 100MVA are considered. Well-designed access and egress for such elements
for the life of the substation is important – this consideration is not only for access within
the substation itself but also the local area. The access ways should be designed to afford
unrestricted access for the purpose of removal – electrical clearances should take
consideration of the likely removal and replacement of equipment such that operational
constraints are not incurred during such removal;
 Containment of large oil volume assets such as transformers should be carefully designed
to minimise or eliminate the impact of these upon other parts of the substation during fire.
Experience has shown that innovative transformer containment such as remote oil drains,
effectively designed firewalls and adequate separation from switchgear components results
in a significant reduction of the risk of fire spreading across multiple assets following a single
asset catching fire. The basis of design should consider swift removal of oil to remote
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containment so that fires could easily be managed. Firewalls should be designed to make
use of natural ventilation to avert spread of fire as well as sufficient access to a transformer
fire to afford swift extinguishing. The application of water deluge systems are regarded as
only useful as temperature control devices as it has been proven that they have little to no
effect upon the containment of a serious oil-based fire. There is an emerging consideration
for the application of self-contained foam protection devices for transformers – whilst
effective, these devices are costly and practical risk assessment could assist the designer
determining whether these are required. However, different system designs present O&M
concerns. Systems with open-air lined oil containment reservoirs fill up with rain water
which needs to be removed for proper oil containment in the event of a spill (because the
oil floats on the water and will overflow the reservoir). Automatic sump pumps work, but
they do require maintenance. Passive oil traps work, but the residual water in the reservoir
becomes a habitat for algae and amphibians. This necessitates periodic dosing with
algaecide or pumping out the water. Even this leads to periodic cleaning of the pump to
clear it of dead wildlife. Closed-air reservoirs similar to a concrete manhole eliminate wildlife
issues but still need to deal with water removal. Alternate oil containment systems, such
as low walls and dykes around oil-filled equipment areas, have been used in certain
situations. Although relatively effective and inexpensive, their use presents an obstacle in
the way of accessing equipment for O&M purposes. Sections of the containment wall must
be removed or dykes (like speed bumps) prevent smooth access with fork lifts and may
even be tripping hazards. Perhaps the best maintenance-free design is a stone-filled lined
pit around the transformer with water draining outlets that deploy solidifying polymer beads
that pass water but swell shut when in contact with oil;
 A carefully planned warehouse of critical spare equipment and parts is vital to dealing with
unplanned and forced events. Standardisation on equipment ratings with preferred proven
manufacturers, and design standards means that utility field crews are likely to be more
capable with this equipment for maintenance and repairs, as well as having a stock of
common units and spare parts. In the event of a failure, spare standard equipment is
readily interchangeable on the system. In the event of project cancellation, equipment
already ordered can be easily reused on the next available project.
 Human interventions:
 One of the most significant contributors to unplanned events is mal-operation or incorrect
operation of circuits within a substation resulting in loss of supply. Thankfully most of these
events result in isolation through circuit breaking devices and it is only on rare occasion that
these precipitate lengthy outages. The two drivers for such events is usually driven by
complacency and lack of sufficient awareness on the part of the operator and/or a
complexity of substation that lends itself to very complex procedure which has a high
probability of failure. The design mitigation for such is to remain aware of complexity of
operation and attempt to simplify it as far as reasonably possible. Likewise thorough and
routine recursive training and assessment of switching operators will serve to minimise the
likelihood of such events.
 Wrongful human intervention in the form of theft, vandalism and terrorism can lead to
equipment/system failure. This can be a source of unnecessary, costly, and lengthy
maintenance. Measures to address security are covered later on within the Safety and
Environment considerations for design.
The advent of well-established asset health assessments including failure root cause processes has
aided a better understanding of the likelihood of unplanned events. Designers are encouraged to make
use of these systems as input to the design process – collaboration with asset performance engineering
personnel during the design phase can present good insight into the local drivers of unplanned outage
performance which could then be mitigated through innovative design. The documented history of
equipment failure in substations presents an excellent basis for future network design. Designers should
consult historical equipment failure to determine whether design improvements could be implemented
to avert repeated equipment failure. Many utilities conduct joint collaboration across regions as well as
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globally where there are various collaborative studies that have been convened for the mutual benefit
to learn from experiences. CIGRE provides such a platform through its relevant Study Committees and
there are others hosted under various institutions. The designer is best served by consulting these
studies as a convenient means of gaining a better understanding of how equipment failures affect
performance of substations and how best to design with equipment performance in mind.
The substation design affects the susceptibility of supplies to unplanned events as described above.
The configuration of the substation determines the impact of unplanned events upon the loss of supply
to customers, namely redundant supply configuration (busbar, transformer) results in swift supply
restoration during credible contingencies such as a loss of a transformer, a busbar or other primary
circuit elements where there is an alternate supply.
Secondary systems considerations are also very significant. The selection of the protective schemes to
discriminate and isolated faulted circuits and/or equipment influences the performance of the
substation.
7.4.2.2 Planned Events

Planned events are outages that have been planned in advance for the purpose of conducting
preventative or corrective maintenance upon substation assets, e.g. removal of a transformer bay to
conduct routine preventative maintenance on the transformer and functional testing of protection and
circuit-breakers.
Minimisation of planned outages on substation circuits holds a significant key to the cost reduction of
substation design. There are numerous factors affecting planned outage events.
7.4.2.2.1 Maintenance Policy and Practices:

Maintenance policy and practice affects planned outages. “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of
cure!” is a quote by the noted electrical experimenter and inventor of the lightning rod, Benjamin
Franklin. He realised this wisdom 300 years ago in postulating that it is by far cheaper to catch a
potential problem before it occurs and fix it before it develops into a full-blown disaster that requires an
exorbitant expenditure to repair it after failure. Utilities that practice condition-based preventative
maintenance policy find that it yields the best approach to managing planned outages. Utilities migrate
from periodic time-based offline maintenance toward condition and criticality based preventative
maintenance can experience a significant increase in substation circuit availability. There is also the
aspect of on-line, real-time monitoring of equipment conditions and loading which can be accessed
remotely by engineers and operators to assist them in making pertinent decisions. This type of
monitoring is more typically found on major equipment (e.g. large power transformers, circuit-breakers,
and generator step-up units) in EHV substations and power stations. Contemporary maintenance
practices focus on the reduction of planned circuit outages as follows:
 A greater focus upon online non-intrusive inspection and testing techniques;
 Risk assessment of identified defects and where possible deferral to combine with planned
offline works;
 Cutting down on unnecessary offline maintenance and optimising maintenance interventions on
equipment;
 The combination of multiple equipment for offline maintenance events – migration toward full
bay maintenance techniques; and
 Accounting for local conditions for the derivation of maintenance requirements based upon
observed condition as opposed to more conservative OEM specifications, especially once
equipment has exited past its warranty period. It has been found that many OEM specifications
are not necessarily based upon equipment failure history or practical reasoning and as such
these could lead to excessive outage with increased likelihood of failure.
Substation designers need to factor contemporary maintenance policy and practices into their design so
as to assure more cost-effective configurations – this is where significant savings could be generated.
Maintenance policy usually dictates design, however, the converse is also valid; this requires a close
working relationship between the designer and maintenance practitioners within the utility.
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7.4.2.2.2 Equipment selection:

The migration to mixed technology gas-insulated circuit-breakers and disconnecting devices has led to
significant reductions in planned maintenance outage times as well as frequency of outages. The newer
technologies employed have increased the potential period between outages from around five years to
as much as 25 years and longer. Careful selection of equipment upfront will significantly impact
substation availability. Equipment selection can be categorised as the result of combined electrical and
physical drivers. For example, space restrictions and electrical performance may drive a facility from
the use of Air Insulated Substation (AIS) to Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) equipment. The use of
relatively maintenance-free vacuum circuit-breakers may win over the selection of SF6 gas breakers to
avoid potential issues with leaks and avert pressure monitoring. Even auxiliary material and accessories
need to take O&M into account when specifying them. For example, metallic conduit (even galvanised)
will eventually rust, so PVC conduit may be the better low-maintenance alternative. Then even minor
details like specifying “outdoor UV (ultraviolet) resistant electrical grade conduit and fittings” is
necessary to prevent substitution of inadequate materials (e.g. PVC plumbing drain pipe was discovered
on a job site as a substitute for inadequately specified conduit).
7.4.2.2.3 Equipment Layout:

Equipment layout can be categorised as exact requirements or features to specify on individual devices.
For example,
 Adequate working space must be provided when using hook-stick operated disconnectors so
that the person operating them can open/close them with hot-line tools without difficulty;
 Grounding studs are adequately placed on busbar and equipment leads to facilitate the
connection of portable earthing devices for safe hands-on maintenance; and
 Working holes and notches are specified in EHV hardware if hot line tools are used for live-line
work practices.
It is recommended that the designer assess layout to assure practical access for personnel and tooling
to afford maintenance without interfering or violating regulated clearances with live equipment within
adjacent bays.
7.5 DESIGNING SUBSTATIONS TO MEET PERFORMANCE
As described earlier, there are three criteria that enable a substation to meet design performance
throughout its lifecycle. These criteria are based upon network performance with supply availability
being the key consideration. To enable comparative assessment of substation configurations, the
following criteria need to be factored in:
 Service security – ability to provide continuous performance during credible contingencies;
 Availability during maintenance; and
 Operational flexibility – ability to provide continuity of supply in differing configurations.
These criteria are based on network performance and can therefore be used to compare substation
configurations regardless of which technology is being used. Equipment selection cannot be ignored,
as it could influence the type of configuration type, or possibly give rise to new types of configuration
[43].
Substation Service Security

Service security represents the ability to preserve continuity of supply during credible contingency
events from both within the substation as well as external networks. A secure system will continue to
maintain supply availability without adverse impact upon equipment rating or erosion of quality of supply
(Voltage, Frequency, and Harmonic Distortion). Effectively, the power system continues to perform its
service function during a fault condition.
This is often referred to as security or planning criteria and is expressed as a factor of “N”; N being a
system that cannot tolerate a system fault, N-1 being a system that could tolerate a single system fault;
N-2 being a system that could tolerate two co-incidental system faults and so on. Design options could
137
be assessed against the service security afforded and logical comparisons could be made to determine
the optimal configuration of service security.
Availability during maintenance

The objective of asset maintenance is to preserve the performance of the asset within pre-defined safety
and reliability limits whilst minimising the exposure to cost. Maintenance restores an asset or grouping
of assets to a serviceable state by either preventing failure or correcting the asset following functional
failure. Maintenance can be broken into two sub-categories:
a. Preventative:
Preventative maintenance represents a pro-active set of actions to mitigate or prevent the risk
of in-service failure of an asset. Preventative maintenance can take on several forms and could
be classified fundamentally as:
 condition monitoring – continuously assessing condition to initiate actions to prevent failure,
e.g. performing oil sampling and dissolved gas analysis to assess condition of power
transformers in a substation with the view to implement any actions to preserve the life of
the transformer;
 direct activity – performing pre-determined tasks upon assets to mitigate failure of these,
e.g. greasing bearings or mechanisms to assure smooth operation; and
 functional testing – conducting routine tests upon equipment to verify correct operation,
e.g. conducting a set of circuit-breaker tripping tests to verify correct function of circuit-
breakers.
b. Corrective:
Corrective maintenance a set of actions to restore or recover and asset that has fallen below
established performance criteria. Corrective maintenance includes refurbishment or
rehabilitation of assets to return them to specified performance criteria. It also includes the
repair or replacement of assets that have experienced functional failure – this usually requires
immediate attention. It may include rectification of conditional failures whereby assets may fall
below allowable performance levels into the future.
The maintenance of primary and secondary assets within substations may affect the availability of
supply. Curtailment of supply due to substation maintenance could be required to varying degrees; for
contemporary substations and modern equipment selection, disruption of supply is usually only confined
to functional testing and corrective maintenance activities. Contemporary substations usually maintain
continuity of supply during preventative and direct maintenance activities. The designer needs to ensure
that practical equipment selection and/or configuration minimised adverse impact upon availability
during maintenance. When factoring risk assessment into this consideration, it is possible to generate
a good basis for comparison between different substation options; this activity represents an important
aspect to the optioneering and equipment selection phases of the preliminary design (FEED) [43].
Failure of assets in substations can have wide-ranging impacts upon the operational availability of the
substation as a whole; the impact of equipment failure upon a substation establishes its criticality when
considering maintainability. Namely the failure of an item that does not have a direct impact upon the
ability of the substation to safely provide electrical energy is considered to be of low criticality (example
– the failure of a protective relay that forms part of a redundant protection scheme) whereas the failure
of an essential asset that could render the substation inoperable for a considerable period of time
represents high criticality (example – failure of a power transformer in a single-transformer radial
substation will render the substation unusable for several days). Criticality of asset due to its function
in the context of the substation is emerging as a basis for determining condition-based maintainability
of substations. Asset performance practitioners are being employed to provide such criticality
assessment as an input to preventative maintenance plans as well as provide learnings toward the
design efficacy of substations. Criticality-based maintenance regimes represent a further advance of
the preventative maintenance philosophies that have emerged as good industry practice over the past
decades. Criticality of asset is a key input to the substation design process for assuring performance to
a pre-defined risk and cost basis.
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Substation Operability – Operational Flexibility

In addition to maintainability, continuity of supply within a substation is a function of operability.
Operational flexibility is a direct function of the substation configuration in addition to equipment
selection. Operational flexibility is the ability to split the substation into parts or reconfigure/divert
feeder supplies to assure normal operating conditions. This also includes the ability to bypass a
substation altogether by directly connecting the input to the output of a substation where supplies are
provided at the distribution voltages during contingency conditions. Operational flexibility is proportional
to the expense of the substation – the greater the operational flexibility, the more expensive the
substation will be to establish.
Further considerations of operational flexibility include the ability to reconfigure or repurpose substations
to accommodate additional bays or voltage ranges (often under short timeframes). This is common
with substations whereby operational flexibility has been constrained by cost and the designer has
provided a modular solution to overcome the lack of flexibility. Examples of alternatives for substation
operational flexibility are:
 The provision of available space and modular connection arrangements for a mobile transformer
substation to be connected to a radial single transformer substation requiring maintenance to
accommodate operational or maintenance requirements;
 The use of tertiary-wound transformers within inter-busbar EHV substations to provide for
distribution feeder loads (e.g. 400/220 kV with tertiary 33 kV winding). Designers do need to
exercise caution in this case as often the numerous faults experienced by distribution feeders
could significantly adversely affect the performance of the primary transformers leading to
substantial unexpected costs – proper insulation coordination coupled with robust equipment
selection is a pre-requisite to such a configuration; and
 The provision of modular connections on substation busbars to accommodate future expansion
where strategic planning identifies load growth and diversification during the life of the
substation.
7.6 BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER – SIMPLE GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN TOWARD

OPERABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY
The Designer can assess each type of substation configuration against the three criteria being security,
maintainability and operational flexibility by providing a rating, increasing based upon the greater the
satisfaction of the criteria. The following sections provide simple assessments against each of the
criteria and reference CIGRE Technical Brochure 585 extensively [43].
Classic Busbar Configurations

There are 11 classic substation busbar configurations that are in existence at present. These
configurations are best described in Figure 7-3 below. Whilst there are various permutations and
combinations of these configurations, for the purpose of developing a guideline, these configurations
are considered with a two-transformer arrangement [43].
It is important to note that for the consideration of more cost-effective substations, double busbar with
transfer (DBT), triple busbar (TB), ring busbar (R), one and half circuit-breaker (OHCB) and double
busbar double breaker (DBCB) are unlikely selections as cost optimal configurations.
Substation Security
The substation security has been assessed against likely consequences due to primary fault and also
likely consequences due to the failure of a CB to correctly open following a primary fault. Each level
of security has been awarded a value based upon resilience of each of the 11 classic substation
configurations as per Figure 7-3 below. The score assigned to each configuration simply reflects the
level of security as described in criteria within the table, namely the greatest impact or worst outcome
= 1 and the least impact or best outcome = 6.
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AT1 L2 AT3 L4 AT1 L2 AT3 L4
Single Busbar (SB) Sectionalisable

Single Busbar (SSB)
B1A B1B
B1
L1 L3
L1 L3
H-Configurations (SB variants)

OPTION A OPTION B L3 L4 L3 L4
L3 L4 L3 L4
AT1 AT2 AT1 AT2

AT1 AT2 AT1 AT2
H3 H4 H5
AT1 L2 AT3 L4
AT1 L2 AT3 L4
Double Busbar with

AT1 L2 AT3 L4
Transfer Busbar (DBT)
BT
B1
B1
B2 B2
B3
B1 Triple Busbar (TB)
B2
Double Busbar (DB)
L1 L3
L1 L3
L1 L3
AT1 L2 L4
AT1 L1
B1
Ring configuration (R)
L2 AT2
One and Half Circuit

Breaker (OHCB)
AT1 L1 L2 AT2 L3 L4
L3
B1 B2
Double Bus
Double Breaker L1 AT2 L3
(2CB)
B2
Figure 7-3 – Classical Substation Busbar Configurations
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Table 7-2 – Assessment summary of Security Criteria
Possible consequences due

Possible consequences due
OHCB
Mark
DBT
SSB
2CB
to primary fault when CB
DB
H3
H4
H5
SB
TB
R
to a primary fault
fails to open
Possible loss of whole
1 Loss of the whole substation 1 1 1
substation
Loss of one of more feeder but Loss of more than one feeder
2 2 2 2 2
not the whole substation or the whole substation
Loss of one or more feeders Loss of more than one feeder
3 3
but not the whole substation but not the whole substation
Loss of only one feeder but not
4 Loss of one feeder 4
the whole substation
Loss of one feeder and
5 Loss of one feeder possibly one more feeder but 5
not the whole substation
6 Loss of one feeder Loss of one feeder 6
Substation Maintainability
The substation maintainability has been assessed against likely consequences due to maintenance of
each of the circuit-breakers, sectionalisers and disconnectors. Each maintainability consequence has
been awarded a value for each of the 11 classic substation configurations as per Table 7-3 below. The
score assigned to each configuration reflects the consequence of maintenance of circuit devices as
described in criteria within the table, namely the greatest consequence which is the loss of the whole
substation = 1 and the least consequence which results in all circuits remaining in service = 7.
Table 7-3 – Assessment summary of Maintainability Criteria
OHCB
Mark
DBT
SSB
2CB
Maintenance of: Consequence
DB
H3
H4
H5
SB
TB
R
1 Any busbar disconnector Loss of the whole substation 1
Loss of more than one feeder or the
2 Sectionaliser disconnector 2 2
whole substation
Any busbar or sectionaliser Loss of more than one feeder but
3 3 3
disconnector not the whole substation
Loss of only one feeder but not the
4 Any busbar disconnector 4
whole substation
Loss of one feeder and possibly one
5 Any busbar disconnector more feeder but not the whole 5
substation
Remaining Circuits in service and…
6 Any busbar disconnector …open Ring 6
…split up of Substation 6 6
7 Circuit-breaker All circuits remain in service 7
Substation Operational Flexibility

The substation flexibility has been assessed against likely flexibility due to splitting up either de-
energised or energised. The greater the degree of flexibility, the higher the value awarded to each of
the 11 classic substation configurations as per Table 7-4 below. The score assigned to each
configuration reflects the level of operational flexibility as described in criteria within the table, namely
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the least feasible split up combined with inflexibility = 1 and the energised split up combined with
complete flexibility = 6.
Table 7-4 – Assessment summary of Operational Flexibility Criteria
OHCB
Mark
DBT
2CB
SSB
Split-up feasibility Flexibility
DB
H3
H4
H5
SB
TB
R
1 Not possible to split-up No flexibility 1
2 Non-energised split-up No flexibility 2 2
3 Energised split-up No flexibility 3 3
4 Energised split-up Low flexibility 4 4
High flexibility, switching with
5 Energised split-up 5 5
disconnector
High flexibility, switching with
6 Energised split-up 6 6
CB
Weighting Criteria for Substation Function

The functional requirements for substations are directly attributable to the type of substation.
Transmission substations could simply be placed into three distinct categories, namely:
 Large Step-up Substations for the transmission of power from generators;
 Interconnection Substations which provide network flexibility and security of supply; and
 Step-down Substations to provide sub-transmission and distribution supplies at lower voltages.
Each of the functional types have differing dependency upon service security, maintenance availability
and operational flexibility. The importance of each criteria is summarised in Table 7-5 below [43].
Table 7-5 – Assessment of three Types of Substation
Availability during
Type Service security Operational flexibility
maintenance
Less important because of

Very important to provide Less important, normally there
Step-up (Large) typically annual scheduled
energy supply from the is no need to rearrange feeders
substation power plant maintenance
generator plant to the network in this type of substation
outages
Not as important for this type

Not important for this type of Very important in order to
Interconnection of substation as other infeed
substation as other infeed lines achieve system security under
substation lines are available from network
are available to enable outages various configurations
substations
Important - contingent upon

Increasingly important
Step-down / small the number of parallel Is important to rearrange
especially if the network on the
step-up substation transformer bays and busbar feeders after disturbances
secondary side is radial
configuration
The rating of the criteria is best expressed as a percentage weighting. These weightings could be
multiplied by the assessment of each configuration to arrive at a weighted assessment of each
configuration. An example of the relative weighting of the types of substation is presented in Table 7-6
below [43]:
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Table 7-6 - Weighting criteria for three types of substation
Availability Sum of
Service Operational
Type during Weightings
security flexibility
maintenance
Step-up (Large)
90% 5% 5% 100%
substation
Interconnection
10% 10% 80% 100%
substation
Step-down / small
30% 30% 40% 100%
step-up substation
Combining Assessments and Weightings to determine a result

Now the designer is able to bring together the ratings and weightings for each of the security,
maintainability and operational flexibility criteria. The method for calculating the overall score is taking
each score, normalising for the range of scores for each criterion, and then multiplying by the rating
factor for the criterion. To assure more usability of the scores, the result is multiplied by 10. Table 7-7
presents a summary result for each configuration following the treatment of the scores with the
weighting factors.
Table 7-7 – Summary of Weighted Results
Substation Maintenance Operational
OHCB
DBT
2CB
SSB
Service Security
DB
H3
H4
H5
SB
TB
R
Type Availability Flexibility
Step-up Generator
0.9 0.05 0.05 1.7 1.8 3.5 1.8 3.5 3.7 3.9 5.4 6.8 8.3 10
Substations
Interconnection
0.1 0.1 0.8 1.6 3.1 4.8 3.1 4.8 7.6 8.0 9.2 6.9 7.0 10
Substations
Step-up/down
0.3 0.3 0.4 1.6 2.7 4.3 2.7 4.3 6.0 7.3 7.6 7.2 7.7 10
Substations
A worked example of how each result was derived in the table above is presented below for an H5
interconnection substation:
 H5: Security = 2; Availability = 3; Flexibility = 3
 Application of the percentage weightings for the configuration returns the following result:
 Normalised Score in Equation 7-2 below:
2 3 3
10 × (( × 0.1) + ( × 0.1) + ( × 0.8)) = 4.8
6 7 6
Equation 7-2 – Normalised Score for Substation Configuration
Process for assessment of Operability and Maintainability

It is important to follow simple process to assure that the design best complies with providing sufficient
operational flexibility and maintainability. The process identified in Figure 7-4 provides a straightforward
method for designers utilising the assessment and weighting factors described earlier in this chapter
[43].
The process steps are described as follows: The designer having identified the type of substation,
location and planning consideration such as load and feeder distribution considered whether there are
any pre-determined configurations by virtue of standardised design criteria.
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Configuration not pre-

determined
Determine
Maintainability and Determine Assess selected
substation type,
Operability weightings for configurations based
location, planning
Substation security, availability on weightings –
criteria, load
Configuration and flexibility compare result
requirements
More than one

configuration
Determine if Consider other
selection process factors such as
resulted in more equipment selection,
than one comparative costs
Configuration pre-
configuration and others
determined by Corporate
Design Criteria or
Standard Design
Only one Optimal
configuration Configuration
Optimal
Review configuration
Configuration
with Field Ops and
Maintenance
Department
Figure 7-4 – Application of Simple Configuration Assessment Process
 Note that by this time, the designer has already determined the number of transformer bays
required to meet operational flexibility and maintainability requirements for the type of loads
fed from the proposed substation;
 Often there are limited prescribed design criteria, therefore following TB585, the designer
determines the weightings for security, availability and reliability as a percentage;
 The designer then conducts and assessment of each of the likely configurations of substation
busbar selected for consideration. Once each of the ratings for the security, availability and
flexibility has been multiplied by the weighting factor, the designer is able to make a simple
comparison of the options;
 Where results are determined to yield more than a single configuration, the designer could then
compare other factors to make a selection. The additional factors include cost, equipment
selection similar to other substations, long-term expandability to name a few. The design team
could easily establish a matrix of additional factors; and
 Once settled on a configuration, it is most important that the result of the exercise is reviewed
with field operations and maintenance team to assure that their requirements have been
considered in a reasonable and practicable manner.
7.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON OPERABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY

Operation and maintenance of electrical assets represents the most enduring element of the lifecycle of
the electrical power system. For substations, O&M activities will occur over a much longer timeframe
than the relatively short lasting initial design and construction activities. O&M activities will also account
for a substantial cost accumulated over that timeframe. Finally, O&M activities affect the availability of
system infrastructure to provide power during their occurrence. Keep in mind that availability has the
desired side effect of profitability. As such, a substation should be designed in a way to address any
concerns related to these O&M activities. The design must provide safe and sufficient access to
equipment as well as sufficient flexibility to limit the impact of maintenance and operation of the
substation to maximise the availability of supply. In addition, the equipment itself should be specified
and selected to be as maintenance-free as possible, whilst still providing the best possible performance.
Selection of equipment that is suitably rated for the environment where it is to be located is of significant
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importance and this will have a substantial impact upon long-term operability. It will dictate the degree
of maintenance required to assure specified performance. Taking an Asset Management approach,
which balances cost, risk and performance over the asset life cycle represents the most cost-effective
approach.
One of the main objectives of the design should be to have an overall positive impact on the O&M
activities. An excellent approach to accomplish this goal is to establish a free-flowing two-way
communication channel between the office engineering and field maintenance personnel. Knowing each
other’s needs and challenges can go a long way toward producing truly low cost solutions for substation
infrastructure. As a simple example, knowing the portable grounding procedures for maintenance will
enable the designer to include grounding studs where they best fit the field’s needs. If not addressed,
the field must provide for these means themselves. This interdepartmental relationship, as well as
those with all other related departments (planning, protection, construction, and the like), add value
that cannot be overstated here. Ideally, a designer with field maintenance experience is an excellent
combination of skill sets. In lieu of this, it is recommended that the designer make frequent field trips
to the job site as often as possible. A series of on-site pre-engineering meetings with the planning,
construction and maintenance personnel will expose pitfalls and provide work-around solutions that
would not have been identified by starting alone in the office with only paper prints. Field trips and site
meetings during the entire construction cycle will expose problems with designs and allow for timely
solutions. Final on-site, post-construction auditing and closeout meetings will bring design, material
and equipment improvements and lessons learned to the table to share with other designers for
deployment on future projects.
Prudent planning and asset management also affects O&M activities in that it requires the designer to
assure the safe and reliable operation of substations for a specified economic or service life. There is a
gradual movement by electric utilities away from traditionally designed substations, which have a higher
degree of operational flexibility (i.e. through redundancy) toward more cost efficient infrastructure (i.e.,
more streamlined configurations). This results in a fit for immediate purpose (at a low initial cost) with
the flexibility of expansion for future needs without a cost penalty. The designer must consider the
planning and asset management needs in light of those needs of the O&M personnel. There are at
present 11 classic substation busbar configurations as described in Figure 7.3 to serve the needs of the
planners – the number of permutations and combinations of configuration are endless and confined to
the imagination of the designer. The designer can perform a simple assessment to satisfy agreed asset
management goals against their criteria of cost, risk and performance so that the desired outcomes are
achieved. Once viable configurations are developed, they could then be evaluated from the standpoint
of maintenance activities to meet their goals of economics, availability and profitability.
As further emphasis for the real need to consider O&M in design, the survey analysis identified the
predominant risk factors related to maintenance activities to be the availability of qualified service
personnel and the availability of suitable spare parts. A related survey result identified the main cost
factors for maintenance as an adequate budget and the high cost of labour. Therefore, whatever the
designer can do to deploy standard designs will go a long way in having installations where service
personnel are familiar with standard equipment for which standard parts can be stocked. This will result
in the more economical use of strained maintenance budgets and minimise the costs incurred for the
related labour. This reinforces the designers need to consider O&M in their work.
As the designer strives to address the O&M lifecycle objective of providing a low cost substation with
respect to maintenance activities, those other equally important asset management objectives of risk
and performance must also be addressed; with all three objectives handled in a balanced manner.
Needless to say, safety must never be compromised.
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8. SAFETY SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

CONSIDERATIONS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to provide guidance as to cost-effective practices and procedures which are intended
to protect the interest of customers and the public. It is intended to be adopted by the utility responsible
for the works but there may be local reasons for departing from or not adopting these practices and/or
procedures in their entirety.
Being a guide, this clause does not in general stipulate prescriptive details on the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of the electrical assets, nor does it provide all relevant information.
Individual organisations shall produce their own detailed manuals and work procedures where
necessary, with due regard to all relevant standards which are required by the jurisdiction authority.
Substations are not dangerous to the public unless security is compromised and trespassers gain access,
for example, to cause vandalism or attempt theft. Furthermore substations can be left in an unsecured
state which can allow access to inquisitive people including children. Therefore the design, construction,
maintenance and operation of a substation must necessarily consider these factors.
8.2 MAIN RISKS

There are many risks associated with Substations that the designer, builder, operator and maintainer
should be aware of. The following is a listing of the foremost risks that will confront any of the previous
occupations. (Many of the risks are described in detail in the IEC publication 61936-1 “Power
Installations exceeding 1 kV a.c.” [13])
Explosions, Fires and Arcs

Conventional substation equipment and transformers are still likely to contain large volumes of oil and
therefore the risk of explosion and subsequent fires are a real possibility. The risk of these can be
reduced by good design of fire walls, fire-suppression devices, condition monitoring of the equipment
and good maintenance practices. In the event that a fire or explosion does occur with significant loss
of oil or chemical suppression fluids good containment facilities should be provided and access for
response crews allowed for. In enclosed substations, especially near panels, the consequences of
internal arcs should be considered, consult CIGRE Technical Brochure 602/2014 [21].
Designers should note the emerging and extensive use of natural Esther oils for large oil volume
equipment including power transformers. The increased application of these oils has been precipitated
by their extremely high flash point, natural extinction of arcing and insulating properties. The designer
should consult emerging papers and text on the application of modern low combustible oils for primary
equipment.
Contact with live electrical equipment (HV and LV)

Prevention of this risk must be included in the design either by eliminating or isolating the possibility.
IEC 61936-1 provides advice on safe clearances that a design should provide to minimise the risk of
contact, but elimination of the possibility of contact by for example a barrier should also be considered
[13].
Step and Touch Potentials

These voltages can be present on metallic equipment within substations, associated with substations or
equipment associated with powerlines/cables, or even on non-power system plant items nearby (and
not associated with) the electrical system. The soil potential relative to the metallic equipment needs
to be carefully considered. For a hazardous situation to arise, a power system earth fault must be
coincident with a person being at a location exposed to a consequential hazardous voltage.
The earthing system achieves an acceptable risk of shock for people by equipotential bonding or
isolating the metallic equipment and infrastructure. The earthing system may also involve the use of
insulating barriers to reduce the risk of hazardous potential differences. Earthing systems, while not
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actively operating for the majority of time, are 'safety critical' systems in that under fault conditions they
must operate to ensure safety of staff and the public as well as protection of system equipment. For
this reason the design, installation and maintenance is all the more critical.
Electromagnetic Fields
In the light of authoritative reviews having concluded that no adverse health effects from exposure to
low level EMF have been established, it is recognised that there is, within communities, some concern
about the issue which must be addressed. (See further discussion in the Environmental clause) and
also refer to the ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection) ‘Guideline for
Limiting Exposure to Time Varying Electric and Magnetic Fields (1 Hz to 100 kHz) 2010 (www.icnirp.de).
The impacts of electric fields are lower with lower voltages. For magnetic fields they are lower with
lower currents. Both fields decay as the distance to the substation grows.
Electromagnetic Interference
The most typical sources of electromagnetic interference or disturbance that may affect the auxiliary
systems of electrical installations, that include substations, control rooms and public facilities such as
TV and radio reception and transmission, are the following:
 Electrical transient phenomena resulting from switching operations of circuit-breakers or
disconnectors in HV electrical circuits;
 Electrical transient phenomena resulting from insulation breakdown in HV electrical circuits or
to surge-diverter and spark-gap spark-overs in the same circuits or corona;
 Power frequency electric and magnetic fields produced by HV installations; and
 Voltage rises created by short-circuit currents in earthing systems.
Other sources of disturbances, not specific only to electrical installations but generally present in these
installations are the following:
 Electrical transient phenomena resulting from lightning are particularly important for electrical
installations due to the presence of tall earthed structures and power lines;
 Electrical fast transients due to switching operations in low voltage equipment;
 Electrostatic discharges;
 High-frequency fields produced by radio transmitters, either externally or internally to the
installation;
 High-frequency conducted and radiated disturbance from other electric or electronic equipment
present in the installation; and
 Low-frequency conducted disturbances from power supplies.
The disturbance levels depend on different parameters, the most important of which are:
 The transient voltages and currents generated by the switching operation;
 The voltage level of the substation;
 The relative position of emitter (source) and susceptor (victim);
 The nature of the earthing network; and
 The cable types (shielded or not shielded); and the way the shields are grounded.
Very comprehensive information of the risk, consequences and mitigation of this type of interference is
given in CIGRE Technical Brochure 535 “EMC within Power Plants and Substations” [48].
Audible Noise
Audible substation noise, particularly continuously radiated with discrete tones (e.g. 100 and 200 Hz),
is the type of noise that the community may find unacceptable. Community guidelines to ensure that
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acceptable substation noise levels are maintained can take the form of governmental regulations or
individual/community reaction (permit denial, threat of complaint to utility regulators, and other effects).
Where noise is a potential concern, field measurements of the area background noise levels and
computer simulations predicting the impact of the substation may be required.
Depending on the location of the substation this could be a significant risk whereas in many areas this
may not be relevant.
Physical and cyber security breaches

Security breaches may be of a nefarious purpose or an opportunity-based reason. The first is usually
to either steal or to destroy substation assets. Theft of assets in countries where there is a high degree
of lawlessness is certainly a consideration – the prevalent items that are stolen are conductor and
transformer oil. The second may only be for amusement purposes. Either has the possibility of a fatality
or network disturbance and needs to be prevented if at all possible.
Security management is intended to prevent or protect:
 Unauthorised Access – prevention of unauthorised access to substations, transmission lines
and communication infrastructure;
 Critical Asset Protection – identification of critical assets and the use of barriers to limit
opportunity for damage before physical intervention; and
 Cyber-attacks to the substation communications and control.
Prevention of unauthorised access to the substation should be maintained by ensuring that appropriate
physical barriers and warnings are in place to prevent any unauthorised entry and contact / proximity
with energised electrical equipment. Perimeter fences should be based on the risk profile of the location
as per the following example:
 Metropolitan sites, critical infrastructure sites and those sites in close proximity to rural
townships – High Security fencing such as palisade type fences with varying degrees of
robustness; and
 Non-metropolitan sites not in close proximity to rural townships – Chain mesh fencing which is
of a much lower security.
Building security should be designed to prevent forced entry (building hardening). It is accepted that
it is impractical to prevent access to determined unauthorised persons, persons carrying tools or persons
with criminal opportunistic intent and that a determined attempt to enter will ultimately succeed,
regardless of the countermeasures implemented.
Cyber security is an increasing requirement as systems become more LAN/WAN based. The typical
conundrum is between allowing ease of access to staff to carry out emergency actions without
impediment versus preventing unauthorised operation of plant and equipment. Cyber security systems
therefore generally have two key components:
 Malicious activity detection
 Access authorisation control
Malicious activity is an important aspect of maintaining the system integrity. It is no longer sufficient
to assume that if the facility is not directly connected to the internet, then it is secure. Such “air gaps”
are a myth due to portable devices of various forms, some with their own Wi-Fi internet connections,
or the system is inherently connected via a control centre console. Traffic patterns on the LAN and
indeed unusual commands or users may be an indication of an attempted attack on the system.
Access authorisation, and rapid access revocation (as the US NERC CP requirements highlight), is critical.
Users must be identified by personal credentials that are then linked by password obfuscation
mechanisms to grant the User access to a select set of assets for a select set of activities. Such measures
must be effective whether the person is physically in the substation or remote. The need for individual
access revocation within 24 hours demands specific systems to be built into the telecommunication
switches and routers together with effective IED password regimes established to change default factory
passwords at commissioning.
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Provision of effective cyber security is one of the corner stones of enabling remote maintenance systems
which brings a vast range of cost and operational benefits in their own right.
Chemical Risks
These risks are a threat both to the environment as well as substation personnel.
Risks covered under this category would include transformer oil spills, which can contribute to fire in
case of fault conditions. If uncontrolled this spill can lead to an environmental contamination of soil as
well as water ways and rivers. Further to this, some older transformers in the developing world still
contain PCB in the oils and the risk of environmental contamination as well as the health risk to
operational staff needs to be considered. This is especially the case when the transformers containing
the PCB contaminated oil is to be refurbished or disposed of.
Risks to the operational and construction staff are also presented by the substation batteries and the
appropriate personal protection needs to be provided for as well as the countermeasures to spills
including masks, body protection, eye wash and in extreme cases, shower facilities in case of spillage.
Furthermore sufficient ventilation or alarm systems need to be provided for to detect and prevent the
risk of hydrogen explosions.
In cases of SF6 gas spillage during normal operation or the by-product gasses during a catastrophic
failure needs to be taken into consideration when factoring the safety of operational personnel.
Summary of Risks
Some of the core risks have been identified. Which risks should the designer and constructor focus
on? This question can only be answered by the application of a Safety in Design (SiD) process which
is defined in the following subsection.
8.3 SAFETY IN DESIGN

Purpose
The goal of the application of the Safety in Design (SiD) procedure is to identify, early in the design
lifecycle, any engineered features or safeguards that can be incorporated into designs to eliminate
hazards and minimise so far as is reasonably practicable the risk of harm to people, the environment
and the Utility’s assets.
Reasonably practicable in relation to a duty to ensure health and safety, means that which is, or was at
a particular time, reasonably able to be done in relation to ensuring health and safety, considering and
weighing up all relevant matters including:
 The likelihood of the hazard or the risk concerned occurring;
 The degree of harm that might result from the hazard or the risk;
 What the person concerned knows, or ought reasonably to know, about –
 The hazard or the risk; and
 Ways of eliminating or minimising the risk;
 The availability and suitability of ways to eliminate or minimise the risk; and
 After assessing the extent of the risk and the available ways of eliminating or minimising the
risk, the cost associated with available ways of eliminating or minimising the risk, including
whether the cost is grossly disproportionate to the risk.
Additionally, a person must not undertake any activity that pollutes, or might pollute, the environment
unless that person takes all reasonable and practicable measures to prevent or minimise any resulting
environmental harm.
SiD Assessment
The SiD Assessment should be a mandatory step that uses a structured format for assessing, identifying,
recording and approving the SiD activities that are applicable to the project.
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SiD Workshop
A SiD Workshop is recommended to occur during the project definition or planning phase. The residual
hazards identified shall be managed within the SiD workshop and an actions record should be used to
identify and record safety in design actions/issues specific to the design of the option selected and also
with respect to the expected operational conditions that will be experienced following energisation.
8.3.3.1 SiD Workshop Participants

The Design Manager should organise the SiD Workshop and invite participants that represent the
lifecycle of the asset: design, construction, operation and maintenance and decommissioning and
disposal. The participants should be persons suitably experienced, authorised and who ought to
reasonably know and be able to identify any hazards that can arise from the project works. The SiD
Workshop participants should include: Community Representatives, Design Manager, Project Manager,
Subject Matter Expert(s), Maintenance Service Providers / Asset Lifecycle representative, Safety
representative, Environmental representative and a facilitator. Other participants may be invited on a
case-by-case basis.
Management of SiD Actions

SiD actions should be incorporated into preliminary drawings such that the designer addresses them as
part of the design process and therefore ensure that validation, verification and design acceptance
occurs.
8.3.4.1 Safety Critical Equipment

Safety Critical Equipment (SCE) is equipment which has a primary function to protect people (workers
or the public) or prevent a major accident event. To this effect, SCE must maintain 100% functional
integrity throughout its life-cycle. SCE in comparison to all other plant and equipment must receive a
greater focus on achieving its specified functionality. This is verified via design reviews, and increased
surveillance during commissioning and testing. SCE shall require a greater level of scrutiny during all
phases of the safety in design process.
Examples of SCE includes power system protection including relays and protective schemes, indoor fire
suppression systems; earthing systems and specialised systems designed to suppress arc flash impacts
for indoor switchgear.
8.3.4.2 Safety in Design Information Transfer

Safety in design information refers to the SiD workshop and action record, the SiD report and any hazard
information created during the project lifecycle. Safety in design information is required to be
transferred to relevant stakeholders as the project travels through its lifecycle. Typically, this will be
from Utility  Detail Designer  Contractor  Utility’s Asset Management Department. Information
transfer should formally occur at each of these interface points with acceptance from the party receiving
the information. This is effectively managed by having a safety in design information handover meeting
at each of these interface points.
8.4 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Safety is about the control of hazards to either personnel or the community. To control a hazard they
must first be identified either by a SiD process, notification or existing awareness of a hazard.
Identifying hazards in the workplace or at the community interface involves finding items and situations
that could potentially cause harm to people. Hazards generally arise from the following aspects of work
and their interaction, including:
 Physical work environment;
 Equipment, materials and substances used;
 Work tasks and how they are performed; and
 Work design and management.
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Some hazards are part of the work process such as mechanical hazards, noise or toxic properties of
substances. Other hazards result from equipment failures and misuse, chemical spills and structural
failures.
A piece of plant, substance or a work process may have many different hazards. Each of these hazards
needs to be identified.
Assessing risk involves considering what could happen if someone is exposed to a hazard and the
likelihood of it happening. Carrying out a risk assessment can help you evaluate the potential risks that
may be involved in an activity or undertaking. A risk assessment can help determine:
 How severe a risk is;
 Whether any existing control measures are effective;
 What action you should take to control the risk; and
 How urgently the action needs to be taken.
A risk assessment should be done when:
 There is uncertainty about how a hazard may result in injury or illness;
 The work activity involves a number of different hazards and there is a lack of understanding
about how the hazards may interact with each other to produce new or greater risks; and
 Changes at the workplace occur that may impact on the effectiveness of control measures.
It is mandatory in normal health and safety regulations to carry out a risk assessment for high risk
activities such as entry into substations, confined spaces and live electrical work. A risk assessment can
be carried out with varying degrees of detail depending on the type of hazards and the information,
data and resources available. It can be as simple as a discussion with field workers or involve specific
risk analysis tools and techniques recommended by safety professionals. The assessment is made
considering the risk to a person who represents the maximum exposure that could be expected of a
person acting reasonably. The design or control must produce the as low as reasonably acceptable or
practicable (i.e. ALARA or ALARP). Table 8-1 represents a generally acceptable target range.
Table 8-1 – Level of Risk or Harm Tolerance due to Injury

Probability of Risk
single fatality classification for Resulting implication for risk treatment
public death
High or Intolerable
≥ 10-4 risk Must prevent occurrence regardless of costs.
Intermediate or Must minimise occurrence unless risk reduction is impractical and

10-4 - 10-6 costs are grossly disproportionate to safety gained.
ALARA Region
Low or Tolerable Risk generally acceptable, however, risk treatment may be applied
≤10-6 risk if the cost is low and/or a normally expected practice.
People - Workforce or Public

Safety hazards to personnel should be controlled by using the well-accepted “Hierarchy of
Control”. Controls should be determined according to the “Hierarchy of Control” system
described in Figure 8-1 below. The following control elements should be utilised in the order
presented and where appropriate used in conjunction.
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Figure 8-1 – Hierarchy of Controls
8.4.1.1 Elimination
This control measure involves eliminating or removing the risk in its entirety.
8.4.1.2 Substitution
This form of control involves substituting a safer process or material for the hazardous process/material
identified.
8.4.1.3 Engineering Controls

This method of control involves designing and/or adding physical safety features to plant or equipment.
 Equipment and Workplace Design: The provision of new and/or additional equipment or
redesign of a workplace can be used to control identified hazards, e.g. A poor station design
resulting in a risk of injury or electrical contact;
 Automation: Fully or partially automating a process removes the need for, or reduces the risk
of, performing a hazardous task;
 Isolation: Separation of the hazard or hazardous work practice from employees other work
areas. This may involve sectioning off the area by erecting barriers or by relocating either the
hazardous work practice or the „other‟ employees and their work practices;
 Containment: (Ventilation, dilution, extraction) Containing or drawing away a hazard at the
source so that personnel are not exposed; and
 Guarding: Guards must be provided when there is the potential for people to come into contact
with hazardous situations to ensure that no part of the person (including hair, clothing etc.) can
be caught in the moving part. There are several different types of guards, movable/interlocked,
fixed, and photoelectric beam.
8.4.1.4 Administrative Controls

This type of control is most effective when used in conjunction with measures mentioned above or as
an interim control whilst more effective control measures are developed and implemented. It requires
systems to be established or amended in order to control the risk presented. Most often it requires the
assessment and modification of the task(s) performed. It may include measures such as:
 Amendment or establishment of new Policies and Procedures. For example: developing
documented safe work practices for a hazardous task, or implementing a restrictive policy to
prevent staff or students from coming in contact with identified hazards;
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 The introduction or review of existing maintenance schedules for plant and equipment, or safe
work practices. This measure is used to ensure that existing plant, equipment and procedures
do not deteriorate to the point where they become hazardous;
 Limiting the exposure of personnel to elements that are only hazardous when they exceed a
certain threshold. These types of hazards can include: noise, radiation, heat and chemicals,
and can be controlled by introducing elements as simple as job rotation; and
 Providing training and information in safe work practices and other workplace health issues so
that personnel can work safely.
8.4.1.5 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

PPE is not a particularly effective control method and should only be used:
 When all other control measures are impractical; or
 In conjunction with other more effective, control measures.
It is important to select the correct PPE for the hazard identified, and advice should be sought in this
regard if there is any uncertainty. It is important to note that the public cannot be expected to wear
PPE so only other control levels can be used.
The “Hierarchy of Controls” provides a basic guide for controlling hazards in the workplace. The
designer should consult the health and safety representative and attempt to find solutions by working
their way down the hierarchy. Once appropriate controls are identified it is necessary to consult senior
management and the staff that will be affected by the changes. This will reduce the possibility of
oversight and help to gain the support of the staff in the implementation phase.
When determining the most suitable controls, the designer must consider various options and choose
the control/s that most effectively eliminates the hazard or minimises the risk in the circumstances. This
can be a single control or it could be a combination of different controls that together provide the
highest level of protection that is reasonably practicable.
Deciding what is reasonably practicable to protect people from harm requires considering and weighing
up all relevant matters including:
 The likelihood of the hazard or risk occurring;
 The degree of harm that might result from the hazard or the risk;
 Knowledge about the hazard or risk;
 Ways of eliminating or minimising the risk; and
 The availability and suitability of ways to eliminate or minimise the risk.
It is only after the designer has assessed the extent of the risk and the available ways of eliminating or
minimising it, that the designer should consider associated costs, including whether they are grossly
disproportionate to the risk.
8.5 PHYSICAL SECURITY

Many of the risks involving substations and personnel relate to the security of the installation and/or
the social environment, the risks and considerations that should be examined are summarised in the
following sub sections:
Basic security requirements

All existing and new substations should have a basic minimum level of physical security. This would
include fences with locked gates, control buildings with locked doors, a special type of grounding system
if copper theft is prevalent, and minimum clearance distances between perimeter fences and energised
equipment. Basic security requirements should list these measures as required in all cases, regardless
of location or age of the station. In addition, some types of security breach may require special or
immediate action by operations staff.
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At construction and material storage sites, or vacant land, minimum security levels may either not exist,
or may be inadequately described. Therefore, it is important to define the security measures required
by type of facility or site, especially if the measures required are different from other basic measures
normally required. Security methods at active construction sites can include moving all construction
equipment inside of fenced areas at night and check-in/check-out of personnel through a security gate.
Another important security element is good and continuous communication with groups outside the
company, including particularly neighbours and urban councils adjacent to the substation. Community
security has long been an excellent means to pro-actively manage the security of the substation and
electricity assets. Across the world, engagement of the local community in policing and reporting entry
to substations has led to significant findings that have deterred unauthorised access, especially where
substations are located close to residential areas. Pro-active engagement of the community should be
a strategy considered early on during the development electricity infrastructure and substations.
Practices to avoid storing “attractive” materials openly within the substation should be considered.
Additional security measures

The following additional security measures should be considered:
 Structures and poles should be kept a sufficient distance from the fence perimeter to minimise
the potential use of the structure itself to scale the fence;
 All sewer and storm drains that are located inside the substation perimeter, with access from
the outside, should be spiked or fitted with vertical grillwork to prevent entry;
 Manhole covers or openings should be located on the inside of the substation perimeter fence;
 Driveway barriers (gates, guardrails, ditches, etc.) at the property line for long driveways can
help limit vehicular access to the substation property; and
 Signs should be installed on the perimeter fence to warn the public that:
 Alarm systems are providing security for the substation.
 Entry is not permitted.
 There is a danger of shock inside.
Additional information on physical and electronic security and their effectiveness can be sourced from
publications such as IEEE Std1402-2000 or CIGRE Technical Brochure 253 [49].
Particular Security Measures of/at Substations for the prevention of Theft

It must be noted that the following security measures only slow perpetrators down, but will not
necessarily prevent access.
What follows are the basic principles applied in some utilities for added security measures. Sub-
transmission businesses have over many years had an escalating problem with theft ranging from
earthing copper (earth grid and earth tails [bonding structures to main earth grid]) and control cables
(between equipment in the yard and control panels in the building). Theft of equipment and assets
greatly increases the cost of energy to the customer, operational reliability and exposes personnel and
public to a large safety risk. A number of design initiatives have evolved in the following areas:
8.5.3.1 Sub-transmission substations:

As a rule these substations are unmanned and can be situated anywhere, i.e. in urban areas as well as
deep rural areas far away from other economic centres.
 Fences: These substations have a single perimeter fence also doing duty as the safety fence
around the HV/MV yard. The following evolutions of substations has occurred as follows over the
last few decades:
 Historically 2m high diamond mesh fences have been used, but these offer no level of security,
it effectively only demarcates the electrical installation from the outside (public) world;
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 Then bolted palisade fences with shear nuts were used. The problem with these was that it
was still possible to undo the nuts with little effort to gain easy access to the electrical
installation;
 The bolted palisade option was replaced by welded palisade fences that are more difficult to
damage/breach;
 In certain areas fences with higher security ratings are used. The details of these depend on
what is available in the market at the time. It must be said that even these only provide a
limited level of security;
 All the above could/can be used in conjunction with non-lethal electric fences, security lights (in
addition to normal floodlights) and alarm systems with sensing devices and security cameras;
and
 In addition anti-tunnelling measures are applied under the fences.
 Limiting copper theft: Earthing (or grounding) copper theft has been a problem for a long time
and various solutions have been applied in a bid to curb it. Up until the present day, theft has only
been prevalent at existing installations in operational installations. It has mainly been the theft of
earth tails connecting the structures to the main earth grid. The following describes the evolution
of earth tail installation over the last decades in one major company:
 Two bonding practices were applied between structures and the main grid:
▪ Single 50mm x 3mm flat copper straps bolted to the structure legs, or
▪ 2 x 10mm diameter round rod bolted to the structure legs.
 As theft increased only the 50mm x 3mm flat copper straps were used and painted to the same
colour as the galvanised steel structure legs. This was effective for a short time until the
practice became widely known and theft increased; and
 For new installations the earthing connection was then changed to make use of the structure
holding down bolts (threaded rods) and cast into the foundations. The 50mm x 3mm flat copper
straps then exited the foundations below ground level and dropped to 1m depth right away.
It is important, when applying this method, to ensure that the complete system is adequately
dimensioned for the expected fault currents and fault clearing times to prevent damage to the
foundations and conductors. The application described is suitable for 25kA up to 1 second.
This practice stopped the Copper earth tail theft, but unfortunately caused an increase in the theft
of control cables between the equipment junction boxes in the substation yard and the control
rooms, especially in remote substations.
In recent years Copper theft of the main earth grid during construction has been an emerging issue.
The installation practice is to install the main grid conductor at a depth of 1m below final terrace
level however before the process of backfilling and compacting the trenches can be completed the
Copper is stolen at night. (Armed) Security guards have been deployed but in certain cases they
are overpowered with more firepower by the perpetrators and the Copper stolen before the trenches
have been properly closed and compacted.
In a bid to counter this the company is considering the use of Copper Cladded Steel instead of
copper for the main earth grid material. Copper Cladded Steel can present design challenges and
the designer should be aware of the differences between this and Copper Strap.
 Limiting control cable theft: The use of conventional cable trenches with cable covers (concrete
slabs or metal plate) makes access to the control cables very easy. This has resulted in large scale
control cable theft especially in remote areas, even in substations that have security systems with
armed response linked to it. The time it takes for the armed response officers to reach the
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substations is in a lot of cases long enough for the cables to be cut, removed and the insulation
stripped.
Some of the preventative practices incorporated include:

 Filling the cable trench with a weak sand cement mixture to make access to the cable difficult.
This is mostly employed in older (existing) substations. When additional cables have to be
installed it can be broken and reapplied after the work has been completed.
 Cables can be buried directly in the ground, but then it is also necessary to place cable route
markers for future reference and to ensure that the cable route drawings are correct and up to
date.
 Recently precast culverts have been used, with all the cables being bound together and to the
culverts with metal straps at certain intervals. The culverts are installed to be flush with the
terrace level and after the cables have been placed is it filled with crushed yard stone up to the
normal yard stone level.
 Another initiative applied in a number of supply areas is to use square tube equipment supports
instead of the traditional lattice equipment supports. The advantage if this is that the control
cables are then routed through the support removing (most of the) visible control cables. The
support foundations are also modified to accommodate a conduit through which the cables are
routed into the ground.
Interestingly in LAN-based substations deploying IEC 61850 technologies, the requirement for
substation wide and extensive trenches with thousands of individual wires can be almost totally
eliminated and replaced by 100 mm diameter direct buried conduit carrying just a few optical fibre
cables. This has a huge reduction in use of copper cables in the yard (and hence potential theft)
but also in the ease in which a whole new fibre network can be laid out and recommissioned in the
event of catastrophic cabling failure.
Figure 8-2 – Modern Earthing Practices in Substations
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 Employee safety: The standard buildings have been modified to provide a foyer with a heavy duty
security gate to prevent (protection & control) employees from being held up at gun point and
equipment being stolen while performing work.
8.5.3.2 Transmission substations:

It must be noted that different philosophies/standards are applied between Transmission and Sub-
transmission substations. Security measures associated to Transmission substations are treated
differently compared to sub-transmission substations because of the supply interruption impact.
Although these substations can be situated anywhere, they are normally closer to economic centres
compared to sub-transmission substations.
 Fences: Transmission substations often have three perimeter fences around the substation. In
addition there are also individual fences around each of the HV yards as indicated below:
 Outer perimeter fence;
 Non-lethal electric fence;
 Inner perimeter fence;

 Safety fence (around the individual HV yards);
 If needed the “outer perimeter fence” (normally a medium security fence) will be
substituted with a high security fence; and
 Security lights are added on the substation side of the non-lethal electric fence, and in
certain cases motion activated cameras as well.
 Additional security measures: In addition to the above, permanent security guards will be
deployed if a transmission substation has been classified as a National Key Point or critical national
infrastructure.
For other transmission substations security guards will be deployed at times when construction work
is underway to safeguard against equipment theft, mainly copper and cables (both power and
control).
Some countries have banned the use of free-roaming guard dogs within the yard as they represent
a risk to intruders and authorised personnel.
8.6 ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
The design, construction, installation and operation of electricity works must take into consideration
environmental issues and concerns. Factors to consider include, but are not limited to the:
 Promotion of energy efficiency;
 Efficient use of non-renewable resources;
 Use of renewable resources;
 Social impact of new projects, and community concerns;
 Minimisation of environmental damage, including visual impacts;
 Management programmes;
 Reduction in and the correct disposal of waste products, and
 Consideration of Electromagnetic Field (EMF) issues.
An aspect that any environmental assessment must consider is that communities start small but can
grow in an unplanned and sporadic manner. When these communities are quite small the electric
network is usually far from the community. After population increases and the community spreads the
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electric network may be very close increasing the environmental impact of the network and the obvious
risks.
Environmental assessment
Where projects are proposed for the construction of new assets and/or substantial asset replacement
or augmentation, an assessment may be required under the local planning laws.
Routine repairs, maintenance, asset replacement and emergency works will generally not be subject to
any environmental laws, provided that the work is of minimal environmental impact once the appropriate
mitigation and control measures are in place.
Legislation and Planning Laws

What do environmental laws require? Put simply, the law will usually require utilities to:
 Adequately assess environmental risk and obtain the required planning approvals, licenses
and permits;
 Undertake activities in a manner that minimises environmental harm;
 Put in place control measures to minimise environmental harm; and
 Immediately report environmental incidents.
Further information and guidance can be sought from publications such as IEEE Std. 1127 “IEEE Guide
for the Design, Construction, and Operation of Electric Power Substations for Community Acceptance
and Environmental Compatibility” [50].
Water discharge
The design of the substation platform drainage system should prevent contaminated runoff that exceeds
the limits set by the environmental regulations from leaving the site in the event of an emergency spill.
This should be assessed on a site by site basis. Possible solutions may include, but not limited to:
 Hydrocarbon interceptor for treatment of runoff prior to discharge;
 Dedicated bunded areas for refuelling vehicles. The use of spill kits and proprietary
temporary bunds may be acceptable where work procedures are approved;
 Bunded and roofed area for the general storage of fuel or oil containers excluding
transformers and diesel generators; and
 Isolation (shut-off) valve prior to discharge point shall be provided to control the flow from
the site drainage system in case of accidental contamination of the system. The selection
of the valve type shall ensure no collection of silt to minimise maintenance or replacement.
The design should consider any operational procedures relevant to the site in order to ensure the spill
prevention and containment design is appropriate. Such operational considerations may include:
 Frequency and procedures of re-fuelling or whether re-fuelling during rainfall events is likely
to occur;
 Drainage arrangements; surface or buried pipes; and
 Emergency spill standard procedures to be followed in the event of a spill or fire taking
consideration of emergency services attendance for firefighting, induction and substation
access requirements. Will the attendance be limited to keeping the fire within the burning
pool or will it be to extinguish it by dowsing which will potentially cause overtopping of
secondary containment bunds and devices.
Where the site specific assessment indicates the requirement for isolation, the substation platform storm
water drainage system should include one or more inspection pits controlled by shut-off valve(s) located
near the final discharge point to the receiving outfall or environment. All of the platform storm water
run-off should be directed to flow into this inspection pit(s). The inspection pit(s) should be installed in
a manner that facilitates the taking of samples on a periodical basis.
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Emergency and containment shut-off valves must be manually operated, placed downstream of the
inspection pit(s) and open during normal operation of the substation drainage system. When closed,
they should prevent contaminated storm water from leaving the outlet pipes onto the outfall or the
environment.
Water often collects on site in pits, trenches and excavations or may be stored in sediment tanks, traps
or basins. When discharging collected water there may be site specific criteria for water quality.
In the absence of project or site specific targets the default water quality should be:
 pH between 6.5 and 8.5;
 TSS <50mg/L (generally correlates to field turbidity of less than 60 NTU);
 No visible oil and grease, and
 No vegetative matter or trash.

Low turbidity High turbidity
Clear Murky
Figure 8-3 – Visible Site Water Quality
Oil containment
The following definitions apply to this sub-section:
Oil refers to any kind of oil used within substations including petrol and waste oils.
The term Bund refers to an oil-retaining area consisting of impermeable base and walls to contain any
leakage from substation plant or tanks contained in the bund enclosure.
Primary containment is the system built into the structure of the oil-filled plant or equipment such
as tanks and pipes that keep oil for operation and storage purposes.
Secondary containment is the overflow area, associated pipework and devices used for capturing
and managing oil and fire-fighting water during failure. It is not an oil-storage system but is designed
and provided for emergency situations. The system in made up of:
 Transformer oil-containment walls (bunds);
 Flame traps;
 Pipes;
 Buried oil containment tanks; and
 Separators.
A Separator is a device used to separate oil from water and discharge the water but retain the oil.
The term Flame trap refers to a system or device through which a fluid, oil/water in the case of
substations, will freely drain at a specified rate without allowing the passage and propagation of fire.
8.6.5.1 Oil Pollution Control at Substations

The oil-pollution control at substations shall be achieved by:
 Good siting of oil filled equipment; and
 Secondary oil containment systems to retain leaks and spillages.
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8.6.5.2 Siting of Oil Filled Equipment

The design of substations should ensure that where possible, oil-filled equipment like transformers,
reactors, oil circuit-breakers and oil-storage tanks are located away from natural and controlled waters.
The following distances are provided as a guide to ensure that major pollution is avoided in the event
of a major spillage:
 50 m from boreholes and wells;
 10 m from any surface waters; and
 3 m from any open drains discharging into controlled waters like lakes, canals and aquifers.
8.6.5.3 Secondary Oil Containment Systems

Oil-containment and oily water drainage systems should comply with the requirements of any
environmental protection guideline and the relevant government legislation.
Usually guidelines require total site containment to be observed for bunded areas. Thus the design of
the site oily water drainage management system shall be such that all oil-containing infrastructure and
filling stations are bunded. Any storm water accumulating in the bunded areas shall be directed to a
treatment device.
For power stations, transformer switchyards and electrical substations, a Class 1 separator designed to
European Standard BSEN 858-1 is the standard of recommended treatment device. The treated water
can be directed to a storm water drainage system, a receiving watercourse or a detention/retention
system as may be permissible under the provisions of the relevant legislation.
All oil filled power transformers, substation auxiliary transformers and shunt reactors should be bunded
as required by the relevant guideline shall have a bund footprint chosen to comply with the requirements
of the guideline. Each substation transformer should be bunded separately.
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)

SF6 is considered a severe greenhouse gas and every opportunity to minimise its loss to the environment
should be examined. The responsible use of SF6 must be considered across all phases of the asset life
cycle to ensure that the procurement of all SF 6 gas or SF6 filled equipment is such that the losses are
minimised. Equipment that utilises SF6 gas should be specified to:
 Stipulate lowest practicable gas leakage rates and the highest practicable sealing standards in
contract specification documentation;
 Include equipment manufacturer adherence requirements for SF6 gas loss prevention in
specifications;
 Document contractor performance requirements for loss prevention, venting, containment
failure on filling and loss reporting; and
 Require the transportation of equipment in a partially filled state.
The equipment should use gas with the following characteristics as referenced in Table 8-2 below:
Table 8-2 – SF6 Impurity Levels
Ideal maximum impurity levels in new SF6
Impurity Maximum permitted
CF4 500 ppm weight
O2 + N2 500 ppm weight
Water 15 ppm weight
Acidity expressed as HF 0.3 ppm weight
Hydrolysable fluorides expressed as HF 1.0 ppm weight
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Where gas has to be handled and retrieved, a mobile plant should be provided to transfer gas to and
from gas-filled equipment in order to permit maintenance on the primary equipment. This plant should
be capable of evacuating and storing the largest quantity of gas specified and of evacuating the largest
volume specified to the vacuum level and refilling to the highest filling pressure specified by the
manufacturer. Note that there is a handy reference and guidance on handling of plant containing SF6
in IEC 60480 [51].
Fuel and Chemicals

All hazardous substances should be stored in accordance with any relevant dangerous goods Code of
Practice or legislation. All such material containers shall be stored undercover and on bunded
impervious surfaces. Appropriate incident response procedures and equipment should be in place for
implementation and use by appropriately trained and responsible personnel.
The design engineer should consider necessary containment and ventilated facilities for batteries where
lead-acid or liquid type batteries are used. Careful consideration for specific protections for personnel
should be considered. Likewise, should diesel fuel be stored on site for backup generation, proper
containment meeting regional regulations and safety requirements must be complied with.
Erosion Control
Activities that disturb soil or remove vegetation can increase the risk of soil erosion, surface runoff and
the possibility of sediment entering drainage or a waterway. This can harm aquatic plants and animals
and waterways.
When disturbing soil during excavation or construction activities best practice is to minimise the
amount/area disturbed. Minimising and controlling erosion reduces the amount of sediment generated.
Effective erosion and sediment control involves managing the worksite to minimise erosion and prevent
sediment and dirty water leaving the site or entering drainage or a waterway. Effective erosion and
sediment control should aim to:
 Assess the soil and water risks present or potential on the work site;
 Minimise the areas disturbed;
 Conserve topsoil/spoil where required for re-use;
 Control water flows around and through work sites;
 Stabilise/rehabilitate disturbed areas progressively;
 Inspect and maintain all control measures; and
 Remove sediment controls when site is stable.
A good practical guide for erosion and sediment control is available at the following website of the
International Erosion Control Association (Australasia) [52].
Heritage
Consideration of Heritage and cultural issues are usually done within a Heritage Impact Assessment
(HIA). Heritage sites demonstrate use of the land for history, culture and religious traditions and provide
an important link with traditional cultural heritage. To ensure that any site of significance is not
inadvertently disturbed, a desktop archaeological assessment of the proposed site should be conducted,
which engages archaeologists and anthropologists, and works with local traditional owner groups. A
site visit should be conducted by the designer to inspect the property visually for any historical or
archaeological material (with the traditional owners, archaeologists and anthropologists) that may be
impacted upon by the proposal is recommended.
There are comprehensive procedures and work instructions in place across the world in the event that
an artefact or site of significance is discovered. The designer should consult these for further advice.
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Noise and Vibration

8.6.10.1 During Operation
Noise-control policies usually focus on the noise emitted from industrial sites and how this may affect
the amenity of nearby receivers. They outline assessment procedures for industrial noise. The
procedures normally have two components which include controlling intrusive noise impacts in the short
term for residences and maintaining noise level amenity for residences and other land uses. The
relevant local noise control policy and procedure will describe the necessary assessment procedures and
limits that must be adhered to, all designs of utility infrastructure must comply with these limits.
Transformers emit low frequency tonal noise with the greatest amplitudes being at 100, 200 and, to a
lesser extent, 300 Hz. Particular emphasis shall be directed to attenuating these frequencies. It is
envisaged that any design for noise attenuation would need to consider both insertion loss and
absorption as the most likely mechanisms to achieve this attenuation.
Effective noise mitigation can be achieved by the use of precast concrete panels, held in place with
suitable support structures or steel frames. If a firewall is required for a transformer or reactor, it may
be possible to incorporate this wall into one side of the noise enclosure. A minimum clearance of 1 m
should be allowed for personnel access between the noise or fire walls and any part of the plant. Other
practical mitigation measures are the use of Helmholtz resonators such as depicted in the following
image in Figure 8-4.
Figure 8-4 – Helmholtz Resonator
These are concrete blocks that have a slot either cut in them or are cast that way. These provide a
particularly good sound absorption coefficient for a low cost.
Figure 8-5 – Acoustic Characteristics of Helmholtz Resonators
Other effective methods of noise mitigation include; noise mitigation blankets, sound-proofing of
affected properties, and single wall absorber/deflector systems. These alternatives should be
considered to suit site practicalities, installation programme, outage availability and cost-effectiveness
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provided they are supported with appropriate designs and evidence of results in the form of surveys
carried out before and after installation.
Government regulations may impose absolute limits on noise emissions from substations, usually
varying the limits with zoning of the adjacent properties. Such limits are often made by town councils
or other urban areas where there is a limited buffer space between the substation and the adjacent
property. Typical noise limits are either given as measured at the substation property or at the boundary
of the adjacent property. Typical limits used within the industry are presented in Table 8-3.
Table 8-3 – Indicative Acoustic Limits
Land use category Indicative noise factor (dB(A))

Day Night
Rural Living 47 40
Residential 52 45
Rural Industry 57 50
Commercial 62 55
General Industry 65 55
Other additional government regulations may also limit any increase of noise level above the ambient
noise level to less than a 10 dB(A) increase, there could also be a discrete tonal penalty applied tonal
for example a 5dBA addition to the measured level. Although the typical noise limits shown above are
based upon measurements taken over a period of 15 minutes (typically) there could also be short term
(impulsive) limits applied to such things as circuit-breaker operations.
8.6.10.2 During Construction

Noise and vibration at construction sites can be disruptive to the local community. The impacts may
include reduced productivity, loss of business, adverse health effects or property damage. Proper
management and consultation can minimise complaints and avoid costly worksite shut downs and
delays. Unless complying with out of hours work criteria construction or maintenance work impacting
a receiver should be restricted to standard operating hours within the jurisdiction where the substation
is being constructed. By way of demonstration, the prescriptions in South Australia are as follows:
 Monday to Friday — 7am to 6pm;
 Weekends — 8am to 1pm; and
 No work on public holidays.
Before any work is undertaken consultation should be expedited as follows;
 Provide at least four clear business days’ notice to affected receivers prior to starting work
unless it is emergency works or it is discussed with the affected receivers face-to-face; and
 Provide signage outside the worksite detailing who is undertaking the works and a 24 hour
contact number.
Any notification letters that are directed around residents should contain a description of the works and
why they are being undertaken as follows:
 Details of the works that will be noisy;
 Work hours and expected duration;
 What is being done to minimise the impacts; and
 24-hour contact number.
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EMF
In the light of authoritative reviews having concluded that no adverse health effects from exposure to
low level EMF have been established, it is recognised that there is, within communities, some concern
about the issue which should be addressed. This position involves providing balanced and accurate
information, operating the electrical power system prudently within relevant health guidelines, and
closely monitoring scientific research on the EMF health issue.
The two internationally recognised exposure guidelines are ICNIRP and IEEE as follows:
 International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) 2010; and
 International Committee on Electromagnetic Safety, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) in the USA 2002.
All designs and works are to comply with the ICNIRP and IEEE guidelines and are to be conducted in
accordance in a manner consistent with the principles of prudent avoidance. Prudent avoidance can be
defined as ‘doing what can be done without undue inconvenience and at modest expense’ to avert the
possible risk to health from exposure to new high voltage transmission facilities. In practical terms, this
means designing new transmission and distribution facilities having regard to their capacity to produce
EMF, and siting them having regard to the proximity of houses, schools and the like.
Reference levels for general public exposure to time varying electric and magnetic fields (unperturbed
rms values) and are represented in Table 8-4.
Table 8-4 – EMF Reference Levels for Public Exposure
E-field strength Magnetic field strength Magnetic flux density

Frequency range
E (kV m ) -1
H (A m ) -1
B (T)
25 Hz−50 Hz 5 1.6 x 102 2 x 10-4
50 Hz−400 Hz 2.5 x 102/f 1.6 x 102 2 x 10-4

Note: f in Hz.
Reference levels for occupational exposure to time varying electric and magnetic fields (unperturbed
rms values) and are represented in Table 8-5.
Table 8-5 – EMF Reference Levels of Occupational Exposure
E-field strength Magnetic field strength Magnetic flux density

Frequency range
E (kV m-1) H (A m-1) B (T)
25 Hz−300 Hz 5 x 102/f 8 x102 1 x 10-3

Note: f in Hz.
Both tables have been extracted in modified form from the ICNIRP Guidelines for limiting exposure to
time varying electric and magnetic fields (1 Hz to 100 kHz) 2010 and should be used as a guide only,
the local applicable regulations should be consulted [53]. Reference levels have been determined by
mathematical modelling for the exposure conditions where the variation of the electric or magnetic field
over the space occupied by the body is relatively small, i.e., uniform exposures. They are calculated
for the condition of maximum coupling of the field to the exposed individual, thereby providing maximum
protection. Frequency dependence and dosimetric uncertainties were considered. At the power
frequency (50 Hz) the reference levels for occupational exposure are 10 kV m -1 respect to general public
exposure the reference levels are 5 kV m-1 for the electric field and 200 µT for the magnetic field.
The International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) also provides information
regarding limits on radio communications equipment in their guidelines [54]. Recently CIGRE has
released a publication that is well worth consulting when considering EMF. Technical Brochure TB 719
– Power Quality and EMC Issues with Future Electricity Networks provides excellent guidelines for EMC
considerations [55].
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EMI
There are limits placed on electromagnetic emissions to the environment from electricity infrastructure
by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and their radio protection agencies (CISPR).
These limits and measurement methods are detailed in the following publications CISPR 11:2017 and
CISPR Technical Report 18 parts 1, 2 and 3. Some countries have used these standards and technical
reports to produce country-specific standards such as the Australian Standard 2344 [56].
8.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON SAFETY, SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Just as the operation and maintenance of electrical assets present enduring elements in the lifecycle of
the electrical power substations, so do the concerns with issues surrounding safety, security and
environmental aspects. Whereas O&M activities are definite, periodic activities, those surrounding
safety, security and environmental are not definite nor periodic. However, they can happen when a
lapse in preventative measures leads to their occurrence. These lapses can occur due to errors and
omissions during activities in the construction, operation, maintenance and disposal phases of the
substation lifecycle, as well as in the design phase activities. Keeping within the scope of this Technical
Brochure, concentration is focused on design activities. An example in each area follows:
 Safety: failure of the designer to check and double-check the electrical clearances of energised
parts to ground could result in a flashover with potentially fatal outcomes to personnel and the
public if present during the occurrence;
 Security: failure of the designer to provide alternates to copper earthing connection leads
(such as copper clad steel conductor) will most likely invite copper theft to happen at some
point in the life of a substation; and
 Environmental: failure of the designer to consider the actual transformer cooling radiator
over-hang beyond the limits of the proposed oil collection sump liner and also the possible
pressurised flow of an oil leak beyond the liner’s edge will lead to an uncontained oil leak with
soil contamination and possible water contamination.
Just as O&M activities account for a substantial cost accumulated over the substation lifecycle, so can
safety, security and environmental if they occur. However, these can lead to substantial costs being
accumulated due to claims and settlements resulting from property and equipment damage, loss of
service availability and profitability, and worst of all, loss of life. Even a one-time occurrence in a safety
incident can far outweigh the collective O&M costs.
Substations must be designed in a way to address any concerns related to any safety, security and
environmental issues that could arise. The objective is to identify and address all potential risks so as
to eliminate them from becoming real hazards inside the substation itself. This would be in the way of
the electrical configuration, physical layout, siting, equipment selection, and all other such design
components. For example, the use of standard and modular designs inherently incorporates proper
clearances and breeds familiarity with electrical equipment by field personnel maintaining it. As always,
safety must be the prevailing objective over cost, performance, schedule, asset management, and the
like. It is the designer’s responsibility to see to that.
As with O&M considerations, an excellent approach to accomplish positive approaches for safety,
security and environmental aspects is to establish a free-flowing, two-way communication channel
between the engineering office and corporate safety, security and environmental personnel. Knowing
each other’s needs and challenges can go a long way toward producing truly low cost solutions for
substation infrastructure. Initially, low cost solutions can be proposed by the designer, but they must
always be evaluated and verified with those having safety, security and environmental expertise. Safety
in design must always happen in the preliminary stages of engineering. The value added cannot be
overstated when safety is concerned to assure the safe operation of substations for its entire service
life.
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9. PROJECT DELIVERY CONSIDERATIONS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to provide guidance on how to apply effective Project Management in the delivery of
Low-Cost Substation Design projects. The first basic question one needs to answer is: What is a Project?
The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) definition of “Project” is as follows [57]:
“A project is a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
The temporary nature of projects indicates that a project has a definite beginning and end. The
end is reached when the project’s objectives have been achieved or when the project is
terminated because its objectives will not or cannot be met, or when the need for the project
no longer exists”
There are many project management references in the market and it is not the purpose of this chapter
to provide any new project management tool and techniques. This chapter intends to provide the
substation designer with some guidelines with respect to his or her interactions with the project manager
and the project management process. This chapter does not provide guidance relating to project
management techniques.
Although the project manager’s role often resides in a Project Management Office (PMO) in a utility or
consulting firm, this role could be taken up by one of the team members in organisations with fewer
resources. In these cases, the project manager duties may fall upon the substation engineer or
designer. These engineers are usually responsible for developing the electrical configuration, preparing
the physical layout, specifying the siting requirements, coordinating with the planning, protection and
civil engineers, and interfacing with the transmission and distribution lines designers. These engineers
are usually technical experts and do not always have the specialist skills to best handle the project
management or team leader duties. Understanding and applying the recommendations of this chapter
should therefore be of value to the substation designer who may be assigned these extra responsibilities.
The opportunity identification, business development process and business case are not covered this
chapter.
Effective project management is key to delivering “Low Cost Substations”, however, the project
management activities of the project should focus on optimising the costs of the substation project as
a whole.
This chapter covers the three stages of the project: Planning, Execution and Closure. These three
stages of the project should be effectively planned, managed and controlled, assuring that the three
sides (Scope, Cost and Schedule) of the project management triangle remain balanced and the triangle
“closed” while keeping high standards of Quality (as shown in the Figure 9-1 below).
Hereafter, the Substation Design Project Manager will be referred as Project Manager.
Figure 9-1 – Project Management Triangle (Source WBDG)
9.2 CURRENT PROJECT MANAGEMENT STANDARDS PRACTICES IN DEVELOPING

REGIONS
The analysis of survey data with regard to Project Management provided useful information in terms of
the Project Management approach used for delivering substation projects. A summary of the most
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widely used practices in the survey population from a Project Management perspective is shown in the
chart below.
The results from the technical survey indicate that the majority of the responding utilities (approximately
70%) use industry-accepted good project management practices. It should be noted that approximately
75% of the respondents represented developing regions.
80
70
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
Estimating
Resources
Monitoring/Tracking
Schedule
Cost
Reporting
Planning
Close-out
Project Considerations
Figure 9-2 – Project Consideration Survey Results
The terms referred to in Figure 9-2 are defined as follows:

 Planning: detailed initial planning with all personnel involved to review and develop proposed
scope, to pose alternative solutions, and decide on the final approach to execute the project;
 Estimating: all project costs are estimated (e.g. property, equipment, material, engineering,
labour, construction, and overheads) to create a tentative budget for authorisation to proceed;
 Cost: the approved budget is used to create a cost baseline that becomes the basis to collect
and monitor cash flow to manage project financial performance;
 Schedule: the approved scope and execution approach is used to create a schedule baseline
that becomes the basis to assign resources and monitor completion of milestones to manage
the project schedule performance;
 Resources: ensure that each activity has the appropriate roles and responsibilities assigned
with sufficient man-hours to perform the work in the time-frame required for successful
completion;
 Monitoring/Tracking: major schedule milestone activities and financial expenditures are
monitored for deviations from baselines so that adjustments can be made to mitigate risk and
failure;
 Reporting: results of schedule progress, resource utilisation, cash flow, and any deviations of
these items are communicated to the team and stakeholders in regular published reports; and
 Close-out: post-construction audit conducted on-site to confirm scope was met and is in
compliance with design standards; to document lessons learned; and to gather as-built
revisions.
Another key factor influencing the design of low-cost sub-station is the project delivery or procurement
process to be adopted. This can range from fully internally resourced design and construction through
to an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contracting approach, where design
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responsibility rests with the Contractor not the Client or Utility. Irrespective of the delivery approach
adopted, it is essential that the project be properly scoped and structured to a level consistent with this
delivery method before the work is tendered. The results on the topic of Overall Design and
Construction Approaches for Substation Projects (or project delivery methods) indicate that the
responding utilities use internal design resources about one third of the time and external design
resources about two thirds of the time. Those using internal resources would benefit from the
application of the concepts and guidelines set forth in this technical brochure. Those using external
resources would benefit by making their consultants aware of their needs to keep costs low and apply
these concepts to their designs. These utilities can do this by including the requirements for cost
savings, recommended measures for savings, and penalties for cost over-runs, in their consulting
services specifications and contracts.
The most widely approach used is the EPC contract, followed by internal design and outsourced
construction.
Figure 9-3 – Overall Design and Construction Approaches Survey Results
The terms referred to in Figure 9-3 are defined as follows:

 Internal Design and Construction: owner performs all design, procurement and
construction activities all with internal engineering staff and construction crews;
 Internal Design with External Construction: owner performs design and procurement
activities and then contracts construction to external entity;
 Design-Build (D/B): owner contracts the design and construction services to a single entity;
 Design-Bid-Build (D/B/B) or Traditional Method: owner contracts with separate entities
for the design and construction; typically design is done by a consultant, and then bid to
contractors for construction;
 Engineer-Procure-Construct (EPC): owner contracts one entity to do design, procure, and
construct everything; often subcontractors are used; sometimes referred to as turnkey method;
and
 Engineer-Procure-Construction Management (EPCM): Owner contracts one entity to
provide design, procurement and construction management services but owner directly
contracts construction services and administers that contract.
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9.3 PROJECT MANAGER ROLE IN SUBSTATION DESIGN

The Project Manager should be the link between the network system requirements and the design team.
The main challenge is that the design of a substation requires multidisciplinary leadership from the
project manager, and it has been demonstrated on numerous occasions that understanding and
controlling this aspect is key to the project success.
Critical success factors in a project are the prerequisites that are essential to contribute to the
achievement of the given goals:
 A clear project assignment (deadlines, costs, objectives) is the prerequisite for targeted project
work. Clear and measurable goals must be recorded in writing;
 The start of the project should be given very specific attention as this is the most critical stage
of the delivery of the design;
 The choice of project management should be dependent upon the complexity and size of the
project. Moreover the necessary expertise, experience and team skills should be available in
the project team;
 The planning scope would be dependent upon and adapted to the task and the project size.
The level of detail the planning should be sufficient to assure project delivery;
 The clean preparation of the decision-making basis, the documentation and the results are an
important factor for successful project management;
 The timely, adequate and complete communication by all participants is the basis of a successful
collaboration and ultimate delivery of the project;
 A periodic progress review by the project leader and subproject managers is a prerequisite for
achieving the project goals; and
 A transparent and self-critical review of delivery results in terms of project review and "lessons
learned" are a prerequisite for continuous improvement of the quality in projects execution.
The scope of a substation design project is not only restricted to civil engineering and electrical
engineering, but also environmental, planning, ecology, geotechnical, structural engineering,
telecommunications and others. The Project Manager should be the orchestra conductor assuring that
the information, inputs and outputs and information flow between these disciplines is optimal. It is
therefore essential that the Project Manager has a strong background in Electrical Engineering.
The Project Manager has to possess other interpersonal skills which will drive the project throughout
the entire lifecycle. He/she needs to be a role model that:
 Leads by example: Treats each person fairly and demonstrates ability to work effectively with
others. Earns trust and respect of colleagues;
 Demands excellence: Proactively looks for opportunities to add value and produces high-quality
work; and
 Promotes Safety and integrity always: Operates with the highest standards of integrity. Makes
safety a priority.
The Project Manager has to be client or end asset owner-focused:
 Collaborative: Supports colleagues with internal and external client delivery;
 Innovative: Researches T&D industry trends and shares new ideas to address company needs
and objectives; and
 Strategic: Develops an understanding of the utility business.
The Project Manager has to be results driven:
 Clear and frequent communication: Communicates with clarity and purpose. Listens and learns
from others; and
 Execution and results: Focuses on achieving results through strong execution and follow-
through.
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And finally, the Project Manager has to be decisive:

 Prioritise, focus and accountability: Ensures tasks are completed in a timely manner, objectives
met and takes accountability for results.
 Fact-based decisions: Identifies, understands and follows relevant procedures. Takes action
based on facts, not assumptions.
9.4 PROJECT PLANNING

Once the Network Planning identifies a need, this is then converted into a project. This need might
arise from load flow requirements, future load growth, network reinforcement or new generation
connected to the network. The project planning covers the project lifecycle from the stage where the
network requirement is communicated to the Design Department until the energisation (asset creation
stage). For this reason, project planning is considered one of the most challenging tasks during in the
project lifecycle. Sometimes not all the project information is available from the onset, and, assumptions
need to be made which need to be qualified and confirmed throughout the execution.
During the planning phase, the project manager compiles and maintains a plan, which consists of details
such as scope, quality, risk, timescale, cost and benefits to accomplish the project objective.
Poorly planned projects can result in frustration and re-work, can result in waste of time and money,
risking over expenditure and increase in risk.
The purpose of planning and scheduling the Project is to produce an effective and realistic time schedule
to be used as a tool to manage project activities and to make any necessary improvements in order to
uphold the contractual requirements.
It is therefore essential to allocate sufficient time for the planning stage. A proper Project Plan will
assist the project manager in controlling time, budget, quality, changes and risks, including internal and
external stakeholders. Thus ensuring that the need identified by the planning engineers will be fulfilled
as intended.
The purpose of project planning is to:
 Understand the network requirements defined during network planning;
 Develop the approach to meet the network requirements;
 Define cost, schedule, deliverables and milestone deadlines;
 Design resource plans; and
 Obtain senior management approval.
It should be noted that the Project Plan is not equivalent to Network Planning. When compiling a project
plan, the project scope and project deliverables are divided into smaller and more manageable
components known as work packages. Each work package has a defined scope of work/deliverables,
cost and schedule for completion and quality requirements. This is normally included in a Cost, Time
and Resource Form. Each work package can be discipline-related, e.g. electrical, mechanical, structural,
etc. The way the work packages are defined and delimited is responsibility of the Project Manager.
This structure is compiled by the project manager in collaboration with the network planning department
and the financial department, in the case of utility funded project, or with the client and funder in the
case of donor funded projects. This ensures the achievement of the overall project objective and
furthermore minimises the project risks.
The subdivision process of the project scope into work packages is known as Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS). The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) definition of the WBS is as follows [57]:
“WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project
team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables. The WBS
organises and defines the total scope of the project, and represents the work specified in the
current approved project scope statement. The planned work is contained within the lowest
level of WBS components, which are called work packages”.
For each work package/discipline, the Project Manager and project team members will review:
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 Scope to be delivered;
 Requirements for reporting;
 Constraints which apply, including quality and acceptance standards;
 Procedures which apply;
 Ensuring the requirements of the Work Package are reasonable and can be achieved; and
 Undertake a review of the risks and update the Risk Register.
A substation project can generally be divided into the following Work Packages:
 Surveys (site and soil parameters and resistance);
 Earth works and access roads;
 Civil works (depending on the scope, structural and building engineering can be included
here or left as an independent work package);
 Main Plant (Primary Plant (HV and MV), busbars and conductors as well as overhead line
terminations); and
 Protection & Control (Secondary Plant, including cable works).
However, the proposed work packages above might differ from one project to another, depending on
the scope and the Project Manager’s approach or the tools used. Once the Work Packages have been
clearly identified, defined and quantified, they form the input to the Project Schedule.
Project Team and Structure

The resources required for a simplified substation design project team is shown in the figure below. For
more details on the resources and their roles for substation projects, refer to Chapter 4, Section 4.2.
The Project Manager should have specific delivery experience of the core elements of a substation
project and of the core disciplines involved in a project, and should be supported by a team of both
technology and project delivery specialists. This approach allows the Project Manager to focus mostly
on the important coordination, interfacing and integration issues related to the projects, while also
having the experience and knowledge to intervene in the details of any of the discipline or delivery areas
as and when the need arises. The key engineering disciplines in a substation design project are electrical
and civil.
The Project Manager is usually responsible for selecting the resources required for the project to ensure
timely completion of the work.
Key staff are assigned to the project team to support the project execution process. Where the staff
are unable to support the scheduled sequence of project activities, the Project Manager will make a
recommendation to the Project Director (or relevant role) for additional staff to be assigned to the
project, including internal and external resources.
The project team roles and responsibilities should be clearly defined to ensure effective management
and decision making in a project organisation. These roles typically are:
Client / Asset Management Team:
 Ensure implementation of investment and project plans;
 Ensure implementation of client processes and concepts in the context of the project;
 Project order, change requests as well as additional and reduced services;
 Contact person for the project manager as representative of the client;
 Decisions on the client side, in the context of his competences; and
 Coordination of the project and decision making on client side and with project partners.
Project Manager:
 Leading the project and the project team for the purpose of fulfilling the project assignment
and ensuring project goal achievement (deadline, costs, objectives);
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 Project orders are defined between client and contractor. Changes to the project order must
be confirmed by the same persons;
 Takes the lead for coordination and communication with key stake holders; and
 Closure of the project.
Lead Engineers:
 Responsible for a subsection of the project (work package) and the completion of the
corresponding project goals (deadline, costs, objectives); and
 Execution of the subproject within the framework of the project assignment and the skilled jobs.
Project Manager
Independent
Health and Safety Electrical Lead Lead Civil Geotechnical
Reviewer/Quality Survey Manager
Officer Engineer Engineer Engineer
Control
Civil Design
Lead Protection Lead HV Plant Survey
Engineers and Landownership
Engineer Engineer Coordinator
CAD Team
HV Plant
Protection
Engineers and CAD Technician Survey Teams
Engineers
CAD Team
Figure 9-4 – Substation Project Delivery Team Structure
Project Execution Plan

The Project Execution Plan is the main project management reference for the project team. The project
execution plan defines the strategy for managing the entire lifecycle of a substation design project, how
this is executed, monitored, controlled and closed. Project Execution Plan is then a “live” document
which is continuously updated and maintained to support the substation design process starting from
the network system requirements through to commissioning. It basically defines who does what, when
and how, and what deliverables will be prepared during the design stage, setting out the strategy to be
followed referencing external or internal standards that will govern the substation design. The author
of the Project Execution Plan is generally the Project Manager, and it is normally approved by the Project
Director or Program Manager. The Project Execution Plan should include the following information as
a minimum:
 Plan/Project Charter:
 Project Description;
 Scope of works;
 Revision History;
 Applicable standards;
 Basis of design and Assumptions;
 End Asset Owner information;
 End Asset Owner Expectations;
 Roles and responsibilities;
 Work Breakdown Structure;
 Planning of activities/methodology;
 Project Schedule / Key Milestones;
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 Execution of works;
 Kick-Off Meeting;
 Design Review meetings;
 Deliverables Safety Planning;
 Communications Plan; and
 Project Central File System.
 Control Measures:
 Scope Management;
 Schedule Management;
 Budget Management;
 Risk Management;
 Quality Check;
 Change Management / Change Order Process;
 Independent Technical Review;
 Checker and Reviewer workflow; and
 Software used.
 Closure Documentation:
 Client feedback;
 Lessons learned;
 Documentation of project records; and
 As-built revisions.
The traditional format is a signed hard copy, however, it is ideal to capture the information above in an
electronic file or in a database stored online to facilitate access to all the members and stakeholders
involved in the project. The execution plan is a fluid document and therefore an electronic format with
tracking on it is the ideal approach to capture changes.
The Project Execution Plan will be reviewed during the entire lifecycle of the project and updated or
modified as needed. Modifications or updated might be related, for example, to changes in the scope
of works, potential delays, and other changes, in other words, any change on the items within the
Project Execution Plan shall be recorded accordingly and notified to the wider team.
Kick-Off Meeting
At the commencement of the project the kick-off meeting is a crucial element that covers:
 The introduction of the key members and departments involved;
 Clarification and understanding of the scope, as well as agreeing the approach of this project
to facilitate achieving a fully assured design solution;
 Agreement of the way forward for the design stage, including discussion and agreement of the
layout to be developed;
 Discussions with site Operating & Maintenance (O&M) staff, to understand current maintenance
and access constraints on the site, site specific information, outage requirements as well as
developing relations with the O&M staff for future liaison;
 Collation of the H&S (Health & Safety) documentation from site;
 Clarification of any outstanding issues; and
 Any outstanding information to be gathered and/or requested.
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The proposed kick-off meeting agenda should include:

 Review, understand and acknowledge the Project Execution Plan;
 Review existing documentation and the requirements for the design development and agree
the configuration of the installation;
 Review of general site arrangement, physical and plant constraints drawings, and other
drawings;
 Review of future development plans or aspirations;
 Agree condition assessments or any other condition surveys required;
 Identify and review any existing survey reports and agree requirements for further surveys,
particularly with outdated reports e.g. geotechnical /contamination surveys, trial holes, buried
services surveys, drainage surveys, transportation surveys and any other surveys;
 Discuss constraints/requirements relating to the site surveys such as access and approvals,
resourcing and programme, undertaking surveys in the operational substation boundaries,
certification requirements and other compliance requirements;
 Provide a roster of all assigned resources, their roles, and their contact information;
 Review project programme; and
 Review of deliverables.
9.5 PROJECT EXECUTION

Once the network requirements, cost, schedule, deliverables, deadlines, resource plans have been
defined and the Project Execution Plan has been approved by the Project Director (or relevant role), the
substation design project enters the Project Execution stage.
At this stage, the project schedule and work packages will be managed using the appropriate project
management tools, reporting and software, ensuring at all times that the network requirements are
met.
It is vital at this stage to have a clear and defined communications plan to effectively communicate with
the project team, project board and stakeholders, bi-directionally downstream and upstream.
It is also during the execution stage when changes happen and these have to be quantified, controlled,
monitored and communicated.
Project Time Management

The main objectives of successful Project Time Management are:
 To evaluate physical progress achieved in order to compare actual status to the planned one;
 To support the estimate to the Project completion; and
 To activate any possible corrective action in order to respect the contract requirement.
In order to achieve the three points above, a Plan Schedule Management needs to be defined. The
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) definition of the Plan Schedule Management is as
follows [57]:
“Plan Schedule Management is the process of establishing the policies, procedures, and
documentation for planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project
schedule. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how the
project schedule will be managed throughout the project”
The inputs to the Plan Schedule Management are:
 The Project Execution Plan including all the information contained in it;
 Work Breakdown Structure;
 Key milestones and deliverables;
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 Internal Corporate procedures;

 Internal team resourcing;
 Available monitoring, control and reporting tools; and
 Historical information.
It is of vital importance that the project team review and understand the Project Schedule, as well as
the deliverables milestones included in it and should be aware of schedule requirements.
In order to help everyone to comply with the schedule, a robust monitoring system must be put in place
through day-to-day communication by email and telephone, telephone conferences of all participants,
written Progress Reports, and Progress Meetings.
If there is any risk of failing to meet a certain deadline, the owner of the task/deliverable should issue
an Early Warning Notice to both Work Package Lead and Project Manager advising on the reason why
the delay might happen, what the impact would be and the delay duration.
A wide range of Project Management tools is available in the market, ranging from free-software
available, MS Excel®, MS Project® through to more complex software such as Primavera® (this is a
widely used product of which there are a number of different systems that provide the same outcomes).
Depending on the size and culture of the organisation, different tools or techniques can be used. In
some companies, internal IT-developed Project Management tools are used which directly reports to
internal corporate tools. In other words, there is no a defined Plan Schedule Management tools and
the selection of the most appropriate one will rely on:
 Project size;
 Internal Corporate procedures and culture; and
 Project Manager’s preferences.
Cost and Budget Management

The Project Manager is required to control expenditure against budget. A key aspect of this control
process is to understand, with a high level of accuracy, the portion of budget which has been committed
at any given point, and then to estimate the expenditure required to complete the work. Costs accrue
to the project as a result of engaging resources over time to undertake specific activities, and through
placement of purchase orders for goods and services.
In order for project cost information to be accurate and current, it is necessary for:
 Subcontracted services to be entered into the procurement system; and
 Timesheets to be completed on a weekly basis with time billed to the sanction number
corresponding to the activity performed.
The key elements of Cost and Budget Management include:
 Orderly management of the procurement process;
 Proper recording of time spent of direct labour work;
 Allocation of costs to the appropriate work package/discipline;
 Verification of cost incurred to date against budget;
 Monitoring spending so that:
 if an over-run is predicted, the spending plan can be adjusted, or additional funding are
allocated;
 if an under-run is predicted, funds can be released so that other much-needed projects
may be authorised;
 Financial reporting including forecasts and estimation to complete; and
 Change requests appropriately recorded and acted on in a timely manner.
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At the beginning of the project each work package lead or manager needs to be notified about the
budget assigned to the work package and work closely with the Project Manager in order to control
expenditure against budget.
Available cost control tools are mainly based on forecasting. Not only the budget is to be controlled,
but also what the estimation to complete is and what the estimation at completion would be. One
widely used cost control tool is Earned value management (EVM). The PMBOK definition is [57]:
“Earned value management (EVM) is a methodology that combines scope, schedule, and
resource measurements to assess project performance and progress. It is a commonly used
method of performance measurement for projects. It integrates the scope baseline with the
cost baseline, along with the schedule baseline, to form the performance baseline, which helps
the project management team assess and measure project performance and progress. It is a
project management technique that requires the formation of an integrated baseline against
which performance can be measured for the duration of the project”
If there is any risk of failing to meet a certain budget, the owner of the task/deliverable should issue an
Early Warning Notice to both Work Package Lead and Project Manager advising on the reason why the
overspend might happen and what the impact would be.
Risk Management
Risk is the potential occurrence of an event or condition, which, if it occurs, will have a negative (threat)
or positive (opportunity) impact on the project's objectives.
A Risk consists of an event or condition that may occur:
 A probability of the event occurring that is less than 100% and greater than 0%; and
 A consequence if the event occurs, assessed in terms of its potential impact on specific project
objectives, i.e., cost and time.
There are 7 stages along the Risk Management process: Initiation, Identification, Assessment,
Mitigation, Reporting, Implementation, Review and Post-Project Review, and ALL the members of the
project team must be involved.
1. Initiation – Preparation of the Risk Management Plan which shall be reviewed throughout
the project;
2. Identification – Risk identification shall include brainstorming, design assumptions review,
risk categories review, ad hoc identification, risk owner allocation, risk register;
3. Assessment – Likelihood and impact for each risk and risk categorisation;
4. Mitigation – Identification of mitigation measures and actions;
5. Reporting – High risks should be escalated to Risk Management at corporate level;
6. Implementation – Implementation of agreed actions and monitoring; and
7. Review – Risk Management workshops, risk review meetings and audits.
An example of a Risk Register is shown below in Table 9-1, whereby a hypothetical risk has been
identified related to the lack of accuracy of the HV transformer bushings location. Failing to measure
the geo-location of the existing HV bushings might lead to re-design work, further delays and extra
cost. A 3D LiDAR scan in the area will help to identify the bushings location assuring the correct interface
of the new assets with the existing transformer.
In terms of Risk Management, the Project Manager needs to:
 Have sound commercial judgement and thorough knowledge of professional services contracts;
 Be able to identify and mitigate risks associated with the project;
 Recognise potential environmental impacts that may result from project activities to mitigate
them;
 Use prior PM or other experience to assign contingency in budget, schedule and/or resources,
depending on what will be impacted by the risk; and
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 Have ability to periodically assess whether conditions associated with each risk have or have
not occurred; assign or release associated contingency based on assessment.
Change Management
Change Management from the perspective of a designer and project manager within a substation
installation project can be defined as:
 the identification of deviations from the given scope, schedule, cost, and/or quality for a project;
 the controlled development of measures to deal with the given deviations, and
 the implementation of required planned measures to still accomplish the objectives of the
project despite the deviations.
The change management process can be formulated into a plan having the sequence of steps or
activities that a project manager and project team follow to correct a deviation from the original baseline
project plan in order to drive the required transition and ensure the project meets its intended outcomes.
That plan should be formally documented in the project execution plan for if and when the need arises.
The purpose of a change management process is to:
 Ensure efficient and prompt handling of all changes
 Minimises the impact of change-related incidents upon the original scope, schedule, cost and
quality, and
 Sets up standardised methods and procedures for consistency.
It is important that the change management plan include a formal change request process, which is a
document containing a call for a proposed adjustment to a suspected deviation in the project. The
request should contain a description of the deviation, the impact to the project if not addressed, the
proposed corrective measures for solutions, and the impact to the project of implementing each of the
solutions, and a recommendation on how to proceed. It is important for formal approvals to occur next
to ensure decisions are made by authorised personnel.
If change is required during the course of a project, the change management plan and the usual project
management skills, tools and techniques can be used to help the team successfully implement the
required changes resulting in the realisation of the required project goals. An analysis of and blame for
the deviation is best tabled until later to ensure corrective measures are addressed first. Root causes
and improvements in designs can then be studied later upon project closure for implementation. The
documented change request will also help provide information for any corrective measures that need
to be made for continuous improvement.
The Project Manager should be able to define and establish a clear project scope definition at the outset
to enable change to be readily identified, using PM skills to create a change control system to manage
the plan, including re-planning strategies.
When change occurs, the Project Manager should be able to document corrective actions chosen and
the associated reasons to capture lessons learned, and most important, consider and understand the
impact of change to all relevant project elements (schedule, budget, resources).
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Pre-Mitigation
Inherent Risk
Impacts
Score
Linked Risk Risk Work Risk

Risk Phase Risk Description Causes Impacts
Risks Category Owner Package Proximity
H&S
Cost
Time
Score
Quality
Likelihood
Reputation
Max Impact
Environment
Transformer Design If the location of the 2 Interface AAA Main Plant 15/04/2018 The Contract specifies that the design shall define all Delay, extended cost associated to the fuel for the
Bushings Geo- HV flanges on the equipment necessary to achieve the final connection of island generation
location existing bushings the transformer to the adjacent cable and reactor at the
has not been substation.
accurately measured
The Project Team measured the location of the existing 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 9
on site, the
connection might be HV bushings on site and the end client raised concerns
compromised as about the procedure followed and the accuracy of the
both system will not measurements obtained.
couple.
Post-Mitigation
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Current Risk
Impact
Score
Linked Risk Risk Work Risk

Risk Phase Risk Description Actions Taken Actions to be taken
Risks Category Owner Package Proximity
Cost
H&S
Time
Score
Quality
Likelihood
Reputation
Max Impact
Environment
Transformer Design If the location of the 2 Interface AAA Main Plant 15/04/2018 A 3D Scan LiDAR on the HV bushings area has been Main Plant Lead Engineer to design assure the
Bushings HV flanges on the outsourced and carried out. geo-location of the HV bushings and produce a
Geo-location existing bushings
Table 9-1 – Sample Project Risk Assessment Register
has not been

accurately measured
on site, the
connection might be 2 2 1 1 2 2 4
compromised as
both system will not
couple.
Health and Safety Management

Occupational safety and health protection of the personnel must receive top priority throughout a
project. The aim of implementing such measures is to prevent injury and accidents. All health
protection and for the reduction of dangers necessary measures shall be undertaken according to the
state of the art and to the given conditions.
Health and Safety Management clarifies responsibilities and defines the necessary steps to ensure
occupational safety and ensure the necessary measures throughout the project.
The implementation of measures for the occupational safety organisation requires thorough planning.
This includes as a first step the creation of a safety concept for the organisation of occupational safety
and then defines:
 The roles required in the work safety organisation of the project;
 The planning and implementation of the occupational safety organisation; and
 Definition of necessary resources.
In order to ensure an effective occupational safety organisation, a corresponding organisational chart
is drawn up that is valid for all aspects of project-specific occupational safety. At the same time, the
project organisation chart (project organisation) is valid for all objective-oriented tasks and decisions.
A full construction works risk assessment (CRAW) is mandatory in many jurisdictions and serves as a
primary safety risk management tool for construction activities.
Every person that will work on the construction site must be subjected to site specific induction and
instruction prior to entering the construction site. Often, a distinction is made between internal and
external personnel.
The construction site coordinator for occupational safety leads the operative occupational safety on site.
To this end, the site coordinator conducts a regular coordination meeting (frequency depending on
project status and complexity, but at least weekly), with all on-site employees responsible for work and
the site supervisor. The aim is to co-ordinate safety and health through regular communication in order
to further minimise the risk to avoid any incidents.
Quality Assurance / Control

Even if a project was planned in such an exemplary manner, the planning created at the beginning of
the project is usually not adhered to by the end of the project.
In a project, quality refers to two areas of high-quality evaluation which must be considered separately.
On the one hand, in terms of the quality of the project implementation process, this is primarily the
reduction of risks in project work, and on the other, in terms of the quality of the product, primarily the
reduction of product risks.
A Quality Management System (QMS) should be defined to document the structure, responsibilities and
procedures required to achieve quality work products and services, specifying general requirements for
implementation and specific requirements for documentation and records.
This plan defines a system and processes that are clearly understood, managed, and improved as
required and ensures control to determine satisfactory performance of the project team.
The Quality Management System should comprise:
 Quality Planning - To define and document how the Substation Design Project will meet its
quality objectives and network requirements;
 Quality Assurance - Planned and systematic actions needed to guarantee that the substation
design will fulfil the specified requirements. This can be done either through Internal Assurance
(internal independent review) or External Assurance (owner’s engineering/sub consultant);
 Quality Control – Checking and verification processes used to ascertain that the substation
design meets the network requirements; and
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 Quality Improvement - Focuses on increasing the ability to fulfil and exceed the project
quality requirements.
Communications Plan
The aim of the project communication is to increase the acceptance of a project, to reduce objections
and resistance thus minimising potential delays. Early-planned and well thought-out project
communication creates trust and credibility among the participants, affected citizens and the media.
Therefore, the stakeholders and their interests should be identified as early as possible and a suitable
communication strategy should be defined.
The communication requirements and scope may vary depending on the scope and type of project. It
is important to determine the appropriate communication strategy for each project and to select the
right one from a portfolio of communication measures.
The Communications Plan defines the means and frequency of communication to parties both internal
and external to the substation design project. It facilitates engagement with stakeholders through the
establishment of a controlled and bi-directional flow of information.
The Communication Plan has to provide guidance on:
 Clear communications with both Internal and External Stakeholders;
 Methodology for correspondence management;
 A description of communication methods to be used;
 Roles & Responsibilities for aspects of the communication process, including any corporate or
programme management roles involved with communication; and
 Change Management Plan and how the changes are communicated internally and externally.
In terms of Communications Plan, the Project Manager needs to have:
 Presentation skills to deliver project meetings with internal and external stakeholders;
 Strong communication and media skills;
 Able to establish community and trust among teams through open and candid communication;
and
 Strong interpersonal skills to manage client and other stakeholder expectations through project
status updates.
9.6 PROJECT CLOSURE

The purpose of the Project Closure is to provide a fixed point at which acceptance for the substation
design is confirmed, and to recognise that objectives set out in the original Project Execution Plan have
been achieved (including approved changes). One of the most important features of a project is that it
is finite; it has a start and an end. When the project reaches the end, it is always preferable to be clear
and decisive rather than come to a slow and opaque conclusion. With this in mind, the Project Closure
procedure will:
 Establish whether the original objectives set out in the Project Execution Plan have been met
(subject to any approved changes);
 Handover the asset from the Project to the Asset Management/End User/Client and terminate
the responsibility of the project management team;
 Confirm that project Estimation to Complete is zero and that costs should no longer be incurred;
 Handover the identified risks and hazards during the design process to construction or Asset
Management; and
 Define who or which body will provide authority to close the project.
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The Project Manager has to provide judgement and obtain approval from Project Director or Senior
Management to close the project. The following structure can be followed in order to hit the “Close
out” button:
 Confirmation that the Scope of Works and Network Requirements have been met;
 Review of the performance of the project against its baselines;
 Collection of the documentation on all authorised field chances from the construction personnel,
process them through drafting, and issue all as-built drawing revisions to all office and field files
for a permanent record of the actual field installation;
 Delivery of the substation design package into construction or commercial operation (depending
on the scope of works) with sign off of the Partial Acceptance Certificates and a project snag or
punch list established for rectification;
 Delivery of the Lessons Learnt Workshop where essential learnings are documented and entered
into the substation project delivery documentation as a reference for future projects;
 Completion of the project risk register – closeout of all significant risks and handover of any
outstanding risks toward the construction and/or O&M Division;
 Completion of the final project closeout documentation and closure of the project ledgers
/budget. Completion of reconciliations;
 Closeout of the project governance process through finalisation of the project steering
committee; and
 Final celebration of the project delivery and completion – recognising (and rewarding) project
personnel for their efforts.
9.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Effective Project Management is one of the keys to success in delivering cost-effective substation
designs, however to achieve this requires investment in suitable project management. It is important
that expense is not spared on this element of the work as it could result in far more costly outcomes as
a result of insufficient project management.
The Project Manager is the link between network requirements and the project team, and the Project
Manager is also the orchestra conductor assuring the continuous and efficient flow of information
between all the project resources. The target audience of this chapter is both project managers and
members of a design team. Therefore, it can be concluded that every member of the team has a
“project management” responsibility (no matter the role or discipline), making sure it supports the
planning stage, the execution stage and the closure of the project.
At the planning stage, the network requirements are identified and documented by the project manager
and design team. Detailed project planning (even with an array of unknowns and uncertainties at this
stage) will be an effective tool to help the project manager and others to control the schedule, cost,
quality, changes and risks. All of this information and consideration should be included in the Project
Execution Plan which will be the central reference for the project, a live document that is updated
throughout the entire project lifecycle.
During the Planning stage the scope of work is broken down and divided into smaller activities known
as Work Packages, which are defined by scope, cost, and schedule. This process is commonly known
as the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and for a substation project, generally speaking, includes
primary plant, secondary systems (protection and control), civil construction and surveys. The WBS
process is defined by the project manager and may vary from one project to another. The project
manager is responsible for the resourcing of the project, selecting which disciplines and resources are
needed. Given the multidisciplinary aspect of a substation design project, good project managers exhibit
a high level of multidisciplinary skills, which enable management of the interfaces between all the
disciplines and with the stakeholders.
The substation project commences with the kick-off meeting, a crucial meeting that helps the team to
understand the project objectives, the scope, the design team and the approach to be taken to deliver
the substation design. Once the project execution plan has been approved, the project enters the
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execution stage. In other words, the time, cost, quality and resources that were defined and planned,
now need to be managed and controlled to meet earlier established time, cost and quality targets.
During the execution stage, the substation design is subject to likely changes, delays or unforeseen
overspend. A risk management, change management and communications plan should be put in place
prior to execution of the project to effectively manage the potential unforeseen issues and hazards
which includes reduce the impact of unfavourable consequences as well as controlling unforeseen
issues. Most importantly, the project objective to meet network requirements should remain a key
deliverable and should be clear and achievable.
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10. COSTING CONSIDERATIONS

10.1 INTRODUCTION
An electricity substation is an asset that can last for many years. For this reason is very important to
evaluate costs over the full substation asset life-cycle (from planning to de-commissioning). Decisions
made in the initial phases of the life-cycle can impact on the future cost performance of the substation,
so this must be taken into account to control the total expenditure to enable optimisation across the
lifecycle. A poorly designed substation can cost substantial cost during its lifetime. When considering
the replacement of selected elements, service life expectations must be accounted for such as
dismantling or disposal which can fall as expenses that are not identified during the short to mid-short
term of service of the substation. These could result in wasted resources or a direct lack of efficiency
of the system so these should be controlled at the inception phase of the substation.
Cost accounting is a key factor for every company that wants to be competitive in the marketplace.
Being competitive means giving the most added value to activities at the lowest costs in order to comply
with the utility customers’ and shareholders’ requirements. Low-cost substations, not only save
resources which benefit the development process but also helps to build a low-cost system that will
benefit customers as well as the utilities. It is particularly important that the solutions identified are
sustainable so that life-cycle costs are kept to a minimum. Often low cost substations could result in
substantial costs during their operational life-cycle that could offset the lower cost thereby resulting in
an expensive life-cycle solution.
Good estimating produces good budgeting, that in turn yields good project cash flow. Having a good
overall company financial management, in the end yields a good allotment of capital available for
projects. The allocation of capital in those most needed substations is a key factor in driving a country
towards a good rate of electrification, which ultimately gives electricity to those waiting for access to it.
This enables them to access the benefits of education, nutrition, medicine, industry and a better life.
Sometimes one can take simple benefits as granted, but for those who cannot access benefits such as
the ones offered by access to electricity, it is crucial for their development.
The chapter attempts to set the financial, not only for good cost estimating and accounting during the
project phase, but also for the whole life-cycle of the substation. Costs must be linked to the
productivity, strategy and macroeconomic environment where each company is working. Having a good
cost estimation process during the design phase, can help organisations take correct or optimal decisions
during the project, which will impact positively throughout the substation life-cycle. It is important to
underline that the aim of this chapter is not to lock in set methods of costing with regard to substation
design estimating but to give considerations, best practices and advice to get the best of the costing
system. Each country or region must adapt what has been described to their particular regulatory and
socio-political environment.
As mentioned before, the aim of this chapter is to establish the basis for cost estimation during the
whole substation life-cycle. The main objectives of this section are to:
 Define a pragmatic process for cost estimating: An accurate cost estimation that not only
considers the design and project phase costs but the operation and maintenance as well as
disposal phases, is crucial for making better decisions during the design phases;
 Importance of cost tracking in project management: As already mentioned in Chapter 2
- Design Philosophy, geographical locations, stakeholders, and other considerations can vary
from one country to another, and even within one country it can vary from one location to
other. There are many reasons that impact on cost directly or indirectly. Having an accurate
costing system in order to monitor costs during the whole life-cycle of each substation, is crucial
for gathering information to improve the design of future substations and optimise resources in
the future. This is a basis for the Kaizen Philosophy (Japanese philosophy focusing on continual
improvement throughout all aspects of life aiming to eliminate waste in all systems of an
organisation through improving standardised activities and processes.). Increased austerity
measures, especially within developed countries facing rapidly evolving economic hardship and
curbing of major infrastructure expenditure has also lead to such measures being commonplace
in most organisations; and
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 Cost saving recommendations and best practices: The recommendations identified are
based upon best practices identified by the working group, however, depending on the
boundary conditions of each country and project, these need not be considered to be an
exhaustive list, there are other good practices that could be identified at a local level. As
described before, a good costing system should easily be able to provide detailed information
about costs. This key information not only identifies improvement areas but can also be used
as a measure of effectiveness and efficiency in monitoring the results of improvement
processes.
10.2 SOCIOPOLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Each country, each region, and each location is different. It is important to recognise each project for
their particularities, evaluate the risks that can impact the project depending on their location, and
design action plans in order to mitigate them. As it is impossible to describe and know in advance all
the possible risks, this brochure aims to emphasize the importance of evaluating risks that can directly
or indirectly impact on the project, not only on schedule, but also costs that could render a project non-
viable.
When a new substation is needed, before preparing a cost estimate, it is important to consider and
analyse the following in order to identify possible area of additional costs:
 Regulatory framework: regulatory issues need to be accounted for in order to estimate the
extent of the project. Is also important to know if this framework is stable or not as it could
account for cost escalation;
 All stakeholders (including the local community affected): A stakeholder that is against
a project can even stop it or make the project expend substantial funds to compensate certain
issues;
 Environmental impact: Possibility of extra costs to comply with an environmental regulation.
This extends to the community and workforce where industrial action could lead to significant
cost impact;
 Labour unrest: labour unrest can adversely impact availability of resources as well as delay
delivery of works leading to unforeseen standing costs;
 Political influence: Political influence can decide the viability or non-viability of a project; and
 Lack of skilled resources: unavailability of resources within the country could lead to
significant cost escalation.
10.3 COST ESTIMATING

The analysis for cost estimating the whole life-cycle of the substation should follow three main vectors:
 Initial project costs for new substations (construction);
 Maintenance and Operation costs; and
 Replacement/disposal costs.
Initial project costs for new substations

This is the most critical phase of the investment impacting the development of a substation.
Cost estimating during project phase should be a task performed after defining the scope, and this
scope must be cognisant of costs. However cost estimating should be performed from a basic level
through to a detailed level as more detailed information about the project is known. The basic level
should already give a good idea of the global budget allow initial decisions to be made, as the designer
has a greater ability to influence the earlier phase of the project by way of direct decision making. Once
there is more detailed information available, the plan can be improved, but the global budget shouldn’t
vary too much if the substation project has been well defined.
Figure 10-1 presents the entire cost estimating process. It begins as scope definition with an estimate
of the planned costs, and while the project is being executed, one should monitor these costs to control
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the budget. The Rough Order of Magnitude Cost Estimation (ROM) represents the order of cost
estimated to the nearest decade.
Figure 10-1 - Cost estimation improvement along the project
A good example of a cost estimating is the one described in the ISO 21500 or the described by the
Project Management Professional (PMP®) [57].
It is important, especially in new projects where the company does not have previous expertise to take
time to estimate the costs of the project to provide the most accurate budget that aligns with the
delivery of the project elements. It is recommended that the process for cost estimating (budgeting) a
low-cost substation project follows from the grouping of costs for single activities to the overall budget.
It is easier to estimate the cost of single activities, the sum all the different tasks and activities of the
project to a single overall budget.
10.3.1.1 Net present value
The net present value (NPV) is a key business figure for the dynamic investment calculation. NPV is
the present value of the cash flows at the required rate of return of the project compared to the initial
investment. It is a method of calculating return on investment (ROI), for a project or expenditure. By
looking at all of the money expected to be generated from the investment and translating those returns
into today’s money, one can decide whether the project is worthwhile.
It is a simple procedure that allows easy interpretation, since the net present value is expressed in
monetary units. It is also possible to carry out interest-rate-compatible calculations, as the calculation
interest rate can be adjusted for each period. NPV allows very efficient calculation of the life cycle cost
of an investment. It is therefore recommended to calculate the investment for a substation or its key
components based on NPV. This method could be used to compare different options available to
determine the most cost-effective option over the lifecycle.
10.3.1.2 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

Before performing a cost estimate, it is beneficial to have a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). A WBS
is a hierarchical decomposition of all the activities involved in the project ordered by the major work
packages required.
An example of a WBS for a generic substation project is shown in Figure 10-2. The more detailed the
WBS is (more levels), the better the quality of the estimate that can be achieved by the designer or
estimator.
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Figure 10-2 – Work Breakdown Structure Example
Each element within the WBS should give at least the following information set in the Table 10-1
below.
Table 10-1 – WBS element information sheet
CBS (Cost Breakdown structure code) WBS code

Activity Resource
Cost estimation
Estimated start Estimated finish
Example:
4.2 (No need to have the same code as 4.2 (from the WBS)
WBS)
Civil Works 4 persons, 1 trolley
60.000$
08/10/2018 11/10/2018
Once the WBS has been established one can estimate costs per WBS element. Once each cost element
has been estimated, the sum of all the elements make up the global budget of the substation project.
10.3.1.3 Cost estimating per WBS element

Is very important while cost estimating to take into account the following information:
 Scope: Defined by activities, as one needs to estimate costs for each activity in order to have
a global budget by summing each low level estimation;
 Project Schedule: Duration of activities is crucial to determine its costs as well as the timing
of the expenditure for cash flow;
 Estimated Human Resources Plan: Knowledge of the resources dedicated to each activity
are crucial to estimate both durations of the task and related labour costs (engineer, designer,
drafter, and others);
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 Identified Risks: In order to avoid risks the designer can plan to mitigate these with a formal
Risk Assessment / Mitigation Plan; and
 Company’s Historic Information: Previous projects can be used to estimate costs of certain
activities as despite projects being quite different some activities can be similar.
Once all the information listed above has been ascertained and the WBS has been developed, one can
estimate costs per element. There are several tools to accurately estimate costs as follows:
 Experts: The designer can seek advice of experts in the particular area (engineers, providers,
locals knowledge and others) to reach an accurate estimated cost;
 Analogous estimation (Top-Down): The designer can use information from previous
projects to, by analogy, find out the cost of the activity. The more similar the previous project
is (location, geography, configuration and others) the more accurate the cost estimation will
be;
 Parametric estimation: This method is based, by historical information, in using relations to
some variables such as:
o $/m2 (Dollars per square meter): Example: $/m2 of crushed stone;
o $/Switchgear (cost per switchgear): For instance if historical information of how much
has been historically been spent on replacing a switchgear (equipment, engineering,
execution and all related activities) is available, the designer can compute cost per unit
for estimation purposes;
 Unit Cost Database: Each project’s actual costs are averaged per main unit delivered and
archived upon project completion (e.g. “1 km of 2-circuit 132 kV line in region X in 201X”). New
project estimates can be easily produced from these elements used as Building Blocks when it
comes to comparison of options. This saves cost on evaluation of multiple options, especially
when options are different in nature (e.g. build a line to the new spot or build new generation
on-site). Estimation precision is less important as it is being used as a basis of comparison.
This database may also include external projects to the utility as a basis for comparison. The
cost of maintaining such a database is represents good value and can offset substantial costs
during early stages of each project when accuracy required is between 20 to 50%. In the
absence of consolidated company unit cost database it is well worth a designer establishing
their own set;
 Bottom-up: this is the formation of detailed activities through to establishing a global budget.
It is simpler to estimate cost per task and sum them into the cost of an activity. Once the
designer has the activity cost, all the activities can be summed to the development of a WBS
element in order to have the element costs. Finally, summing all the elements establishes the
global budget;
 Provider’s offers: If the designer has a selection of provider’s offers to a specific activity,
these could be used to generate a more accurate estimation;
 Three-Point Estimation: The objective is to perform 3 estimations per activity so that the
designer can consider all the risks involved, and by a probabilistic method using a BETA
distribution, secure a more accurate estimation as per Equation 10-1 below:
o Most probable (m): The most probable estimation
o Optimist (o): If no risk is involved
o Pessimist (p): If some risks occurs
o Mean (µ): The expected value considering the above values
o Variance (𝜎): Is a probabilistic index that shows the range a value can fluctuate around
the Mean value
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(𝑜 + 4𝑚 + 𝑝)
µ=
6
(𝑝 − 𝑜)
𝜎=
6
𝐄𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 = (µ − 𝛔, µ + 𝛔)
Equation 10-1 – Estimation Range of Project Cost using 3-point estimation
It is recommended that the company establish an estimating policy with regard to the stages and
prescribed accuracy levels as a means of regulating cost estimation and assuring consistency. This will
help to save unnecessary costs and cost manipulation, e.g. (a) valuable cost could be avoided on
detailed design or tendering for providers’ offers when only 30% accuracy is required and a unit cost
database is available; (b) option selection cannot be manipulated using different approaches (e.g. expert
evaluation vs. parametric approach for options different in nature) to get result desired by a project
manager; (c) estimate for selected option will not be overstated by using a less accurate approach.
The cost of establishing such a policy is minimal, with significant benefits from making each estimate
fit-for-purpose with minimal subjective elements or judgmental components.
10.3.1.4 Budget and Budget Reserves

Budget Reserves is usually a percentage of the estimated amount. The magnitude of the % used is
dependent on uncertainty as well as company practice and risk appetite.
 Contingency reserves: Once the designer has estimated costs for the activities, often it is
advisable to set a contingency reserve in order to have financial support to absorb any risk or
deviation from the initial estimation. The more uncertain the estimation is, the more the reserve
that should be set up. However, this reserve is a company’s decision whether to add it or not
and depends on the financial needs of the company. If so, this reserve must be transparent so
everyone within the organisation is aware of it;
 Management reserve: This reserve is set to absorb scope changes that must have prior
management approval.
The sum of all the reserves and estimation costs becomes the project budget as shown in Figure 10-3,
where the composition of the project budget is described taking into account the different reserves.
Management
reserve
Contingency
reserve
PROJECT BUDGET
Activities
Control accounts
Contingency
Cost Base Line
WBS elements cost
reserve
estimation
Activity estimated
costs
Figure 10-3 – Budget composition
Maintenance and Operation costs

Maintenance and operation costs can vary substantially from one area to another as well as for the
configuration and type of equipment installed – Chapter 7 provides substantial insights to the drivers
for operating and maintenance costs. It remains a very complex exercise to fully determine accurate
maintenance and operation costs ahead of construction. Most of these costs are determined by the
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design of the substation and are best controlled by way of standardisation of equipment selection and
work practices as determined by the Asset Management Team of the company. This section is dedicated
to cost-saving recommendations. Simple, reliable solutions with good life expectancy combined with
easy replicability and standardisation of solutions help to keep the maintenance and operation costs
efficient. Different substation equipment result in differing maintenance costs as follows:
 Power Transformers: These are the most important and costliest assets of a substation (in
some cases for GIS Substations, the cost of GIS may exceed that of the power transformers).
Transformers are very robust, but it is crucial to conduct asset performance assessment and
monitoring of parameters that include rate of gas production in oil, humidity, temperature, oil
level, loading history and failure history. This will provide key indicators of possible failure into
the future. Failures of power transformers are the most expensive to repair, especially if there
is a catastrophic failure with a subsequent fire. In many situations a failure in a transformer
can result in a complete replacement because of the extent of the damage as well as likely
disruption to services. Lifecycle cost estimation usually treats failure of a power transformer
as being an abnormal occurrence and these costs are offset by the low likelihood of failure;
 High voltage equipment: This accounts for circuit-breakers, disconnectors, instrument
transformers, earthing systems and busbars. This is the second most costly maintenance and
repair category. The maintenance cycles and costs for this equipment required to assure
continued performance will differ substantially based upon the type of equipment. It is
important for the designer to appraise the different technologies to determine the impact upon
the lifecycle cost. For example, GIS switchgear, whilst more costly, should only require
condition-based maintenance very infrequently (in excess of 20 years) by comparison to small
oil-volume switchgear which would require condition-based maintenance quite frequently
(within 5 years). The cumulative maintenance costs and loss of availability may have a
significant impact upon selection of equipment;
 Secondary systems and equipment: This accounts for equipment such as protection
systems, control circuitry, metering, batteries, chargers, motor mechanisms. With these
assets, despite the fact that they are not as expensive as the primary equipment, the frequency
of maintenance required may be much higher and often the complete unit would have to be
replaced as opposed to being able to repair or maintain it. In addition, the expected life-cycle
is much shorter (10-20 years), which results on several replacements during the whole
substation life-cycle. It is advisable to purchase especially robust, proven and reliable
technology that may allow later on for life extension to put off costly replacement of a complete
secondary system; and
 Others: Items such as general installation (control buildings, fences, roads, access, cleaning
and others). Cumulatively these items could account for a significant expense. The
maintenance of these areas is as important by comparison to the primary and secondary
systems and the likely costs need to be accounted for when establishing lifecycle costs.
Replacement/dismantling costs
10.3.3.1 Replacement
As all the assets within a substation have different lifecycle durations, sometimes replacement of certain
elements is required to guarantee the continued performance to provide the specified levels of security,
reliability and quality of the supply. The objective of maintenance and replacement is to ensure that all
equipment life meets the regulatory life-cycle or the substation service life-cycle.
One of the most significant challenges related with replacement is, that in many cases such as protection
and control, auxiliary systems (batteries, rectifiers), the equipment operates as a composite system
together but the estimated life of each component is different. That often results in a non-efficient
replacement strategy whereby different components within the system are replaced at uneven intervals.
Maintenance of an accurate asset register with individual component life expectancy is absolutely
essential.
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It is very important to design substations considering future replacement of equipment during the
service life of the substation. The greater the modularity of equipment that is achieved, the simpler
and cheaper will be the replacement and maintenance of the elements.
10.3.3.2 Disposal
Dismantling costs are not as expensive as construction, maintenance and replacement costs, but it is
often a cost that is not factored into assets such as substations when considering the design and
installation.
As in maintenance, dismantling and disposal costs can be completely different depending on:
 Number of bays, including transformers to dispose of: Dismantling transformers is one of the
biggest costs, due to not only the high labour cost of dismantling itself, but the transport, and
responsible treatment of the large volume of oil which is considered to be contaminated or
hazardous waste;
 Location impacts transport and can be one of the biggest costs during (installation and )
dismantling;
 Rehabilitation of the footprint or land area of the substation site; and
 Responsible disposal of scrap equipment such as steel and other materials, as well as oils and
chemicals which may contain harmful substances such as asbestos and PCBs.
Due to the need to maintain facilities in service for customer availability and reliability with continuous
replacement and maintenance, a substation is rarely dismantled and disposed of. Many substation
designs are such that it is more cost-effective for them to be reinforced and refurbished to adapt to the
new regulations and load requirements than to establishing a new substation nearby. Often the best
strategy is to extend the service life of substations through staged refurbishment and augmentation as
opposed to building a new substation in a new location. It is very important to assure good long-term
strategic planning at the outset of developing a substation to avert the need to dispose of the asset for
a considerable period of time. The only reason to dismantle can be due to end of use or lack of
agreement with the regulator. For substations that are not required for a lengthy lifecycle, such as that
for industrial installations, it is very important to consider modular demountable facilities to offset the
potential disposal costs as far as reasonably possible.
Asset costing process

It is important that a transparent and financially effective costing process is set up to define clear cost
saving targets in a utility to ensure for low cost solutions combined with good engineering, construction,
O&M as well as disposal. Ideally authority for the technical solution is separated from financial appraisal
in this process.
Cost-effective, simple and especially reliable primary and secondary technology forms the base for
systems with a good price-performance. It is important to standardise the design elements and
equipment to prevent items having to be re-evaluated for each project.
A compact substation layout will save valuable space on a property and therefore may avoid cost where
purchase prices for property are at a premium. Standardised layout furthermore can be applied for
switchyards, substations buildings, cable or overhead line entries in a substation.
Once the technology and the substation layout are standardised, individual projects can be initiated
efficiently.
10.4 COST TRACKING/MONITORING/REPORTING

As introduced at the beginning of this chapter, cost management is a key factor for every company that
wants to be competitive in the marketplace or that wishes to deliver lower cost infrastructure. This is
a factor not only during the project phase, but during the whole life-cycle of the substation. Monitoring
costs during the whole life provides valuable information to enable good decision making in the future.
Such good decisions are essential for accounting depreciation purposes, utility commission regulatory
rate setting, or for determining whether to repair equipment versus retiring and replacing it.
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Project costs monitoring

As presented earlier, the designer should differentiate between initial costs of a new substation project
and the later maintenance costs. Both final budget and maintenance costs should be monitored during
the whole life of the substation in order to control the cash flows for the installation. As mentioned
earlier, for project cost monitoring a good method is described in the ISO 21500 or the Project
Management Professional (PMP®) [57]. There are an array of difference methods that are adopted for
the management of project costs. One of the simplest methods is described as Earned Value
Management (EVM). This method is commonly used for the project performance monitoring. It
integrates the scope, costs and schedule measures to help the project team monitor the performance
during the execution of the project. It is a project management technique that requires the definition
of a Base Line to which refer the measures and progress of the project during its execution. EVM
principles can be applied to all projects.
The three concepts of Planned Value (PV), Actual Cost (AC), and Earned Value (EV) are as
follows:
 Planned Value (PV): Is the authorised budget defined in the previous section of this chapter.
The PV represents the baseline (BL) which is also referred to as Budget at Completion (BAC).
The PV is calculated prior to executing the works. The BL is the starting point to which progress
is compared and is a very important element of controlling the cost. The base line is divided in
three components:
 Cost BL: Is the authorised budget;
 Schedule BL: Is the authorised schedule defined in the planning of the project; and
 Scope BL: Is the authorised scope.
The project manager should comply with the BL and if it is not possible to do so, then the
project manager must seek authorisation to change it.
 Earned Value (EV): Is the completed work expressed in monetary terms (example $) of the
authorised budget for an activity or WBS element. EV can also be expressed for the whole
budget. The measured EV should correspond to the PV. Schedule performance is the difference
between PV and EV. The project manager must monitor both the increments and tendencies
of the EV to ensure limited variance from the PV.
 Actual Cost (AC): Is the actual real cost incurred at the time of the evaluation of performance.
Once the project manager is aware of these three values, the project manager will be able to calculate
the following indicators to measure the performance of the project:
 Schedule Variance (SV): Is a measure in monetary terms of the variance of the schedule.
SV is the difference between the real work already performed (EV) and the work that should
have been performed (PV).
𝐒𝐕 = 𝐄𝐕 − 𝐏𝐕
Equation 10-2 – Schedule Variance
 Cost Variance (CV): Is a measure in monetary terms of the performance of costs. Is the
difference between the Earned Value (EV) and the Actual cost (AC).
𝐂𝐕 = 𝐄𝐕 – 𝐀𝐂
Equation 10-3 – Cost Variance
The SV and CV values are good indicators of the performance of the project for both schedule and
costs. These figures can even easily be compared between other projects to ascertain cost and schedule
performance. With these indicators the project manager can easily calculate indices in order to better
evaluate the performance of the project:
 Schedule performance Index (SPI): Is an index that relates the actual performance of the
schedule toward the planned performance:
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𝐄𝐕
𝐒𝐏𝐈 =
𝐏𝐕
Equation 10-4 – Schedule Performance Index
 SPI>1: The project is performing better than planned regarding schedule;

 SPI=1: The project is performing just as planned; and
 SPI<1: The project is behind schedule. Some measures should be implemented in
order to correct the situation.
 Cost Performance Index (CPI): Is an index that relates the actual performance of the
completed activity costs toward Earned Value:
𝐄𝐕
𝐂𝐏𝐈 =
𝐀𝐂
Equation 10-5 – Cost Performance Index
 CPI>1: The project is performing under budget and favourable in cost performance;
 CPI=1: The project is performing just as planned; and
 CPI<1: The project is over budget. Measures need to be taken to recover the
project to more favourable performance.
Table 10-2 – Earned Value Management Analysis
Schedule
EVM (Earned Value Management) SV>0 SV=0 SV<0
SPI>1 SPI=1 SPI<1
CV>0 Ahead of schedule and On time and under Delayed but

CPI>1 under Budget budget under budget
COSTS
CV=0 Ahead of schedule and Delayed but on

On time and budget
CPI=1 on budget Budget
CV<0 Ahead of schedule and On time but over Delayed and

CPI<1 over budget budget over budget
Knowing these indices the project manager can make decisions in order to redirect the Project. For
instance, if the project is behind schedule and under budget (SPI<1; CPI>1), the manager has funds
available to reinforce resources and correct the delay.
Life-Cycle Monitoring
During the whole life-cycle, many activities, all with associated costs, will be performed with regards to
the assets of a substation. Installation costs, maintenance costs, operations costs, replacement costs
and disposal costs are the most significant cost elements. It is crucial to design a detailed costing
system in order to be able to assign costs to each element of the substation as accurately as possible.
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It is important to coordinate all the areas and divisions of the company in order to design a costing
system that fits both technical and financial areas. In the market there are many possibilities, the more
detailed, and the more expensive. However, due to the complexity and costs of electrical infrastructure
it is worthwhile investing in a reliable cost management system.
10.4.2.1 Objective of the Cost Management System:

A company must design a costing system able to allocate both direct and indirect costs to each asset
or element in order to evaluate the real costs involved and gain information to make better decisions
into the future. Poor cost allocation, can render projects non-viable where they have attracted
substantial indirect costs that have been charged into that project without clear justification.
Each utility has their own requirements and needs regarding cost control and monitoring, but the aim
of this section is to underline the importance and benefits of having a well-defined costing system, not
only for making decisions but to justify investments and expenses to the shareholders and/or regulators.
10.4.2.2 Activity Based Costing (ABC) Systems

It is important to know that there are plenty of methods to monitor costs within organisations. The
more detailed the method is, the more expensive to implement and maintain it will be. As infrastructure
assets require large investment, having good cost control is worth it even if additional investment in the
cost management system is needed.
Activity-Based Costing (ABC) is a widely practiced methodology within electricity utilities to have a good
balance between accuracy and system implementation investment. Its goal is to drive indirect or
common costs towards the right elements and reflect these appropriately against assets.
The ABC system requires detailed explanation beyond the scope of this Technical Brochure. In essence
it is allocating and reconciling costs based upon activity across the asset base. The activities are
conventionally split into distinct elements such as labour, contractors, materials, tools, vehicles and
others. These are reflected against each asset class across the network asset population. The ABC
system may appear to be complex and there is plenty of documentation related to it but it is good at
providing accurate cost reflection. Whilst there are generic ABC methods, the system must be adapted
to the company’s specific needs. Costing is split into two distinct categories as follows:
 Direct costs: These costs are easy to allocate as they are specific for the project or assets.
Direct costs represent materials, direct labour and contracts for the delivery of the project
elements. For direct labour estimations it is very important to introduce the culture within the
organisation for personnel to register the time that they expend or are assigned to in each
project or asset in the form of a timesheet which can then be allocated to the assets or project;
and
 Common or Indirect costs: These costs, where more than one asset is involved (general
managers, support divisions, administration, overhead costs, tools and others) must be correctly
redirected to each an element proportionally.
Cost allocation is likely to be proportionate to the complexity or amount of time of resource used. To
properly allocate those costs, there must be consistent decisions around the cost drivers that reflect as
well as possible the allocation of a certain cost. Where there are no defined units and the cost elements
are activities, time based allocation is the best cost driver, so if one can relate time for each activity,
time can be used as a cost driver. Simple examples include:
 Excavator for replacing a two circuit-breakers: A good cost driver for the use of an excavator
could be “time of usage”. So if the excavator was rented for 10 hours and the excavator was
used for 6 hours for the first circuit-breaker and 4 hours for the second, the cost should be
allocated with 60 % against the first breaker and 40 % against the second.
 Cable: A good cost driver could be meters (m). Depending on the length in meters used, one
can allocate the proportionate drum costs to the respective cable run.
The purpose of a finer breakdown of costs incurred on substation projects is to further pin-point specific
areas where costs can be saved for individual utilities or consultants. Typically this is performed by
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accounting methods where cost accounts are assigned to finer levels of activities and material to capture
their corresponding expenditures at detailed level. Knowing what is spent to a more detailed level
allows the organisation to see where potential cost saving can be attained. For example, detailed cost
accounting capturing primary electrical versus secondary electrical versus civil versus structural
engineering costs can pin-point where the most design and construction costs are being incurred. Then,
potential design aids can be explored (e.g. engineering software packages or professional training) for
those targeted disciplines to reduce their design elements and save costs.
10.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS - COST-SAVING RECOMMENDATION AND BEST

PRACTICES
A cost-efficient system means not only cost-saving for utilities’ infrastructure, but for the public in
general by keeping customer electricity rates low and affordable, especially for developing countries.
Reduction of cost is a priority for all utilities, but these reductions cannot be justified at the expense of
a reduction of security, reliability or quality of supply as per regulated targets.
This section will attempt to explain best practices on cost-saving regarding electrical infrastructure.
As already mentioned in the Chapter 2 - Design Philosophy, the design is a key factor for reduction
costs. It is important that design takes into account the following:
 Standardisation and Modularity: Having a standard design for the assets of a company
preferably in a modular format can save substantial amounts of money due to:
 Engineering: Having a standard with few varieties to adapt to each particularity of a
project saves substantial time in design that translates into direct cost-savings.
Furthermore, having consistent, proven and optimised (e.g. KAIZEN) standards leads
to minimisation of errors. These standards also impact upon maintenance costs, as
with an increasing array of designs, minimal knowledge is going to be needed by the
maintenance experts, as “most substations are the same”.
 Equipment: Standardisation should be utilised to assure closure of frame contracts to
secure lower prices for the individual components. Utilities should aim for simple,
reliable components that are based on established and proven technology
 When there is a need to buy equipment for both project and maintenance, with
the availability of standards, that fit most variety of substations, it becomes
much simpler to procure. Moreover, if there is standardisation for equipment,
that means volume cost savings by comparison to procurement of individual
components. This could translate into a direct cost-saving.
 Maintenance: As mentioned before having standards in both substation design and
equipment selection reduces substantial expenditure in maintenance due to:
 Specialist knowledge with a finite set of substation standard designs;
 Commonality of parts and componentry results in rationalisation of spares for
the maintenance and repair of equipment; and
 Optimisation of design, equipment selection and maintenance practices due to
similarity of elements.
 Modularity: The standardisation should be as modular as possible in order to adapt parts to
each substation. Modularity may go as far as a standard design being developed where an
element can be assembled like a construction kit. Regarding replacements and maintenance,
as more modularity is achieved, the easier it will be to replace or maintain certain elements.
Modularity enables simple expandability as well as the opportunity to re-use or repurpose
substations when they are no longer required. Furthermore, a modular approach enables easily
repetitive construction for multiple lots as well as the ability to pre-fabricate subsets of the
substation prior to site erection which could reduce cost as well as time to deliver the assets.
 Suppliers: It is good practice to have a preferred set of suppliers approved by the utility
(portfolio of suppliers per type of equipment). Having a portfolio of suppliers allows utilities,
through supplier knowledge and reputation as well as awareness of standards, to ensure that
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the required quality is going to be achieved. With a greater awareness across the industry of
the requirements, there is a higher probability of having a wider array of credible suppliers
leading to better pricing being achieved.
 The portfolio needs to be balanced between having too many providers and having to
little. Too wider array of suppliers leads to loss of equipment standardisation which
could work against the concept of maintenance optimisation.
 Contractors: Subcontracting or outsourcing of selected activities are not representative of the
core business of the utility, such as installation or tests, could lead to significant cost reduction.
Such an approach allows utilities to adapt resources to the amount of work needed. TB660
provides an excellent resource for balancing outsourcing of resources to deliver savings to the
bottom line [42].
 A good practice regarding sub-contracting is to group projects or works into a single
“bag or bucket” and take out a single tender with a higher volume of work. For a
subcontractor, the greater the volume, the greater is the opportunity to leverage
volume discounting to achieve cost reduction.
 Regulatory Considerations: The regulatory constraints applied in various jurisdictions can
have significant variation upon the lifecycle costing of substation assets. Fixed line depreciation
models over an economic life of around 40 years could leave utilities with perfectly serviceable
assets despite having to replace for the sake of delivering a rate base to secure future income.
Designers should take into account local economic conditions as well as the regulatory
environment to ensure that the life-cycle cost of the substation is minimised as far as reasonably
possible.
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11. PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTS FOR MAJOR

ELECTRICITY INFRASTRUCTURE
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this section is to assure a more consistent approach to best practice when considering
procurement of major infrastructure.
The importance of procurement is ever increasing owning to more and more complex environments and
higher requirements from utilities on cost, flexibility and lead times. However, technologies and
concepts help to meet those requirements. Project lead times, scarcity of resources and funds, wider
choice of equipment and materials and complexity of differing legal systems, resulted in formalised
methods for contracting services and procuring materials for substation projects. The procurement and
contracting models are dependent on the size and type as well as complexity of the substation. It is
therefore sometimes necessary to procure goods and services from outside the traditional utility
organisation to achieve the objectives of establishing a substation.
Procurement is more than only the procurement of equipment and construction contracts. It also
includes the procurement of service and design contracts and funding for the projects. These are
important especially in the developing world where donor funding is employed as well as the
appointment of services by external service providers.
There is a general push in African utilities currently to have cost-reflective tariffs in most systems, so
asset financing is expected to gravitate from purely donor financing to debt financing. Utilities are
required to consider infrastructure projects as investments where returns are made on commissioning
and based on agreements with the regulator. Appendix F has been provided by the World Bank as a
summary guideline for substation project procurement which presents a useful reference guide for
substation designers.
11.2 STRATEGY AND POLICY

Cost-effective purchasing has proven to be one of the key factors for utilities around the globe enabling
them to provide affordable energy based on inexpensive infrastructure. Therefore, cost-effective
procurement of equipment and services plays a crucial role for the construction of low-cost substations.
The procurement and contracting processes and methodologies employed for the construction,
operation as well as disposal of the substations thus plays a vital role in ensuring the provision of a cost-
effective, fit for purpose substation. Addressing external and internal spend has a significant impact on
the company effectiveness. If a company wants to excel it must excel in its largest cost area, which
represents on average 30 % of a service company’s revenue.
Thus it has therefore become crucial for project managers to have a clear understanding of the theory
and to learn from global best practices in the entire area of contract/procurement management. Its
purpose is to reduce costs, for example, by bundling requirements, negotiating, reducing the number
of suppliers and enforcing standardised and consistent procurement management. Procurement must
understand this and align with long-term goals and strategies in the utility. Utilities need to continue
to build on this culture in order to anticipate and adapt as business requires.
With the aim of reducing costs, purchasing decides on requirements of certain financial limits whether
this requirement is procured directly from the engineering department or the purchasing department.
Products and services shall be procured optimised due to quality and on time delivery.
Initial contact with suppliers takes place (also in an early project phase) by the respective purchaser.
Direct contacts with suppliers can be made by the specialist department, even after prior consultation
with the purchasing department. Supplier selection and award decisions are then made by Purchasing.
Orders to suppliers have to be made under competitive conditions. As a rule, the best bidder is to be
selected, justified differences are possible. Commitments are based on economic considerations. Cost-
effectiveness also includes, in addition to price and conditions, the fulfilment of quality requirements,
reliability and all other factors pertaining to the procurement process (total cost of ownership). Award
decisions and assignments are communicated by the procurement department. The decision taken shall
be transparent and later on be able to be followed by third parties.
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All information classified as internal or confidential Information must be treated confidentially. In

particular, budget assumptions, strategies, price expectations, procurement intentions, and others may
not be communicated to third parties.
If the organisation lacks key skills or relationships, it might form a partnership arrangement with another
company to share the benefits and risks of the project.
11.3 PROJECT FUNDING

Project funding is only possible when the project is capable of producing enough cash to cover all
operating and debt-servicing expenses over the whole duration of the debt. A financial model is needed
to assess economic feasibility of the project. Utilities in developing countries utilise various procurement
models, depending on the size of the project and the levels of available in-house funding. In cases
where the substation project forms part of a larger scheme or the utility is not able to fund it in house,
third-party funding is usually required.
Typical funding and contract models for such projects are:
 Donor type funding: This type of funding is usually provided by international financial
institutions such as the World Bank, African Development Bank, The Asian Development Bank,
The Millennium Challenge, European Development Bank and others. The projects funded by
these institutions are usually run by the funding institution and makes use of international
procurement principles to appoint service providers for the planning, design, construction and
project management of the entire project for the utility. The contracting models used for these
types of appointments are usually based on the FIDIC series of contracts. Once the project is
completed, it is handed over to the utility;
 Build Own and Operate: This model requires a third party providing the funding for the
planning, design, construction and project management of the substation, and as return for its
investment enters into an ownership and operation contract with the utility for specific duration.
The contracting models for this type of appointment can be FIDIC based, but as the third party
controls the funding, they will choose the type of contract and level of contacting. If the
contracting company has its own resources, it may decide to do the project works in house.
These models are usually applicable for large mining projects and Independent Power Producer
projects where revenue can be created from the owner over the life cycle of the project to
recover the capital and operational investments; and
 Build Own Operate and Transfer: This model is similar to the above, with the addition that
the project ownership is transferred to the local government or utility at a certain agreed period
of time, typically when the asset development cost is paid off.
11.4 CONTRACTING MODELS FOR SUBSTATIONS

Based on the superordinate project funding, typical contracting models used for substation projects for
the above listed funding options include the following:
 Outsourcing of the entire asset creation stage, namely the network planning, design, tender
specifications and evaluation, construction and project management. This is usually the model
chosen by the donor-funding model and the stages are given to engineering consulting firms.
The actual construction works are allocated to a specialist construction firm on a supply and
construct basis through competitive tender. The procurement of materials is the responsibility
of the contractor, in compliance with the specifications compiled by the consulting firm;
 Outsourcing part of the asset creation process to a consulting firm up to the stage of conceptual
design. The rest of the detail design and construction is given to a construction contractor on
an EPC (engineer construct and procurement) type contract. Like the previous model, the
contractor is then responsible for the detail design and the procurement and constructions main
and subcontracts of the works. The consultant often remains contracted as owners engineer
to project manage the construction contractor and oversee the payments to the contractor;
 In house planning and concept/initial design by the utility, then outsourcing the detail design
and construction to an EPC contractor as above. This is the recommended approach in the
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initial phase when a utility establishes its capabilities in designing substations, it can be
improved upon with additional projects. This also allows the end users to take up more
responsibility in the process and contribute to the issues around asset management; and
 In house execution of the entire asset creation process. It is recommended that this is done
only after a series of successfully implemented projects following the in house development of
the planning and design phases.
Contract selection is based on uncertainty of scope, assignment of risk, need for predictable costs, and
the importance of meeting milestone dates. Any variation and combination of the above models can
also be implemented by the client in line with the scale of the project and the infrastructure financing
arrangements. To determine whether to outsource or do the work within the organisation, consider
which option is less costly and which option can deliver the work on time
The FIDIC suites of contract books are usually used for the above-mentioned models. These can vary
from fixed-price contracts to reimbursable type contracts or a combination of these for different parts
of the process. FIDIC, the International Federation of Consulting Engineers has issued a number of
Policy Statements about issues relevant to the conduct of consulting engineering firms that are
particularly relevant to clients and financing agencies in developing countries.
11.5 SUBSTATION MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT PROCUREMENT

The survey amongst the utilities in the developing world indicates that procurement of materials and
equipment may be awarded on contractual base. It however gives no indication on the further
integration of procurement in the utilities’ organisation and what the strategic focus are, which are
important for procurement. The methodologies mentioned here should be utilised within the context
of a project and not followed through daily operational approaches to procurement.
90
80
70
60
Percentage Used
50
40
30
20
10
0
Purchase Order with Blanket Purchase Distribution Supply Other
Competitive Bidding Order House
Major Equipment and Material Procurement Method
Figure 11-1 – Equipment and Material Procurement Methods
The terminology defined in Figure 11-1 above is explained as follows:

 Purchase Order with Competitive Bidding: multiple quotes solicited, evaluated and
contract awarded for a one time order of a major equipment item (e.g. power transformer or
control building);
 Purchase Order to Sole Source Supplier: contract negotiated and awarded to a preferred
supplier for a one time order of a major equipment item (e.g. power transformer or control
building);
201
 Blanket Purchase Order: multi-year contract with a vendor to release multiple orders of
commonly used material on an as-needed basis (e.g. switchgear or steel structures);
 Company Storeroom: an in-house materials management system that obtains and stocks
commonly-used standard material for projects; typically minor equipment/material (e.g.
conductor, connectors);
 Distribution Supply House: a third party service provider that secures, packages and delivers
electrical material as requested (e.g. conductor, connectors); and
 Contractor: the contractor constructing the project provides electrical material as specified by
the designer; typically for minor equipment/material (e.g. conductor, connectors).
11.6 PROCUREMENT APPROACH

Procurement of materials in utilities can be divided into the following categories: commodities,
infrastructure and service. Sourcing strategies for each of them required different approaches, as
further outlined below.
Commodities
The term commodity refers to categories or groups of supplies or services. Its procurement focuses on
developing a specific sourcing strategy for a category or group of supplies or services. The success of
commodity strategies is based on maximising the cost-reduction advantages of leveraging combined
buying for volume discounts, using market experts to formulate strong relationships with preferred
suppliers. Examples of commodities are concrete for building projects, office supplies or even
equipment for a research project. The second type of procurement includes products that are specified
for the project.
Commodity sourcing strategies require a distinct strategy planning process developed for that specific
group of supplies or services. The spend analysis is the first step toward integrating a utilities sourcing
strategy. Commodity sourcing is based on the analysis of all goods and services that are purchased
and are forecasted to be purchased in the future by the utility. This includes the total purchase across
all organisational divisions of the utility. The analysis should also include the total cost of ownership,
not just the purchase price, as well as input from the end users in the utility. Operation and maintenance
costs can be projected initially and adjusted in the tariff submissions. For example, Malawi currently
has a rural electrification fund from fuel levies which only covers capital investments for MV distribution
lines and service transformers but not the HV/MV substations, the LV systems nor the O&M Costs.
Financing arrangements should be aimed to also cover the remaining costs to sustainably run growing
systems.
Examination of the supply industry to determine the major suppliers of the specific supply or service by
the market is also important. Factors to consider are the customer power, supplier power, inter-
company competition, threat of substitution and new market entrants for the different suppliers such
as assembler, manufacturer or distributor.
Understanding of the cost and performance drivers and other performance metrics such as quality, level
of technology, flexibility and timeliness are further important factors to define the commodity
procurement strategy.
Commodities are purchased through suppliers using a request for quote (RFQ) and selected on the basis
of price. An exception is the key supplier relationship where the supplier-organisation relationship is
long term and the supplier passes along some of the savings of avoiding the bidding process.
Infrastructure
When infrastructure is procured by conventional means, the procuring authority pays for the works
against its budget and assumes the entire responsibility of the asset once construction is completed.
Payments are usually made as work is progressing, and at the stipulated price. The contractor may be
responsible for fixing defects at its own cost during a short period, and may provide security in respect
of its liability for defects. The contractor may also remain responsible for hidden defects over a longer
period, but with no security provided during this period.
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Procurement for infrastructure such as substations is complex and it is important to differentiate

between the different types of procurement which pose different challenges and require different skill
sets. The strategic approach to procurement must be above the project level to balance competing
objectives and priorities rather than viewing each project in isolation. Professional supply chain
management capacity must be developed through specific training and accreditation.
It is advisable to first break down the project into key economic activities. The key activities with distinct
technology or knowledge/skill sets that have a significant impact on the cost of the project. Each of the
key activities should then be assessed whether it is made by the utility of bought from an external
supplier, based on resource or transaction cost.
Two commonly employed contracts are used for procurement of infrastructure:
 Full reimbursement of the contractor’s cost, plus a set payment over this cost. This is called a
“cost-plus” contract. It is important that the supplier is made responsible for its cost
performance without reducing on quality; and
 Fix the total payment in order to cover the supplier’s return as well as its cost, whatever the
latter turns out to be. Such a contract is called “fixed-price” or “price-cap” contract. This elicits
more cost-reducing effort from the supplier. It has the drawback to leave profit to the supplier
in situations where the cost turns out to be particularly low.
Services
Services Procurement is a process for buying and managing strategic outsourcing of work. In order to
establish a good supplier’s base, corresponding labour categories shall be defined in order to establish
supplier base (e.g. lead engineer, technician, and draftsman). Furthermore, standards should be
defined on the requirements/deliverables, milestones, timelines as well as pricing and payment terms.
Services are delivered in interactions between representatives of the service provider and the buying
company. From procurement point of view, they are consequently difficult to produce with consistent
characteristics and quality. This further complicates the process of standardising, counting and valuing
them. Where these services are required within the substation project it is the responsibility of the
project manager to ensure quality of delivery as per service contract.
Life-cycle cost analysis

Life Cycle Costs describe the cost of a product or service over life. It is a solution for all lifecycle stages,
including planning, development, procurement, manufacturing, distribution, field operations with
maintenance and operating costs, and settlement. The life cycle calculation is used as part of the
process to improve the profitability of the investment and the profitability analysis of systems and
products. In order to procure the major components of a substation in the most cost-effective way, the
life cycle cost analysis is often used to evaluate and compare which components are the cheapest ones
to be purchased.
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) determines the most cost-effective option among different competing
alternatives to purchase, own, operate, maintain and, finally, dispose of an object or process, when
each is equally appropriate to be implemented on technical grounds. For example, for a transformer,
in addition to the initial construction cost, LCCA takes into account all further cost throughout the lifetime
that are related to future activities, including future periodic maintenance and rehabilitation. All the
costs are usually discounted and total to a present-day value known as net present value (NPV). In
order to perform a LCCA scoping it is important to define aspects are to be included, and which ones
not.
11.7 PROCUREMENT CAPABILITY

From a utility point of view, procurement shall be a strategic partner for the implementation of corporate
strategies, identification of process optimisations and subsequent increase in the value chain. The
organisations integrated strategic plan (ISP) should give a 4 or 5 year guideline on the types of projects,
technologies and methodologies that the organisation intends to implement as they progress towards
their medium and long term goals. This will trickle down into defining the financing and procurement
strategies.
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Standardisation
Standardisation of the products and systems that are used in substation projects and subsequently
during their operation and maintenance not only simplifies the purchasing, but furthermore the
subsequent fleet management throughout their lifetime. This will also support material management
of standard, consumable, replacement and spare operating reserve materials. It is important that the
standards are defined as precisely as possible. If they are set too general and generic there is a
substantial risk that it actually costs the utility money.
An established purchasing process ensures uniform processing of the different inquiries from
engineering and other departments. Enforcing a consistent application of these processes will help
create the necessary transparency to bundle the requirements, this subsequently will help to reduce the
number of suppliers. When a utility-wide, uniform purchasing and ordering process is implemented,
the product groups should be defined and controlled throughout the utility by the purchasing or
procurement function. Utilisation of IT systems will support the standardisation process when they are
tailored to the organisations operational structure and process.
Pooling
Pooling of procurement aims to purchase components not with view on a single project but rather a
mid-term basis, typically on an annual or three-year or longer basis. It is important that the procurement
perspective not only focuses on substations, major savings can be achieved when the pooling strategies
defined cover the demands on a group or company level. Products or components shall be standardised
where useful so that the corresponding strategies can be derived.
Material groups and subsequent pooling can be defined based on the following criteria:
 Procurement volume: High, Medium, Low;
 Procurement situation: Single Source, Sole Source, Dual Source, Multi Source; and
 Use across projects: used for line construction, substations and other plant.
Table 11-1 below table gives an overview of possible strategic purchasing material groups.
Table 11-1 – Strategic purchasing material groups
Steel construction GIS AIS Cables
Foundations Building Insulator Strings Transformers
Assembly Cable Networks Auxiliary Planning Services
Installation &
Maintenance SAS Vegetation Management
Commissioning
Introduction of a uniform procedure for the creation of material group strategies are important to
successfully set up material groups in procurement. Creation of joint teams from the engineering and
procurement areas are important for joint development of the underlying strategy. The effectiveness
of material group strategies is strongly influenced by the involvement of engineering.
In a first step for the short term implementation, focus shall be set on an agreed procurement concept,
contract templates and preferred suppliers. Then for the medium and long term, specifications are
adapted, frame agreements and then technical interfaces are developed. The implantation of such a
strategy will take time and therefore must be done step by step. As much as possible of such a strategy
should be implemented based on regional pools that usually operate under similar conditions.
Procurement and technology related activities on the technical and commercial level must be kept
separate, so that purchasing can achieve best results.
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Material storage concepts

Standardisation of the products that are used in substation projects and subsequently during their
operation and maintenance not only simplifies the purchasing, but also the subsequent fleet
management of the equipment throughout their lifetime:
 Standard materials, such as screws, electrical clamps, wire / strands, cable ducts, lamps,
adhesive tapes, soldered wire, body protection;
 Consumable materials, such as cleaning agents, lubricants, cleaning materials;
 Hazardous substances, such as thinner, SF6 gas, transformer oils, fuels;
 Replacement Materials, used in existing systems. Examples: current transformers, surge

arresters, disconnectors, earth disconnector relays, and others. It should be managed as
storage material and managed, if there is a regular and continuous need, high availability or
safety relevance, long replenishment time or there was a high default rate in the past;
 Operating reserve, such as complete transformers, converters, switches, disconnectors,

bushings; and
 Call material, it is a subset of the material categories standard, consumption and replacement
materials. Typically it is specified by plant operations.
In order to ensure that quality of the materials does not degrade over time, criteria’s for each of the
category shall be defined. This will also support material management of standard, consumable,
replacement and spare operating reserve materials. Material type then subdivides the materials
according to their inventory management criteria (Supplier, Required availability, Delivery time from
supplier, Substitutability, Storage location, Maintenance necessary).
Expansion plans of a utility which are included in the infrastructure investment plans should also define
the works expected in particular geographical regions. This will help to quantify the amount of materials
required and the best place to store the materials to optimise on logistics which is one of the key factors
that affect the overall cost of the substation. Carriage and Insurance Paid (CIP) can be included in the
tender to limit double handling of materials. Maintenance materials might not be stored at the same
site earmarked for construction materials.
Substation control buildings may include a storage area that can be used for maintenance teams,
however security is an issue and needs to be considered.
11.8 PROCUREMENT PROCESSES

Established processes together with the relevant instructions support efficient and transparent
procurement of goods and services in the utility. The strategic sourcing must focus on delivery of major
cost savings, or risk being marginalised. It needs to have specific targets and deliverables over a specific
period of time. By then further developing and utilisation of the process, purchasing will become an
important tool for implementing the utility’s strategy to ensure low cost.
A first step in order to establish a procurement organisation is to define the roles in the organisation
and establish the relevant instructions valid for procurement. Once the instructions are in place,
compliance rules in line with regulatory requirements as well as the relevant procurement processes
must be established. Secondly, material group strategies are to be developed and then implemented.
The procurement plan includes determining the category of materials or services, choosing the type of
contractual relationship, soliciting bids, selecting bidders, managing the work, and closing the contracts.
Payments to vendors and suppliers are required during the course of the project. A change management
system needs to be in place when dealing with vendors and suppliers.
Long lead time items are identified and monitored. Items that are critical to the schedule or delayed
are assigned to an expediter. The logistics of handling delivery, storage, and transportation are
determined. Work and materials are inspected for quality.
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Measuring procurement’s contribution to the business becomes important, key performance indicators
should be established to provide transparency on the processes across all projects. Procurement should
then be transformed by leveraging digital technologies such enterprise resource planning systems.
Companies that bid on contracts are evaluated on past performance and current financial status. RFQ’s
and RFP’s are sent to those companies. RFQ’s are evaluated on price and RFP’s are evaluated on price
and method. In order to have continuous evaluation of the supplier base, it is recommended to have
mandatory evaluation after completion of service provision that is higher than a certain amount.
Control framework for submissions
Especially with public submissions it is important to follow a defined process for expiration of a
submission to ensure a transparent process and not be vulnerable after the evaluation of the supplier.
Infrastructure procurement should be implemented in accordance with the provisions of a control
framework with subsequent control gates. The level of detail contained in the documentation upon
which a decision is made at a gate should be sufficient to enable informed decisions to be made to
proceed to the next activity. This is documented in the below process steps in Table 11-2.
Table 11-2 – Control framework process for procurement
Step Name Activities
1 Preparation a. Creating a procurement concept

- Eligibility criteria => What are the mandatory requirements for suppliers
- Award criteria => How do we rate the products, service?
b. Submission schedule
c. Tender documents
2 Prequalification Evaluation of applications on participation
3 Announcement a. Publication, Documents are loaded on a platform or sent out on request
b. Answering questions, they are anonymised and sent to all providers
c. Receipt of Tenders
d. Opening of Tenders
4 Evaluation a. First sighting of the offers, whether they are timely and complete
b. Review of eligibility criteria and any MUST criteria
c. Confirmation of the receipt of the offer, any request for missing documents
d. Initial evaluation of the award criteria, decide whether appraisal interviews
necessary
e. Awarding talks / presentation of solutions / answering questions with minutes of
the meeting
f. Final evaluation of the award criteria, create Approval Report
g. Approval Report agreed and signed by decision-makers
5 Realisation a. Contract signing
b. Possible kick-off meeting with contractor
c. Further steps according to the project / project schedule
d. Clarification of open points in the contract
11.8.1.1 Reporting of Savings

The reporting of savings creates transparency about the added value of purchasing through a clear and
accepted method in the utility. The measurement of savings is one of the central tasks of the
procurement organisation and, is an indicator of the maturity level of the organisation.
Decisive for the successful implementation and acceptance of the methodology is a defined,
manageable, accepted, valid and documented definition of savings between all participating
organisational units. A clearly defined uniform reporting process is the basis for all areas in the utility.
Savings are checked by a neutral, third party and confirmed before they are included in the savings
reporting.
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The procurement result is the result that leads to a change in the price compared to the previous period
or budget. This parameter describes the influence of procurement on the financial parameters.
11.9 CONTRACT MANAGEMENT

Contract management is the process of systematically and efficiently managing contract creation,
execution and analysis to maximising operational and financial performance and minimising risk.
Management of contracts, particularly partnerships, requires flexibility and willingness to adapt the
terms of the contract to reflect changing circumstances. It is important to recognise that problems are
bound to arise which could not be foreseen when the contract was awarded.
It would be prudent for a utility to develop contract templates for the different types of services and
materials that will be required from project initiation to the end of the defects liability period. This could
also include service agreements if deemed necessary. A good contract will encourage delivery and
promote good relationships.
Before a contract is signed, the utility needs to be thinking about its end. In what circumstances can a
contract be extended or terminated?
Total fixed cost is a single price where the scope is well defined. A fixed price with incentive contract
offers a reward for finishing early or under budget or a penalty for being late. A fixed price with
adjustment allows for increases in cost of materials or changes in currency values. A fixed unit price
contract sets a price per unit, but the exact number of units is not known.
In a cost reimbursable contract, the project pays for costs. A cost plus fixed fee contract assures the
contractor of a known fee. A cost plus percentage fee calculates the fee as a percentage of the costs.
A cost plus incentive fee sets goals for the contractor to achieve that would result in a bonus. A cost
plus award fee is similar, but the goals are more subjective. Time and materials contracts pay for costs
plus an hourly rate for the contractor’s time.
Engineering, procurement and construction contract

The most common project finance construction contract is the engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) contract. An EPC contract generally provides for the obligation of the contractor to
build and deliver the project facilities on a fixed price, turnkey basis, i.e. at a certain pre-determined
fixed price, by a certain date, in accordance with certain specifications, and with certain performance
warranties. The EPC contract is quite complicated in terms of legal issue, therefore the project company
and the EPC contractor need sufficient experience and knowledge of the nature of project to avoid faults
and minimise the risks during contract execution.
The terms EPC contract and turnkey contract are interchangeable. Turnkey is based on the idea that
when the owner takes responsibility for the facility all it will need to do is turn the key and the facility
will function as intended. Alternative forms of construction contract are a project management approach
and alliance contracting. Basic contents of an EPC contract are:
 Description of the project;
 Price;
 Payment (typically by milestones);
 Completion date;
 Completion guarantee and Liquidated Damages (LDs):
 Performance guarantee and LDs; and
 Cap under LDs.
General framework agreements

The advantages of general framework agreements arise from the flexibility that they bring to the public
procurement. They provide a transparent and competitive mechanism whereby the contracting utility
can place contracts with suppliers in the framework, without having to carry out onerous tendering
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procedures for individual requirements that are covered by the agreement. This significantly improves
the flexibility for placing orders in the daily business and furthermore reduces the administrative effort.
However these advantages can only be achieved where public purchasers have an understanding of the
market in which they are operating, and how competitive pressures work in that market, to enable them
to establish the appropriate conditions for the framework to operate.
Examples for such agreements are:
 Component purchase frame agreement: If a utility expects to purchase a large number of a
component or a family of components, it is beneficial if the price for a certain number of the
components or the duration of the validity of the frame agreement is set in advance. In
particular for components which are required in large numbers (e.g. Surge Arrestors), this can
result in large price advantages for the utility. The larger the frame can be staked out, the
greater the financial benefit will be; and
 Substation turn-key purchase frame agreement: If a utility has a demand to purchase a number
of similar substations, it may be in the interest that the engineering for all substations and their
systems is the same as much as possible and only done once. This will result in a better price
for the engineering packages of the different subsystems. The tender issued should not only
focus on a substation, but all substations required by the utility over the next years.
11.10 CLAIM MANAGEMENT

Once suppliers are on board, attention turns to managing the contract. Claims can cause significant
costs over the entire contract period and beyond. Depending on the state of affairs, risk and possible
financial loss, the responsible purchaser assesses the individual case and decides in consultation with
the user and, if necessary, with timely reference to the law, about the further steps.
Claim management shall take place with the involvement of purchasing and if necessary with legal to
ensure the treatment of the respective legal matters. FIDIC, the International Federation of Consulting
Engineers has issued a number of Policy Statements about issues relevant to the conduct of consulting
engineering firms that are particularly relevant to clients and financing agencies in developing countries.
11.11 PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

Procurement law regulates the purchase of infrastructure, goods and services by the public sector. It
aims to use taxpayers' money as economically as possible, to treat all providers fairly and equitably,
and to give everyone a chance to do business with the utilities. Public Procurement is understood to
mean all procurement that are subject to the statutory requirements of the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as well as the relevant country specific submissions are to be processed.
Therefore, it stipulates that public contracts above a certain value must be publicly advertised based on
the pre-defined criteria.
GATT is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote international
trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers. Its purpose is the substantial reduction of tariffs and
other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous
basis.
11.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS ON PROCUREMENT

Utilities in developing countries need to find a new way to finance their projects. The biggest challenge
in developing countries has been the creation of sustainable markets within economic and political
frameworks. Tariff modelling and the use of cross subsidies may help against this. Donor funded assets
cannot be used to generate profits in the regulatory asset base but can be used to increase energy
sales with limited cost of investment. However this type of financing should only be used to kick-start
the process of moving towards financially sustainable models.
It is important that the procurement and contracting should be executed with a mid-term focus and
should not be within the day to day operations of utilities. The minimum requirement should be to have
a properly defined project scope to achieve savings on a project level. Further substantial financial
benefits for the utility can be achieved through identification of superordinate saving potentials on
company level.
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Knowledge of the procurement markets is important to allow appropriate negotiation strategies in order
to have an optimal execution of the contracts from a commercial point of view. Subsequent
improvement then follows the procurement strategy chosen.
The factors that influence procurement are primarily cost and schedule but also include risk, quality,
and flexibility. The decisions made when selecting the type of contract are based on whether the
materials can be provided by suppliers, vendors, or partners; how well defined the work is; how the risk
will be shared; the importance of the task to the schedule; and the need for certainty of the cost.
For a contract, it is important that there is a clear and consistently held view of what the contract is
producing, the type of commercial relationship desired, the basic contract structure and how it will be
managed.
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12. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF

SUBSTATION PRACTITIONERS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The main keywords for the implementation of sound “Contemporary Design of Low Cost Substations for
Developing Countries" are training and education. When the organisational leadership truly believes
that investments in training are worthwhile, results come fast. Companies that invest systematically in
training are usually very well positioned in their market. This was realised hundreds of years ago by
the noted electrical experimenter and inventor of the lightning rod, Benjamin Franklin when he stated,
“An investment in knowledge pays the best interest.” Training improves the level of skill and
understanding, not only of the design but of the entire project lifecycle of the substation, from the
moment it is planned, for financing up to the point where it is constructed, operated and
decommissioned. Training plays a vital role in risk management to prevent rework, cost overruns and
improve safety, health and impact upon the environment.
The imperative of training and the degree of training is perhaps summarised by the oft-quoted scenario
of the discussion between the Chief Financial Officer and the Chief Executive Officer: the CFO was
complaining about the wasted cost if they train their staff and they leave. The CEO replied imagine if
we don’t train them and they stay.
Training and development of design practitioners is important for the reduction in cost of substations,
which enables a wider view of the set of aspects associated with the costs. Practitioners are increasingly
becoming more specialised in specific aspects of the design and teams are also being rationalised into
smaller groups. Having a wider knowledge and not only being well informed is essential.
It is worth considering that in developed countries, the investments in training are much lower now
than were in earlier decades of the 70’s and 80´s. One likely reason is the often-false belief that they
have done their homework in the past and no longer need to make great efforts in training and
development by comparison to the needs of developing countries. This is often an unsustainable
concept as knowledge and intelligence associated with engineering and design are continuously evolving
and therefore training requires evolution. Another fact to consider is that the expertise hired and trained
in the past decades of the 70-80’s has reached or is approaching retirement age. It is essential for a
“knowledge transfer” from the old to the new generation of substation designers to keep a continuity
of excellence. Good companies have foreseen this “Ageing Workforce” and have been acting accordingly
with this “knowledge transfer”. Other companies acting too late are struggling with inexperienced
employees or becoming totally dependent upon external resources. These companies will need to take
heed to this Training and Development process seriously in a bid to rectify their internal knowledge
capital position.
The focus of training and development of substation practitioners should follow the recommended
subject framework as presented in 12.2. This framework is recommended for practitioners actively
engaged in substation design, construction, commissioning, operation or maintenance. Significant
attention should be given to accreditation, authorisation, regular competency reviews and continuing
development. On-line training methods are evolving toward being very useful, but the initial
development should be based on face-to-face training presented by experienced instructors. As part of
the activities of WG B3-43 there is a strategy to consolidate a centre of reference in knowledge regarding
projects related to low-cost substations.
12.2 SUBJECTS RECOMMENDED FOR TRAINING OF SUBSTATION PRACTITIONERS

This section covers the topics of a basic training program for substation practitioners which can
contribute to achieving a good level of knowledge on substation design. In the context of this chapter
there is a difference between "Knowledge" and "Information". “Information” is just such items as raw
data, measurements, and graphs that define a situation. “Knowledge” comes from studies, formulas,
calculations, and conclusions to apply to solve an engineering problem. The focus here is "Knowledge".
The use of distance-learning courses, via Internet, may be used as an example of training strategy. If
someone has attended training in the classroom, about the theoretical fundamentals of the knowledge
areas linked to substations, further distance courses for improvement can be very useful because people
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already have the essential understanding of the fundamental concepts. To learn fundamental concepts
to a good level requires an initial face-to-face approach, an experienced instructor and a certain amount
of effort on the part of the learner. The first thing to get is a wider vision of the several aspects of the
subject (this being a substation). Whilst one may be highly specialised in a certain discipline such as
substation design, to be more productive, and work better within a team, one must also at least have
a functional awareness of the other knowledge areas such as planning, protection, construction,
operations, and maintenance. For example, electrical designers can be more resourceful (and more
valued) when they also know a bit of mechanical calculations, structures and materials. This will enable
them to be more skillful and efficient at busbar design, which requires some knowledge of forces,
stresses and strengths of materials.
Having this in mind, a substation design training program should cover aspects such as:
 Fundamentals of studies for defining a new substation (load flow, short-circuit, busbar
configurations and other concepts);
 Design Philosophy (differences between fully functional and lower-cost substation applications);
 Detailed design of busbar, ground grids, insulation coordination, lightning protection, auxiliaries;
 Protection & Control – major part of managing substation safety
 Specification, design and testing of equipment (temperature rise, short-circuits, dielectrics, and
other aspects of testing);
 General aspects of the construction and operation;
 Aspects of maintenance (differences between predictive and conventional and application
thereof);
 Aspects of Safety, Security and Environmental Considerations;
 Basic concepts of cost of the service assessment (engineering economics); and
 Project Management Fundamentals to enable planning, scheduling and execution of substation
projects.
An initial training on the concepts of substation design should cover the following framework:
Substation / power system introductory concepts
 Power System Overview;
 Substation Overview;
 Types of Substations;
 Substation Components and Arrangements;
 Substation Layouts; and
 Major Design Activities and Objectives.
Elementary studies for the specification of capacity for new substations

 Load flow and definition of the normal currents;
 Short-circuit studies and definition of currents and duration;
 Basic concepts of the “free” software ATP / ATPDRAW (currents and voltages - transient
calculations);
 AIS and GIS systems (where and when to use them);
 Preliminary design;
 Project Plans, Scope and Assumptions;
 Single Line Diagrams and Phasing Diagrams;
 Preliminary Layouts;
 Design Codes and Compliance;
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 Pre-Engineering Meetings and Field Trips; and

 Project Planning – Schedule and Cost.
Overvoltage and insulation coordination

 Transients and insulation coordination;
 Techniques to reduce over voltages (synchronisers, pre- insertion resistors, surge arresters);
 Use of higher or lower levels of withstand industrial frequency and impulse voltages;
 Effects and calculation of electric fields and safety distances in installations, EMC issues;
 High voltage dielectric tests (impulse, AC voltage, corona, RIV, and other testing);
 Insulators: Type, Material and Application;
 Electrical, Mechanical and Physical Characteristics;
 Clamps and Hardware;
 Overvoltages, Stress and Failures;
 Lightning and Shielding;
 Insulation Level Requirements; and
 Insulator Selection and Specification.
Short-circuits, ampacity, overload and electrical contact

12.2.4.1 Temperature rise
 Concepts and testing: reduction of lifetime, materials supportability to temperatures and
durations;
 Importance of the ventilation and contact resistances in switchgear, fusible, disconnectors,
transformers;
 Overloads in Transformers;
 Temperature rise tests.
12.2.4.2 Electrodynamic forces and mechanical strength

 Increase in system fault levels over time and how to account for this;
 Magnetic effects and electrodynamic forces under short-circuit currents;
 Calculation of the forces and mechanical stresses;
 Limit values for insulators and busbar conductors;
 Short-time withstand current and peak withstand current tests;
 Some aspects of magnetic fields in installations.
12.2.4.3 Transient recovery voltage and interruption processes

 Circuit-breakers, switches, their technologies and the future;
 Expulsion type and current limiting fuses;
 Breaking tests.
12.2.4.4 Internal arc and power arcs, personnel and installation safety
 Internal arc in switchgear (medium and low voltage);
 Technologies to control the effects of arc and to attend testing requirements;
 Limits of equipment dimensions reduction;
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 Tests on transformers. Aspects of explosions and fires in transformers;

 Arcs in insulators strings and tests.
Earthing/Grounding
 Grounding purpose and practices;
 IEEE 80 earthing / grounding design principles;
 Safety criteria;
 Fault characteristics;
 Ground grid components;
 Soil resistivity;
 Design standards and process;
 Ground potential rise;
 Ground grid resistance test; and
 Analysing and solving grounding/grid issues.
Busbar Design
 Conductors, connectors, clamps and couplers;
 Busbar design process;
 Electrical and mechanical criteria;
 Forces on busbar: weight, wind, fault (short-circuit forces) and thermal expansion;
 Effects on busbar: deflection, stress and Aeolian vibration;
 Insulator strength; and
 Case study example.
Structures and foundations

 Structure function, types and material;
 Structure load criteria;
 Structure design, details and fabrication;
 Foundation types, material and applications;
 Soil characteristics and foundation load criteria;
 Foundation design and installation details;
 Other related designs: buildings, enclosed switchgear and GIS;
 Foundation layout drawings.
Electrical primary and auxiliary equipment

 Transformers;
 Circuit-breakers and reclosers;
 Disconnectors, switches and switchers;
 Capacitor and Reactor banks;
 Surge protection and arresters;
 Metal-Clad switchgear and mixed technology switchgear;
 Instrument transformers: voltage and current;
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 Line trap, CCVT, regulator, reactor and fuses;

 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS);
 Material specification, vendor selection and procurement;
 Detailed substation design drawings;
 Control buildings and layout drawings;
 Cables: functions, types and examples;
 Cable systems: ladder, trench, conduits and fittings;
 Cable layout and cable list drawings;
 AC station services: sources, distribution and diagrams;
 DC station services: battery, sizing, diagrams and chargers;
 Fence, security and signs;
 Yard lighting and receptacles;
 Metal-Clad switchgear auxiliaries; and
 IEC 61850 engineering and communication networks, operational technology and systems.
Protection Control and Telecommunications

 System Protection Philosophies;
 Protective relay applications and grading;
 Substation secondary systems;
 SCADA, telecommunications and control systems and operational technology; and
 Substation communications protocols.
Site development
 Site selection criteria;
 Site location and site selection process;
 Field evaluation and preference ranking;
 Site acquisition;
 Permits and approvals;
 Site development;
 Surveying, geotechnical core sampling and grading;
 Erosion and storm water/runoff management; and
 Bunding and oil containment.
Construction
 Final engineering design drawings;
 Construction procurement;
 Construction control and inspection;
 Quality assurance of construction activities and quality of control of works;
 Construction activities: grading, grounding, foundations, fencing and cables;
 Construction activities: structures, major electrical equipment, insulators and busbar, auxiliary
equipment;
215
 Field support activities;

 Post construction audit and lessons learned;
 Testing, commissioning and energising;
 As-Built revisions; and
 Network diagrams and SCADA patch development / implementation and integration of SCADA.
Technical standards and their application (a resume for the main equipment)
 IEC 61936 Power installations exceeding 1 kV AC –Part 1: Common rules;
 Main parts of IEC 62271 (High voltage switchgear and control gear) including the new IEC
62271-307 - High-voltage switchgear and control gear – Part 307: Guidance for the extension
of validity of type tests of AC metal-enclosed switchgear and control gear > 1 - <= 52 kV, IEC
60282-2 (expulsion fuses), IEC 60076 (Power transformers), IEC60099 (Lightning arresters),
IEC 61869 Instrument transformers; and
 Requirements of IEC 61439 (design rules) for low voltage switchgear.
Technical specifications for primary equipment

 The most efficient specification is the IEC technical standard;
 Typical errors in technical specifications and how to avoid them;
 Specification of high voltage disconnectors and relevant tests;
 Specification of circuit - breakers and relevant tests;
 Specification of surge arresters and relevant tests;
 Specification of power transformers and reactors; and
 Some details about other standards and tests (questions previously sent from the participants).
12.2.13.1 Testing simulations for the development and assessment of substation

equipment
 Short-time withstand current and peak tests (calculation of electro dynamical forces, mechanical
stresses);
 Simulation of temperature rise / heating tests (calculations and how to optimise the design);
 Simulation of internal arc tests (overpressures, burn-through and supportability);
 Mapping of electromagnetic fields in substations and neighbourhood;
 Optimisation of the design (reduction of conductors and insulators);
 Case studies and examples of application.
Additional topics
 Engineering economics and cost of the service and aspects of the construction (how to calculate
and to compare options);
 Risk management principles and application of Asset Management fundamentals.
 Cost of the service and aspects of the construction (how to calculate and to compare options);
 Maintenance (conventional and condition based. Examples for transformers, cables, circuit-
breakers and other equipment);
12.3 STRATEGY TO IMPLEMENT A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAMME FOR DEVELOPING
DESIGNERS
The key aspect to implementing a training strategy is that the company's management gives full support
to the deployment, and monitors the results of training investments. In general, this type of follow-up
216
is simple to perform. The most common approach is to plan an initial training and development phase
and thereafter, for the employees who demonstrate a greater degree of determination including greater
ability to receive the training, to invest in more specialised training to a greater focus. Not all employees
respond equally well to training. In general, the most receptive group is not more than 10 to 15% of
the initial group. The more people that are trained initially, the better the results will come into the
future.
For the initial development phase , training with five days duration would not be unusual, based on
programmes similar to that presented in Section 9.2 are a realistic start point. Companies are evolving
smaller teams and a proper initial introductory training is far better than training of a lengthy duration.
An innovative strategy is to initially train up to 60% of the corporate design team with the assistance
of an external experienced specialist and leave the other employees to be trained by previously trained
employees (taking a train the trainer approach). This does not only to reduce costs but it presents a
way to forming internal leadership utilising those people who achieve better results during initial
training. Someone who teaches learns even more than who is receiving the training. Furthermore, this
is an opportunity to contextualise the needs of the company within the training.
For the employees who have demonstrated higher degree of skill during initial training and for the more
experienced designers, a second phase is recommended, which includes a more specialised
development in selected key aspects. These designers often go on to be the developers of company’s
engineering and design standards and modular designs. This second phase is generally realised outside
of the company and preferably enabling contact of the employee being trained with similar experts in
other companies and countries.
One of the underlying strategies of WG B3-43 has been to consolidate knowledge about projects
specifically established to lower costs. The strategy hinges upon a virtual forum in a global context.
The initiative is intended to disseminate knowledge about the design of low-cost substations and its
techniques and to create a channel for dialogue among those interested in the theme. The strategies
and actions will focus upon:
 Collecting and disseminating knowledge and experiences through a forum;
 To create a virtual library to facilitate projects and training activities utilising case studies as a
basis for learning;
 Disseminate effective technological solutions, success cases, models and computational tools
for project development;
 Establish uniform criteria for evaluating the performance as compared to costs; and
 Promote activities and events for the integration of experts including power utilities, engineering
companies, standardisation bodies, research centres, testing laboratories and experimental
facilities.
To assist the implementation of this reference centre, collaboration is to be promoted with companies
that are currently implementing or planning to implement training programs and other relevant actions.
One final, often overlooked, need in technical training is to ensure the flow of trained and dedicated
individuals into the field of professional engineering. Engineers and companies ought to assist in the
education and recruitment of young students in the aspects of engineering careers. This is most often
promoted via programs called STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics). If not
educated of the possibilities in engineering helping society, young people are not armed with the
knowledge to make informed decisions of career paths open to them. Providing this vital service closes
the sustainability loop on trained professionals designing infrastructure needed for electrification.
12.4 RESOURCES FOR TRAINING IN SUBSTATION DESIGN

The following is a summary of resources to direct the reader in exploring basic and advanced training
programs and material. Various types or methods of training programs are available such as: instructor-
led classroom; instructor-led webinar; televised distance learning; self-taught on-line; continuing
education; and on-the-job training under a mentor. Various avenues are available such as: professional
groups (e.g. CIGRE, IEEE), manufacturers, consultants, universities, internal company training programs
and good reference books. Keep in mind that these are only a select few examples of programs
217
available. It is up to the reader to research and ensure the programmes are accredited, up-to-date,
and authorised to the standards governing local engineering practice. The focus is in basic substation
design, but other programs could be found in related areas for further professional development (i.e.
Transmission line design, distribution systems, project management, managing engineering risk,
minimising engineering liability exposure, construction contracts and law, specification writing, technical
writing, ethics, photovoltaic system design, integration of distributed energy resources (DER),
operational technologies and small wind energy systems.
Power Industry Professional Organisations:
 CIGRE (International Council on Large Electric Systems): technical publications such as
Technical Brochures, CIGRE Science & Engineering, Green Books [Reference Books], ELECTRA
Journal technical articles, Symposia and Sessions papers and proceedings https://e-cigre.org;
and
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): the IEEE PES (Power & Energy Society)
Resource Center offers tutorials on various subjects http://resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org/.
Specific reference books for training of substation designers:

This section has been specifically assembled in addition to the reference section (Appendix B) with
a specific focus upon providing designers with materials that could be referenced for further
learnings broadly associated to substation design:
 “Substations & Lines Equipment, Switchgear, Busways & Isolators”, by Sergio Feitoza Costa (
overview of design aspects, calculations, specifications , testing and performance simulation for
electrodynamic forces, temperature rise, power arcs, internal arc electromagnetic fields)
http://www.cognitor.com.br/Book_SE_SW_2013_ENG.pdf (free book);
 “Electric Power Substations Engineering” by John D. McDonald (overview of substations serving
as a reference guide for both industry and academia with detailed design information for electric
power engineering professionals emphasizing the practical application of technology);
 “Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing” by Paul Gill (covers all aspects of testing
and maintenance of the equipment found in electrical power systems serving industrial,
commercial, utility substations, and generating plants);
 “High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals” by John Kuffel, E. Kuffel and W.S. Zaengl (basics of
high voltage laboratory techniques and phenomena, including principles governing design of
high voltage insulation);
 “Practical Medium & High Voltage Testing of Electrical Equipment for Engineers and
Technicians” by IDC Technologies (covers various aspects of testing electrical equipment in
general and high voltage testing in particular);
 “Electrical Equipment Handbook: Troubleshooting and Maintenance ” by Philip Kiameh (covers
selection, applications, operations, diagnostic testing, troubleshooting and maintenance for all
capital equipment);
 “The Electric Power Engineering Handbook” (5 volume set) by Leonard L. Grigsby (covers recent
developments and rapid technological growth in crucial aspects of power systems, including
protection, dynamics and stability, operation, and control);
 “The Electrical Engineering Handbook” by Richard C. Dorf (definitive concise collection of key
concepts, models, and equations in the domains of: Circuits, Signals, Sensors, Electronics,
Power Electronics, Optoelectronics, Electromagnetics, Microwaves, Radar, Communications,
Computers, Software, Digital Devices, Systems, Controls, Energy, and Machines);
 “Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers” by H. Wayne Beaty and Donald Fink (source of
pertinent electrical engineering data essential to both engineering students and practicing
engineers offering comprehensive information on the generation, transmission, distribution,
control, operation, and application of electric power);
218
 “Handbook of Electric Power Calculations” by H. Wayne Beaty (offers electric power engineers
and technicians essential, step-by-step procedures for solving a wide array of electric power
problems);
 “McGraw-Hill's Engineering Companion” by Ejup Ganic and Tyler Hicks (desktop reference of
tables, formulas, charts, diagrams, figures, key methods and worked-out problems engineers
use in design);
 “Electrical Engineer's Portable Handbook” by Robert Hickey (practical handbook for use as a
field working tool for electrical engineers and technicians working in building power systems);
 “Ugly's Electrical References” by George V. Hart and Sammie Hart (on-the-job reference
containing the most commonly required electrical information used worldwide by electricians,
engineers, designers, contractors, maintenance workers, instructors, and the military);
 “Electrical Construction Databook” by Robert B. Hickey (all-in-one tool to minimise construction
risks and problems, avoid costly mistakes, work more efficiently, handle more projects without
outside help, reduce waste, cut cost, and maximise profits);
 “Transformers for the Electric Power Industry ” by Richard L. Bean, Nicholas Chackan Jr., Harold
R. Moore, and Edward C. Wentz of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation Power Transformer
Division (highly readable reference for a utility engineer that is not a transformer specialist but
needs to have a basic understanding of the inner workings of a power transformer; contains a
wealth of valuable information pertaining to realistic transformer designs) [out of print]; and
 “The Eskom Power Series” from Eskom (series of volumes promoting international best practices
to serve as a source of reliable, reputable, and highly technical information in such areas as
power lines, insulators, transformers, and power quality.
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13. CONCLUSION
This Technical Brochure has been developed with the purpose of building on a growing global initiative
to provide electrical infrastructure to developing countries in a far more cost-effective manner. It
provides substation designers with a reliable reference document as a practical resource to assist them
in the establishment of low cost substations intended for the electrification of developing communities.
The proper conclusion to end this Technical Brochure, as well as the work to date by WG B3.43, would
be to summarise and answer the question - “How does all the material presented here fulfil the objective
of providing practical guidance for designers in undeveloped, developing, and remote regions to produce
cost-effective, fit for purpose designs for substations?”
As background before answering, it has certainly established the need for such guidance in relating the
US National Academy of Engineering finding that electrification is the primary accomplishment that
changed the world and noting:
 The World Bank’s reporting that one in seven or 1.1 billion people in the world, mostly in sub-
Saharan Africa and developing Asia, live without access to electricity;
 The International Energy Agency (IEA) publication “Energy Access Outlook 2017” estimating
that 14% of the global population does not have access to electricity; and finally
 The United Nations 2012 proclamation of the “International Year of Sustainable Energy for All”
targeting universal energy access by 2030.
The main obstacles to electrification have been noted, such as low demand, low load density,
unaffordability by customers, poor infrastructure, high cost to develop infrastructure, political instability,
and economic risks such as assuring an adequate rate of return.
More importantly, the possible solutions to the obstacles have been noted, such as deploying designs
for low cost substations adaptable to specific local circumstances, technical support by professional
organisations, infrastructure development through private investment participation, and delivery of
scalable national development initiatives. All solutions will be needed to meet ambitious electrification
goals of 2030.
To assist with two of these solutions, guidance to design low cost substations and technical support by
professional organisations, Working Group 3.43 of CIGRE Study Committee B3 has identified and
developed opportunities to lower the cost and risk of new substation assets. This Working Group has
prepared this extensive Technical Brochure to document guidance for the design of cost-effective and
fit-for-purpose substations to provide electricity to those needing that basic service in developing
countries, as well as remote locations in these countries. It incorporates the expertise garnered from a
workshop attended by engineers from utilities in the targeted regions who are faced with these obstacles
daily. It contains input collected via a survey of relevant design practices to address these issues with
almost 60% of the results from targeted underdeveloped regions. Finally, it contains many months of
effort by the group’s members in researching, identifying, discussing, collaborating, and determining
the best-of-the-best currently available practices to recommend and documented here in this Technical
Brochure.
It should also be noted that this Technical Brochure also serves as an excellent guideline for cost-
effective substation deployment in developed countries where there are substantial capital cost
constraints. The IEA “Energy Access Outlook 2017” asserts that as many as 200 million people in
developed communities or 15% suffer from energy poverty [1]. This places a greater focus upon utilities
within developed communities to assure maximising value when delivering capital infrastructure. Even
in fully developed countries, the need to manage limited financial resources to the best of a company’s
abilities is always a priority. So the recommendations to lower costs and risks are also applicable for
utilities in developed countries.
So “How does all the material presented here fulfil the objective of providing practical guidance for
designers in undeveloped, developing, and remote regions to produce cost-effective, fit-for-purpose
designs for substations?”
 One answer found as a major recurring theme in the chapters on Design Philosophy and
Processes, is standardisation, which is the development and use of standard designs and
modular designs. It is a foregone conclusion that adopting design standards has an immense
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benefit in keeping costs low, in reducing risks, and providing value-added designs, which
translate into fit-for-purpose substations. This theme also runs through the majority of
chapters, all of which support this conclusion;
 In addition to the engineering benefits of standardisation, there are corresponding benefits in
the equipment and material costs associated with installing the substation. Just as having
standard designs saves time, labour and costs, so does having standard equipment that is used
in those designs by the engineers, and installed and maintained by the field personnel. The
Equipment Selection chapter bears this out;
 Purposeful attention in the design phase to Safety, Siting, Access, Construction, Operation,
Maintenance, Sustainability and Retirement of substation facilities will yield cost saving (or cost
avoidance) that can be reaped throughout it entire life cycle;
 The increased focus upon best practices in related non-design activities, such as Asset
Management, Costing, Project Management and procurement, also produce efficiencies that
result in lowering overall project and life cycle cost; and
 Finally, one can say that Training and Development of design practitioners will result in
competent professionals knowledgeable in the art and science of substation design. Designers
that will know how to question and challenge themselves continually to do their best to be cost-
effective and efficient creating designs for much needed infrastructure for electrification.
This Technical Brochure provides design engineers of developing countries with practical solutions for
the design, procurement, and installation of substations, enabling them to embrace the United Nations
vision of Electrification and deliver on their goal of “Sustainable Energy for All” by 2030”. This brochure
further provides engineering, manufacturing and construction concerns in the developed world with a
view of the maximising value-added workable solutions that are fit for purpose in the developing world.
Furthermore it provides a glimpse of how other countries solve similar problems in different ways, which
may or may not work for them.
The Technical Brochure also becomes the basis for an accompanying educational tutorial that describes
each element of the brochure. The Working Group, in preparing this brochure, has established sufficient
technical expertise to assist in training and mentoring designers in developing regions. The Tutorial is
available for presentation where and when needed to provide educational opportunities to actively
support development of substation infrastructure. The tutorial has been developed to provide a robust
introduction to the core concepts and could be expanded into workshops for design practitioners that
can span several days of intensive training through conducting case studies and developing design
capacity suited to specific regions.
Likewise, the brochure is a gateway to a comprehensive array of related technical reference material
that the working group has accumulated. The references in Appendix B provide a selection of relevant
materials which provide substantial detailed insights. Furthermore, the authors have made themselves
available to respond to and support designers – contact CIGRE to be placed into contact with the
authors.
The reader may be concerned over “what is contemporary in substation design?” and “what are the big
game changers in all this material?” Over the decades since the last major CIGRE all-inclusive guideline
on substation design Technical Brochure 161 “General Guidelines for Design of Substations” published
in August 2000 [9], there have been many contemporary solutions that have been developed and
implemented. To mention the major ones, there have been efforts to develop new SF 6/N2 gas mixtures
to minimise SF6 utilisation; mixed hybrid switchgear to reduce substation footprints; ester insulating oils
for environmental/fire-resistant benefits; 3D CAD and substation-specific software to ease design,
factory pre-fabricated control buildings to minimise site work and commissioning, digital microprocessor
intelligent electronic devices (IED’s) to replace maintenance-intensive electromechanical relays; IEC
61850 with LAN and fiber optic technology to eliminate copper cabling, optical ground wire (OPGW) for
relaying and communication; optical instrument transformers to replace the heavier copper winding/iron
core devices; copper-clad steel conductor to virtually eliminate copper theft; on-line condition monitors
for real-time “health assessment” of major equipment; high temperature conductors to maximise power
transmission, infrared (IR) temperature scanning to identify problems generating hot spots, real-time
cloud based video capture for physical security, and active lightning protection to reduce shield wires
222
to name a few big changes. Most of these “contemporary solutions” are identified within each of the
chapters related to both technical (e.g., equipment and siting) and project (e.g., project management
and costing) implementation. For what is not covered here due to limited scope and space constraints,
can be readily found elsewhere in many utility industry and professional engineering reservoirs of
knowledge.
With all this said, it is important to note that what may work best for low-cost substation design solutions
in developing countries may be the good old fashioned, tried-and-true, simpler methods that worked
reliably well for the past decades. The contemporary, present-day, state-of-the-art solutions may not
be the best nor lowest-cost. However, the opposite may also be true in that newer solutions may be
better than older ones in the long run considering the whole lifecycle of the substation. The more
appropriate conclusion and guideline may be that there is no one solution applicable to every situation,
rather that every situation must be studied for the appropriate solution. That, as should be well known,
is the primary job of the design engineer.
This technical brochure has been designed to support substation design engineers with valuable
hindsight of seasoned professionals to avoid a number of less obvious pitfalls experienced throughout
the lifecycle. The authors wish to avert design engineers saying, "If only I had done this during the
design stage ...". Designers should avert the legacy philosophy and thinking where one could easily
become polarised and locked into a specific view driven by the environment that they find themselves
within”. This technical brochure is not meant to accentuate a single technology over another, as this
could result in failure. Instead the objective is to provide a broad range of considerations. It is important
to recognise that the technical brochure is not a panacea for all considerations. Readers should consider
that the concept of substation is fluid and significant changes could occur over time. There is only one
key area where designers should lock into a unified approach and this is to ensure that the philosophy
and the process for design is well-aligned and optimal to save cost, which in fact represents savings
through avoided cost. Most short-term failures in substation design are due to programme and schedule
and most long term failures were derived from the inability to take a life-cycle approach from the concept
combined with sub-optimal technology selection or configuration. Short-termism in utility thinking
needs to be avoided by considering the lifetime ownership of the substation.
Collectively, the outputs of this Working Group (the Technical Brochure, Tutorial, and Technical
Expertise and References) have established a foundation for further opportunities to develop future
working groups directed toward humanitarian endeavours and developing nations. Other possibilities
may be needed, such as mini/micro grid, off-grid, and no-grid provisions for electrification in a capital
constrained developing economy, and the development of rapidly deployable electricity infrastructure
for large refugee camps due to natural disasters or internal conflicts.
Figure 13-1 – WGB3.43 conducting site assessment in South Africa
223
224
DEFINITIONS, ABREVIATIONS AND

SYMBOLS
A.1. GENERAL TERMS
App A Table 1 – 1 Definition of general terms used in this TB
Acronym Phrase Definition

TB Technical Brochure A publication produced by CIGRÉ representing the
state-of-the-art guidelines and recommendations
produced by an SC WG. Hardcopy TBs can be
purchased 0, or Individual Members, or staff of a
Collective Member can download the PDF for free
using their login credentials (copyright restrictions
for use within their own CIGRE Membership only)
SC Study Committee One of the 16 technical domain groups of CIGRE
WG Working Group A group formed by a SC to develop a TB on a
particular subject of interest
A.2. SPECIFIC TERMS

App A Table 2 – Definition of technical terms used in this TB
The first column of this reference table provides, where referenced, the IEC Electrotechnical Electronic
Vocabulary and is in the form xxx-yy-zz.
Acronym / Phrase Definition
IEC Ref
Number
AV Abnormal Vehicle A vehicle for carrying an indivisible (for practical
purposes) object that, due to its dimensions and/or
mass, cannot be transported on a vehicle or vehicles
without exceeding the limitations or mass as
described in the National Road Traffic Regulations
605-02-32 Acoustic enclosure An enclosure (partial or total) made of sound
absorbing material that surrounds a transformer in
order to reduce its emitted noise
466-01-17 Aeolian vibration The periodic motion of a conductor induced by the
wind predominantly in a vertical plane, of relatively
high frequency of the order of ten or tens Hz and
small amplitude, of the order of the conductor
diameter.
ALARA / As Low As Reasonably Acceptable (or Acronyms for safety and risk management
ALARP Achievable) / ALARP As Low As
Reasonably Practicable
605-03-11 Auxiliary switchboard Panel (or a cubicle) on which are fixed the devices
necessary to control, to protect and to distribute
auxiliary AC and DC supplies within a substation
605-02-46 Auxiliary transformer In a substation, a transformer intended to provide
supply to the auxiliary equipment
603-05-04 Availability (Circuit) The state of an item of being able to perform its
required function.
dB(A) A-weighted decibel Sound pressure is measured in decibels (dB) different
weighting curves can be applied A-weighting is now
commonly used for the measurement of
environmental noise and industrial noise
225

IEC Ref
Number
BIL Basic Insulation Level Basic Insulation Level (BIL) is level designed to
withstand surge voltages such as lightning impulse.
605-02-09 Bay (of a substation) The part of a substation within which the switchgear
and control-gear relating to a given circuit is
contained. Note: “According to the type of circuit, a
substation may include: feeder bays, transformer
bays, busbar coupler bays.
BoM Bill of Materials Schedule of materials required for a project.
BoQ Bill of quantities Schedule of quantities of materials required for a
project.
BIM Building Information Model A design approach based on the use of digital models
with the intention of developing a full digital copy of
the physical installation which can provide a single
source of all information associated with the asset.
2D drawings are created from the models.
N/A Brownfield It is work done at, on or to existing infrastructure
which needs to be demolished, renovated or
modified
601-01-33 Bulk power system / BPS Portion of the electric power system comprising the
(abbreviation) / bulk electricity system facilities used for the generation and transmission of
/ BES (abbreviation) electric energy. Note 1 – The extent of the bulk
power system is usually limited to the means for
production and transmission of electric energy to
major industrial and distribution centers. Note 2 – In
English, the term "composite system" is also used for
this concept.
N/A Bund An Enclosure of equipment capable of
holding liquids that may escape from the vessels and
pipes within the bund wall.
605-02-40 Bus coupler (circuit-breaker) In a substation a circuit-breaker which is located
between two busbars and which permits the busbars
to be coupled; it may be associated with selectors in
case of more than two busbars
605-02-01 Busbar A low impedance conductor to which several electric
circuits can be separately connected
605-02-08 Busbar section The part of a busbar located between two switching
devices (or disconnector(s) put in series or between
a switching device and the end of the busbar
605-02-45 Busbar section disconnector A disconnector which is connected in series between
two busbar sections, in order to disconnect them
from each other
605-02-27 Cable duct (in a substation) A conduit laid in the ground and intended to enable
secondary, auxiliary and control cables to be drawn
through within a substation
605-02-26 Cable trough (in a substation) A channel intended to enable secondary, auxiliary
and control cables to be laid within a substation
601-02-28 Circuit (in electric power systems) Electric line, or part of it, which can be taken out of
service, automatically or manually, by circuit-
breakers or switches, independently of the other
portions of the line
605-03-14 Common battery Within a substation, a battery which is intended to
supply the control, monitoring and protection
equipment relating to all circuits
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IEC Ref
Number
CAD Computer-aided design; Computer- CAD, or computer-aided design and drafting (CADD),
aided drafting; Computer-aided is the use of computer technology for design and
drafting design documentation. CAD software replaces
manual drafting with an automated process.
195-01-07 Conductor Conductive part intended to carry a specified electric
current.
N/A Configuration (of a Substation) Selection of an appropriate busbar design for a
substation e.g. single busbar, double busbar and so
forth.
N/A Constructability The optimum use of construction knowledge and
experience in planning, design, procurement and
field operations to achieve overall project objectives
i.e. the “buildability” in the construction industry.
471-01-04 Creepage distance (Insulation) Shortest distance or the sum of the shortest
distances along the surface on an insulator between
two conductive parts which normally have the
operating voltage between them. Note 1 –The
surface of cement or of any other non-insulating
jointing material is not considered as forming part of
the creepage distance. Note 2 – If a high resistance
coating is applied to parts of the insulating part of an
insulator, such parts are considered to be effective
insulating surfaces and the distance over them is
included in the creepage distance.
N/A Design life The required duration the substation will be in
operation
N/A Design-bid-build A project is designed by the owner, such as a utility
using its internal engineering staff, and then the
owner tenders bids and contracts with a separate
entity for the construction
605-02-07 Disconnectable busbar a busbar including disconnector(s) in series intended
to connect or disconnect two sections of that busbar,
off load
617-04-20 Distributed Energy Resources Generators (with their auxiliaries, protection and
DER connection equipment), including loads having a
generating mode (such as electrical energy storage
systems), connected to a low-voltage or a medium-
voltage network.
605-01-17 Double busbar substation A substation in which the lines and transformers are
connected via two busbars by means of selectors
N/A Dynamic (line) ratings The aim of dynamic line rating is to safely utilise
existing transmission lines transmission capacity
based on real conditions in which power lines
operate. A crucial difference between static and
dynamic line rating is that “static current” is
calculated based on rather conventional atmospheric
conditions while dynamic line rating takes into
account actual atmospheric conditions which most of
the time offer better cooling and thus allow higher
“dynamic” current, contributing to improve safety.
195-01-03 Earth (local) / ground (local) (US) Part of the Earth which is in electric contact with an
earth electrode and the electric potential of which is
not necessarily equal to zero
227

IEC Ref
Number
195-04-14 Earth fault / ground fault (US) Occurrence of an accidental conductive path
between a live conductor and the Earth. Note – The
conductive path can pass through a faulty insulation,
through structures (e.g. poles, scaffoldings, cranes,
ladders), or through vegetation (e.g. trees, bushes)
and can have a significant impedance.
195-02-20 Earthing arrangement / grounding Earthing system (deprecated). All the electric
arrangement (US) / earth/ground grid connections and devices involved in the earthing of a
system, an installation and equipment.
605-02-43 Earthing switch In a substation, a special disconnector which is
intended to connect phase conductors to earth for
safety purposes
195-02-34 Earthing switch / grounding switch Mechanical switching device for earthing parts of an
(US) electric circuit, capable of withstanding for a
specified duration electric currents under abnormal
conditions such as those of short-circuit, but not
required to carry electric current under normal
conditions of the electric circuit. Note – An earthing
switch can have a short-circuit making capacity.
N/A Electrical Primary Design Specification and selection of the various items of
primary equipment as defined in IEV 605-02. Layout
design of the primary equipment items and the
interconnections between them to meet specified
performance requirements and electrical and
working clearances.
601-01-02 Electric power network Particular installations, substations, lines or cables
for the transmission and distribution of electricity.
Note – The boundaries of the different parts of this
network are defined by appropriate criteria, such as
geographical situation, ownership, voltage.
601-01-01 Electric power system / electricity All installations and plant provided for the purpose of
supply system (in a broad sense) generating, transmitting and distributing electricity
195-01-19 Electric resistivity of soil Resistivity of a typical sample of soil
N/A Electrical Secondary Design Specification and selection of the various items of
secondary equipment as defined in IEV 605-02 and of
protection items as defined in IEV 448. Layout design
of the secondary equipment items and the
interconnections between them and configuration
and selection of appropriate settings for protection
relays to meet specified performance requirements
and appropriate provision for maintenance and
testing.
617-04-09 Embedded generation / Distributed Generation of electric energy by multiple sources
DG generation / Dispersed generation which are connected to the power distribution
system.
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the branch of
electrical engineering concerned with the
unintentional generation, propagation and reception
of electromagnetic energy which may cause
unwanted effects such as electromagnetic
interference (EMI) or even physical damage in
operational equipment.
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning System Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a process by
which a company manages and integrates the
228

IEC Ref
Number
important parts of its business. An ERP management
information system integrates areas such as
planning, purchasing, inventory, sales, marketing,
finance and human resources.
ESIA / EIA / Environmental and Safety / Social A process for predicting and assessing the potential
EIMP Impact Assessment / Environmental environmental and social impacts of a proposed
Impact Management Plan project, evaluating alternatives and designing
appropriate mitigation, management and monitoring
measures
601-02-08 Feeder An electric line originating at a main substation and
supplying one or more secondary substations. Note
– The term "feeder" formerly used in French is
deprecated.
605-02-10 Feeder bay in a substation, the bay relating to a feeder or a link
to a transformer, a generator or another substation
605-02-38 Feeder circuit-breaker In a substation, a circuit-breaker which is located
within a feeder bay and through which a feeder can
be energised
605-02-44 Feeder disconnector A disconnector which is located in series at the end
of a feeder, within a substation bay, in order to
isolate the feeder from the system
FIDIC FIDIC Contracts FIDIC is a French language acronym for Fédération
Internationale Des Ingénieurs-Conseils, which means
the international federation of consulting engineers.
It was started in 1913 by the trio of France, Belgium
and Switzerland. The United Kingdom joined the
Federation in 1949. FIDIC is headquartered in
Switzerland and now boasts of membership from
over 60 different countries. Over the years, FIDIC has
become famous for its secondary activity of
producing standard form contracts for the
construction and engineering industry.
FIDIC published its first contract, titled The Form of
contract for works of Civil Engineering construction,
in 1957. As the title indicated, this first contract was
aimed at the Civil Engineering sector and it soon
became known for the colour of its cover, and thus,
The Red Book. It has become the tradition that FIDIC
contracts are known in popular parlance by the
colour of their cover.
605-02-31 Fire protection wall In a substation, a wall erected between two items of
equipment usually oil-filled to prevent the spread of
fire from one to the other
605-02-22 Flexible busbar A substation busbar which is made up with flexible
conductors
FEED Front End Engineering Design Basic Engineering which is conducted after
completion of Conceptual Design or Feasibility Study.
At this stage, before start of EPC (Engineering,
Procurement and Construction), various studies take
place to figure out technical issues and estimate
rough investment cost.
605-02-14 Gas insulated metal-enclosed A substation which is made up with only gas insulated
substation metal enclosed switchgear
229

IEC Ref
Number
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Is a legal agreement between many countries, whose
Trade overall purpose was to promote international trade
by reducing or eliminating trade barriers. Its purpose
is the substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade
barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a
reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis.
N/A Global budget The sum of all the costs of each activity in order to
end up with a single costs that combine all of the
estimated costs of the project.
Grading (Civil) The work of ensuring a level base, or one with a
specified slope, for a construction work such as a
foundation, the base course for a road, surface
drainage, or other civil structure.
N/A Greenfield It is work which is not following on prior work, i.e. a
project on unused lands where there is no need to
remodel or demolish existing structures
601-01-27 High voltage (abbreviation: HV) 1) In a general sense, the set of voltage levels in
excess of low voltage. 2) In a restrictive sense, the
set of upper voltage levels used in power systems for
bulk transmission of electricity – in this TB 66 kV and
above.
HMI Human-machine-interface It is the user interface that connects an operator to
the controller for an industrial system.
IED Intelligent Electronic Device A term used in the electric power industry to describe
microprocessor-based controllers of power system
equipment, such as circuit-breakers, transformers
and capacitor banks.
IEC International Electrotechnical The International Electrotechnical Commission is the
Commission international standards and conformity assessment
body for all fields of electrotechnology
605-02-15 Indoor substation A substation sheltered from external weather
conditions by being installed within a building
442-09-01 Insulation co-ordination Mutual correlation of insulation characteristics of
electric equipment taking into account the expected
micro-environment and other influencing stresses.
[SOURCE: IEC 60664-1:2007, 3.1]
N/A Integrated Resource Planning Plan for meeting forecasted annual peak and energy
demand, plus some established reserve margin,
through a combination of supply-side and demand-
side resources over a specified future period.
ICNIRP International Commission on Non- Sets limits for the electric and magnetic fields
ionising Radiation
CISPR International Special Committee on Sets standards for controlling electromagnetic

Radio Interference interference in and from electrical and electronic
devices, and is a part of the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
605-02-17 Kiosk substation A compact substation, often prefabricated and used
only for distribution purposes
LAN/WAN Local Area Network / Wide Area LAN is a group of computers and network devices
Network connected together, usually within the same
building. A WAN connects several LANs, and may be
230

IEC Ref
Number
limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an
organisation) or accessible to the public.
N/A Level A horizontal plane or line with respect to the distance
above or below a given point; the same height at all
places
LCC Lifecycle Cost(ing) The initial capital outlay cost is, however, only a
portion of the costs over an asset's life cycle that
needs to be considered in making the right choice for
asset investment. The process of identifying and
documenting all the costs involved over the life of an
asset is known as Life Cycle Costing (LCC).
LMV Light motor vehicle Vehicles including motorcars, pickup trucks, delivery
vans for personal use only
195-04-16 Line-to-line short-circuit Short-circuit between two or more line conductors,
combined or not with a line-to-earth short-circuit at
the same place
601-01-26 Low voltage (abbreviation: LV) A set of voltage levels used for the distribution of
electricity and whose upper limit is generally
accepted to be 1 000 V for alternating current
605-02-03 Main busbar in a double (or triple) busbar substation, any busbar
which is used under normal conditions
N/A Maintenance Availability Availability during maintenance analysis of the ability
of the substation configuration to maintain feeders
energised during maintenance of disconnectors and
circuit-breakers.
605-01-09 Manned substation A substation which is locally operated by personnel
working within the substation
601-01-28 Medium voltage (abbreviation: MV) Any set of voltage levels lying between low and high
(not used in the UK in this sense, nor in voltage. Note – The boundaries between medium-
Australia) and high-voltage levels overlap and depend on local
circumstances and history or common usage.
Nevertheless the band 30 kV to 100 kV frequently
contains the accepted boundary – in this TB voltages
from 11 kV to 33 kV.
605-03-03 Mimic diagram /wall diagram An arrangement of symbols representing the current
state of switchgear and lines of a substation
(network) and which may be updateable and may
have control functions
N/A Mixed technology gas-insulated Compact switchgear assemblies consisting of at least
circuit-breakers one switching device directly connected to, or
sharing components with, one or more other devices
such that there is an interaction between the
functions of the individual devices.
601-03-10 Neutral The designation of any conductor, terminal or any
element connected to the neutral point of a
polyphase system
601-01-21 Nominal voltage of a system A suitable approximate value of voltage used to
designate or identify a system
NII Non-intrusive inspection Non-Intrusive Inspection (NII) refers to inspecting
assets, such as pressure vessels, tanks or other
equipment with minimal or no interruption to their
operation, i.e. without having to take the equipment
off line.
231

IEC Ref
Number
N/A Offline Maintenance Maintenance of plant whereby the system has to be
de-energised to enable execution of maintenance.
605-02-30 Oil leakage sump A receptacle which is intended to receive the oil of a
transformer or other oil filled equipment in case of
leakage
605-01-25 One-and-a-half breaker arrangement A double busbar substation where, for two circuits,
three circuit-breakers are connected in series
between the two busbars, the circuits being
connected on each side of the central circuit-breaker
605-02-13 Open-type substation A substation in which the insulation to earth and
between phase conductors is mainly provided by air
at atmospheric pressure and in which some live parts
are not enclosed. Note: “An open-type substation
may be indoor or outdoor.
O&M Operation and Maintenance The part of the asset lifecycle whereby it is operated
to provide services or outputs to performance
specifications. This includes intervals whereby it is
maintained to continue to provide performance to
specification.
N/A Operational Flexibility Analysis of the ability of the substation configuration
to allow feeders to be rearranged or the substation
to be split into two or more parts.
N/A Optioneering A formal process of fully comparing a number of
possible approaches to meeting a design
requirement to maximise the chances of the most
appropriate option being selected for
implementation.
OEM Original equipment manufacturer Origin of equipment manufacture – supplied by the
original equipment manufacturer.
605-02-16 Outdoor substation A substation which is designed and installed to
withstand external weather conditions
601-03-04 Overhead line An electric line whose conductors are supported
above ground, generally by means of insulators and
appropriate supports. Note – Certain overhead lines
may also be constructed with insulated conductors.
601-01-16 Peak load Maximum value of load during a given period of time,
e.g. a day, a month, a year
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
601-03-09 Phase The designation of any conductor, bundle of
conductors, terminal, winding or any other element
of a polyphase system, which is intended to be
energised under normal use
601-01-31 Phase to earth voltage / line to ground The voltage between phase and earth
voltage (US)
601-01-30 Phase to neutral voltage / line to The voltage between a phase in a polyphase system
neutral voltage (US) and the neutral point
601-01-29 Phase to phase voltage / line to line The voltage between phases
voltage (US)
605-02-24 Phase-to-earth clearance The minimum distance between any live parts and all
structures at earth potential
605-02-23 Phase-to-phase clearance The minimum distance between live parts of two
adjacent phases taking into account all operating
conditions
232

IEC Ref
Number
N/A Pickup truck A light duty truck having an enclosed cab and an open
cargo area with low sides and tailgate. In many cases
the cargo area is enclosed to create a secure storage
area.
448-14-31 (Plant) overload protection (scheme) Protection intended to operate in the event of
POPS overload on the protected section.
601-03-11 Pole (of an equipment) In certain types of equipment such as switchgear, the
part corresponding to one of the phases in
alternating current or to one of the polarities in direct
current. Note – According to the number of poles
within the equipment, it is called: single-pole
equipment, two-pole equipment.
605-02-19 Pole-mounted substation An outdoor distribution substation mounted on one
or more poles
pH Potential of Hydrogen A figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution on a logarithmic scale on which 7 is neutral,
lower values are more acid and higher values more
alkaline.
195-01-14 (Power) system earthing / (power) Functional earthing and protective earthing of a
system grounding (US) point or points in an electric power system
N/A Power system protection Provisions for detecting faults or other abnormal
conditions in a power system, for enabling fault
clearance, for terminating abnormal conditions, and
for initiating signals or indications.
RAMS Reliability, availability, maintainability Reliability is a product's or system's ability to perform
and safety/supportability a specific function and may be given as design
reliability or operational reliability. Availability is the
ability of a system to be kept in a functioning state.
Maintainability is determined by the ease with which
the product or system can be repaired or maintained.
Safety is the requirement not to harm people, the
environment, or any other assets during a system's
life cycle.
605-02-04 Reserve busbar In a double (or triple) busbar substation, any busbar
which is used under abnormal conditions. It is
generally less well equipped than a main busbar
N/A Right-of-way The legal right, established by usage or grant, to pass
along a specific route through grounds or property
belonging to another
605-02-21 Rigid busbar A substation busbar which is made up with metallic
tubes or bars and which is supported by insulator
posts. Note: “The busbar may be in the form of a self-
supporting bridge construction.
605-01-19 Ring substation A single busbar substation in which the busbar is
formed as a closed loop with only disconnectors in
series within the loop
N/A Route Choice of roads taken to get to a destination
SAS Substation Automation System SAS provides protection, control, automation,
monitoring, and communication capabilities as a part
of a comprehensive substation control and
monitoring solution.
N/A Seismic events/activity Seismic activity is defined as the types, frequency and
size of earthquakes that happen over a period of time
in a certain area.
233

IEC Ref
Number
605-02-42 Selector switch disconnector In a double or triple busbar substation, a
disconnector which is intended to connect a primary
circuit (line, transformer, etc.) to one of the busbars
N/A Service life / Technical Life The total period of useful life or the period a piece of
equipment is expected to be in service before it has
to be replaced. It is a function of the company’s
business policy with regard to operating,
maintenance and reliability considerations
603-05-03 Service Security. Analysis of a substation configuration in terms of
availability of supply to the network. The capability
of a power system at a given moment in time to
perform its supply function in the case of a fault
195-04-11 Short-circuit Accidental or intentional conductive path between
two or more conductive parts forcing the electric
potential differences between these conductive
parts to be equal to or close to zero
601-01-14 Short-circuit power The product of the current in the short-circuit at a
point of a system and a conventional voltage,
generally the operating voltage
SiD Safety in Design A process conducted to assure maximisation of
safety of system during design phase.
692-05-02 Single (Credible) Contingency Outage occurrence caused by only one system
component.
605-01-16 Single busbar substation A substation in which the lines and transformers are
connected to one busbar only
601-02-04 Single-line diagram A system diagram in which the polyphase links are
represented by their equivalent single line
SUV Sport Utility Vehicle A type of vehicle similar in design to a station wagon,
built to ride of the chassis of a light truck
605-01-01 Substation (of a power system) The part of a power system, concentrated in a given
place, including mainly the terminations of
transmission or distribution lines switchgear and
housing and which may also include transformers. It
generally includes facilities necessary for system
security and control (e.g. the protective devices).
Note “According to the nature of the system within
which the substation is included, a prefix may qualify
it. Examples: transmission substation (of a
transmission system), distribution substation, 400 kV
substation, 20 kV substation.
601-03-02 Substation (of a power system) A part of an electrical system, confined to a given
area, mainly including ends of transmission or
distribution lines, electrical switchgear and
controlgear, buildings and transformers. A
substation generally includes safety or control
devices (for example protection). Note – The
substation can be qualified according to the
designation of the system of which it forms a part.
Examples: transmission, substation (transmission
system), distribution substation, 400 kV or 20 kV
substation.
605-02-34 Substation control room / control A room of a substation in which are located facilities
building necessary to monitor and control substation items
234

IEC Ref
Number
605-02-20 Substation structures The assembly of rigid frameworks either for hanging
conductors or for supporting conductors or
switchgear and other apparatus
605-02-06 Switchable busbar A busbar including a switch (or a circuit-breaker) in
series, intended to connect or disconnect two
sections of that busbar
N/A Switchgear building Building or other housing solely designed to house
indoor switchgear
605-01-02 Switching substation A substation which includes switchgear and usually
busbars, but no power transformers
601-02-06 System configuration A permanent or temporary grouping of similar or
dissimilar individual system patterns
601-02-01 System diagram A topological representation of a system in which the
information content depends on a specific
requirement
601-02-21 Tapped (tee off) substation A single supply substation fed from a single branch
line
605-02-05 Transfer busbar A back-up busbar to which any circuit can be
connected independently of its bay equipment
(circuit-breaker, instrument transformer), the
control of this circuit being ensured by another
specific bay, available for any circuit
605-01-03 Transformer substation A substation containing power transformers
interconnecting two or more networks of different
voltages
617-02-11 Transmission System / Network Party operating a transmission system.
Operator
605-01-18 Triple busbar substation A substation in which the lines and transformers are
connected via three busbars by means of selectors
605-01-24 Two-breaker arrangement A double busbar substation in which the selectors are
circuit-breakers
601-03-05 Underground cable An electric line with insulated conductors buried
directly in the ground, or laid in cable ducts, pipes,
and troughs. Note – The same expression is used to
describe the item physically.
605-02-18 Underground substation / vault A substation which is built to operate underground
substation
605-01-10 Unmanned substation A substation which is operated by personnel who are
not stationed at the substation
N/A Unserved energy The amount of end-customer demand (measured in
megawatt hours) that cannot be supplied due to a
network deficiency resulting in forced load shedding
601-01-25 Voltage level One of the nominal voltage values used in a given
system
605-03-07 Wiring (secondary wiring) All the wires and connections necessary to connect
together and to supply all the separate protection,
control and monitoring components within a
substation
605-02-25 Working clearance The minimum safe distance to be observed between
normally exposed live parts and any person working
in a substation
235
A.3. SYMBOLS
App A Table 3 – General symbols used in this TB
Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol

Circuit-breaker – Circuit-breaker - Circuit-breaker
General Open - Closed
Disconnector CT (a) CT (b)
Power VT (a) VT (b)

Transformer -2-
winding
Power Generator G Motor M
Transformer -3-
winding
Delta-Star
Transformer
236
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CIGRE, 2013, p. 309.
239
[49] CIGRE WGB3.03, Technical Brochure 253 - Substations Physical Security Trends, Paris: CIGRE,
2004, p. 25.
[50] IEEE Power and Energy Society, IEEE Guide for the Design, Construction, and Operation of
Electric Power Substations for Community Acceptance and Environmental Compatibility, New
York: IEEE, 2013, p. 50.
[51] IEC TC 10 - Fluids for electrotechnical applications, IEC 60480:2004 - Guidelines for the
checking and treatment of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) taken from electrical equipment and
specification for its re-use, Geneva: IEC, 2004, p. 67.
[52] International Erosion Control Association (Australasia), “Publications Page of International

Erosion Control Association (Australasia),” [Online]. Available:
https://www.austieca.com.au/publications.
[53] ICNIRP, “ICNIRP Guidelines for limiting exposure to time varying electric and magnetic fields
(1 Hz to 100 kHz) 2010,” 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www.icnirp.org/cms/upload/publications/ICNIRPLFgdl.pdf..
[54] ICNIRP, “EMF Limits on radio communications equipment,” [Online]. Available:

http://www.icnirp.org/cms/upload/publications/ICNIRPemfgdl.pdf.
[55] CIGRE TB719 C4.24/CIRED, “Technical Brochure 719 - Power Quality and EMC Issues with
Future Electricity Networks,” CIGRE, Paris, 2018.
[56] Australian Standards, Limits of electromagnetic interference from overhead a.c. powerlines and
high voltage equipment installations in the frequency range 0.15 MHz to 3000 MHz, Sydney:
Australian Standards, 2016, p. 16.
[57] Project Management Institute, A GUIDE TO THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT BODY OF

KNOWLEDGE 5th EDITION, Pennsylvania: Project Management Institute, 2013, p. 616.
[58] The Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand Incorporated,, IPENZ Constructability,
Practice Note 13, April 2008.
[59] CIGRE WGB3.31, “Technical Brochure 614 - Air Insulated Substation Design for Severe
Conditions,” CIGRE, Paris, 2015.
[60] CIGRE WG B3.21, “Technical Brochure 439 - Turnkey Substations,” CIGRE, Paris, 2010.
[61] CIGRE WGB3.20, “Technical Brochure 390 - Evaluation of Different Switchgear Technologies
(AIS/MTS/GIS) for Rated Voltages of 52kV and Above,” CIGRE, Paris, 2009.
[62] CIGRE WG A2.34, “Technical Brochure 445 - Guide for Transformer Maintenance,” CIGRE, Paris,
2011.
[63] IEC TC 17 / SC 17A, “EC 62271-100:2008 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Part 100:
Alternating-current circuit-breakers,” IEC, Geneva, 2008.
[64] C. Pontes, S. Feitoza Costa, M. Costa, H. Henriques, J. Carlos O. Aires and M. Fortes,
“Thermodynamic models and three-dimensional analysis for determination of Load Limits
Transformers,” IEEE Latin America Transactions, 2013.
[65] CIGRE WG B3.32, Technical Brochure 532 - Substation Upgrading and Uprating, Paris: CIGRE,
2013, p. 132.
240
[66] Department of Energy, USA, Quadrennial Energy Review Report - Second Instalment, Vols.
Chapter 4 - Ensuring Electricity System Reliability, Security, and Resilience, DOE, 2017, p. 514.
[67] CIGRE WG B5.18, “Technical Brochure 329 - Guidelines for specification and evaluation of
substation automation systems,” CIGRE, Paris, 2007.
[68] CIGRE WG B5.11, “Technical Brochure 326 - The Introduction of IEC 61850 and its impact on
protection and automation within substations,” CIGRE, Paris, 2007.
[69] CIGRE WG B5.07, “Technical Brochure 246 - The automation of new and existing substations -
why and how?,” CIGRE, Paris, 2004.
[70] CIGRE WG B5.32, “Technical Brochure 401 - Functional Testing of IEC 61850 Based Systems,”
CIGRE, Paris, 2009.
[71] CIGRE WG B5.13, “Technical Brochure 404 - Acceptable Functional Integration In HV

[72] CIGRE WG D2.22, “Technical Brochure 419 - Treatment of Information Security for Electric
Power Utilities (EPUs),” CIGRE, Paris, 2010.
[73] CIGRE WG B5.38, “Technical Brochure 427 - The Impact of Implementing Cyber Security
Requirements using IEC 61850,” CIGRE, Paris, 2010.
[74] CIGRE WG B5.06, “Technical Brochure 464 - Maintenance Strategies for Digital Substation
Automation Systems,” CIGRE, Paris, 2011.
[75] CIGRE WG B5.12, “Technical Brochure 466 - Engineering Guidelines for IEC 61850 Based Digital
SAS,” CIGRE, Paris, 2011.
[76] CIGRE WG D2.28, “Technical Brochure 507 - Communication Architecture for IP-based
Substation Applications,” CIGRE, Paris, 2012.
[77] CIGRE WG B5.36, “Technical Brochure 540 - IEC 61850 Standard to Protection Schemes,”
CIGRE, Paris, 2013.
[78] CIGRE Joint WGB5/D2.46, “Technical Brochure 603 - APPLICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF
CYBERSECURITY MEASURES FOR PROTECTION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS,” CIGRE, Paris, 2014.
[79] CIGRE WG D2.31, “Technical Brochure 615 - Security architecture principles for digital systems
in Electric Power Utilities,” CIGRE, Paris, 2015.
[80] CIGRE WG B5.39, “Technical Brochure 628 - Documentation Requirements Throughout the
Lifecycle of Digital Substation Automation Systems,” CIGRE, Paris, 2015.
241
242
TECHNICAL SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF

RESULTS
The scope of this appendix is to briefly describe the Working Group’s (WG) activities related to the
research accomplished by the technical survey. It will also give the reader insight on the source of the
related information and on how it should be interpreted and used. WG volunteers formed a smaller
sub-group or team to handle the technical survey. The two main phases were: 1) conducting the
survey, and 2) analysing the results. This discussion of these activities is followed by a copy of the
complete survey and documentation of all derived results. Note that the survey questionnaire is free
to use in part or in full for research conducted by future CIGRE working groups or technical committees.
Regarding the timeline of the process, drafting of the questionnaire started during December 2105 with
the survey opening for use some during April 2106. By April 2017 no more responses were received
and data processing needed to proceed so that the WG Technical Brochure (TB) authors could
commence writing. The completion of documenting results ended during December 2017.
C.1 PURPOSE
The purpose of the technical survey conducted by Working Group B3.43 was to assist in achieving its
objective, which according to its Terms of Reference is to identify and discuss opportunities to lower
the cost and risk of new substation assets, and establish recommendations and guidance for the design,
construction, operation and maintenance of low-cost substations based on currently available
equipment.
One key element of the working group’s approved scope directly related to fulfilling its assigned
objectives was to “conduct a survey of practices around the world for relevant high voltage and medium
voltage installations”. Another scope element to “seek engagement from organisations operating in the
target regions with specialist expertise in deploying electricity substation infrastructure” was partially
fulfilled via the technical survey activity. In summary, the technical survey was one of the working
group’s tools to do research.
C.2 SURVEY METHODOLOGY

The following describes the basic steps taken by the Working Group (WG) in the survey process. It
should be noted that the CIGRE on-line Knowledge Management System (KMS), utilising the Confluence
team collaboration software, was used successfully for all related activities.
Sample Population: The WG identified the target survey population of interest as entities involved in
the electric power industry globally, and then select potential respondents to sample from the following
sub-groups: utilities, consultants, and manufacturers. Coverage of this target population of all types of
international organisations ensured a balanced outreach to avoid selection bias. Note that all utilities,
whether in developed, developing, and underdeveloped regions, were included regardless of size or
country.
Survey Delivery Method: Due to the global reach intended, a questionnaire was determined to be
the best data collection instrument to use. The method to use would be direct e-mail the questionnaire
to the targeted population. An on-line, cloud-based survey development software service company
(such as Survey Monkey) was considered. But this was not pursued because it was deemed more
difficult for respondents to fill out an on-line form in a continuous session than to work on a copy of the
survey at their convenience. All members of the WG would participate in the distribution of the survey
to known potential respondents. A list of potential responders was generated. Also, the questionnaire
was sent for wider distribution inside CIGRE B3 Study Committees (SC) requesting that members
circulate it to the local utilities to attract a wider pool of participants. The survey was to be presented
in English, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic, as directed in the document on “Clarification of WG
Objectives and Deliverables”. It was decided that the final survey would not be translated to the
Portuguese and Arabic languages. Collecting responses would also be via e-mail to be sent to a single-
point central recipient on the survey sub-group (although responses received in any fashion were gladly
taken). Contact information was provided in the questionnaire for respondents who wanted to provide
further details via telephone or e-mail if they wanted to do so; however, no such contacts occurred. To
encourage participation, the questionnaire stated that results were to be shared with those who replied.
243
Questionnaire Construction: With the intent to produce reliable and valid results, a first draft was
prepared by the WG survey team. Microsoft Excel was selected as the format for the survey. Then it
was reviewed and evaluated by the entire WG to solicit comments and input on improving the accuracy
and number of responses. Revisions were incorporated before finalising the questionnaire. The kind
of information decided to be collected would cover: the respondent’s demographics; basic system
configurations; basic equipment types and ratings; details on substation design practices; general
aspects of project management, construction and procurement as related to design; and engineering
expertise. The questionnaire was organised around these categories. Types of questions were either:
1) specific closed-ended questions (such as requiring a “yes” or “no” or a specific value), or 2) open-
ended free response questions (requiring a comment or observation). Terminology and units of
measure employed by the international electric power profession (such as IEC standard voltage levels)
was used to promote ease of interpreting the questions, as well as consideration to the different cultures
and countries to be encountered. Attention to the length of the questionnaire resulted in an attempt
to optimise the number of questions so as not to hinder the respondent’s willingness to participate.
Finally, attention was given to explaining the intent of the survey and directions for the prospective
respondents to follow to ensure participation, ease of completion, and to maximise the number of
responses. The actual questionnaire used is documented later in this appendix.
Later Developments: The following developments related to the above initial plan occurred as
activities were in progress.
 During the time that the survey was open, a table summarising the overall results at a high level
was kept to track basic information (e.g., respondent category, country, company name, voltages
used). This table appears at the end of Appendix C;
 Regarding the timing survey, several deadlines were set for the close of the survey. However, it
was extended several times to collect more responses;
 The questionnaire was posted on the CIGRE B3 SC website and attempts were made to distribute
an e-mail to remind CIGRE Local Committees to solicit responses. WG presence at the CIGRE 2016
Paris Session, including presentation at the Poster Session, was used to attempt to leverage
responses;
 To target more developing countries, WG B3.43 conducted a “Workshop on Low Cost Substation
and Transmission Line Solutions” in Johannesburg, South Africa during early 2017, to exchange
ideas and gather more research. Completion of the questionnaire was required of all attendees;
and
 Regarding survey languages, Brazil (a Portuguese-speaking country) was eventually included in the
WG membership and input was solicited.
C.3 ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY

The following describes the basic steps taken by the Working Group (WG) in the data analysis process.
Note that the expertise to extract and process the data from the Excel survey files was beyond that
possessed by the current WG members. It was suggested that we contact and recruit talent from the
CIGRE Next Generation Network to assist with these tasks. Prospective resources were discovered, and
they volunteered and became members of the WG to work on the data management.
Initial Review of Results: A total of 42 responses were received. The WG survey team drafted
examples of how data results were to be presented (e.g. tables, graphs, charts, etc.) so that the data
analysers would have an idea on what to deliver. All French and Spanish results were translated to
English as the primary language used. The data response files were check for accuracy and internal
consistency. The surveys were checked to ensure that the data was entered in the same cells for each
survey. It was identified that they were two versions of the survey, there was an additional blank row
added in one of the versions. Some respondents added additional rows or the occasional comment
outside the answer cells. Any additional rows were removed and where appropriate the comments
combined with answers. This prepared the data collected for processing.
Data Processing and Analysis: Collation of data from individual survey responses into one Excel file
to analyse was the first step to enable interpretation of data. From this one combined file, all the
responses would come together in order to be transformed into charts and graphs. Once all the data
was combined into one workbook (each section was its own sheet) the data was reviewed for
244
consistency between responses. The main issues discovered were inconsistent symbols for a positive
answer entry (e.g. 1, y, √, or x), and likewise for percentages (e.g. some in %, decimal, or totals). To
deal with any ambiguities, it was decided that our strategy should be to standardise the data for
appropriate fields for each section. Cleaning up any ambiguous questionnaire data to an agreed upon
standard answer allowed consistent data to be imported into the data pool for manipulation. This was
preferred to the alternate of importing ambiguities into large data pool and then having to clean them
up there. A spreadsheet was made for mapping the survey responses into corresponding subject matter
chapters of the technical brochure to organise the results for optimum use. As survey results for the
various chapters were drafted, they were posted on the Confluence KMS so that the TB authors could
review and comment them on for refinement, as well as to use to start writing content for their assigned
chapters. The data analysis team members were invited to regular monthly WG teleconference meeting
to discuss progress, receive feedback, and address any issues. Some issues encountered were that in
some cases not all percentages were adding up to 100%. This was due to some respondents skipping
over parts of a multiple-choice question that impacted total results of the main question. Another issue
for open-ended questions was handling various answers that were similar in nature (e.g. some
Construction Concerns were described as “availability of outages” and “network outage constraints”).
These were combined into a common answer for ease of analysing data and presenting results. Finally,
questions with very limited responses were not graphed so as not to present vague, useless information
along with the meaningful results.
Presentation of Results: With all the data analysed and sorted by TB chapters, the drafted results
were further scrutinised by the whole WG. The intent was to ensure that the needs of both the TB
writers and readers were kept in mind when organising and presenting the final results. These
interactions between the full WG and data analysis team further refined the content and format of the
results. General aspects as chart type (bar vs. pie), arrangement (multiple vs. stacked vs. clustered
bars), size, colors, text, and labelling were addressed. For example, the use stacked or clustered bar
charts was favored over using multiple individual charts because this compacted the presentation and
results were presented in one chart for the reader to see together. Another refinement was to include
the number of responses to each chart to help with interpreting information, as well as other footnotes
explaining any anomalies. The final actual results derived are documented later in this appendix.
C.4 LESSONS LEARNED

Future working groups may also have similar technical surveys within their scope. In order to help with
their survey efforts, the lessons learned by this WG have been documented below. The main objectives
are to improve the questionnaire content, overall survey process, and final results analysis.
1. Seek at least two members with data analysis expertise in order to: 1) process the survey data
into intelligent and useable information, 2) present the data in understandable charts, tables
and graphs, and 3) ultimately provide value-adding input so that authors can write their
technical brochures to fulfil their WG objectives. Having two such members allows them to
share the analysis workload, as well as to allow one to back the other up if necessary.
2. Recruit the data analysis members before creating the questionnaire, not after all the
respondents have provided their information. By including them in the initial formation of the
questionnaire, they will have valuable input on structuring the questions to ensure ease of
extracting and processing data as efficiently as possible, as well as to omit ambiguities in
interpreting results. For example, if a question can be answered with a “yes”, “y”, “X”, or “√”
in the response field, automatically sorting the corresponding data becomes more difficult and
requires some time-consuming manual manipulation to get the data on a common basis.
3. Keep the questionnaire user-friendly and as simple as possible to ensure maximum participation.
However, keep the desired information in mind to thoroughly address the subject matter when
generating questions so that so that all aspects are covered to improve the value of the
deliverable TB.
4. If multiple languages are to be used, recruit translators early to do so for the questionnaire.
Also get their commitment to translate any survey responses later back to English for analysis.
245
5. While writing the survey, review which technical brochure chapters each question will be
mapped to. This will assist with the relevance of questions and help identify any gaps or
deficiencies in the survey that should be addressed for thoroughness.
6. Consider locking the questionnaire so additional rows or columns cannot be added by the
responder. This avoids issues with combining files for data analysis. For this to be effective,
sufficient space must be provided to allow for written comments.
7. Near the completion of the final questionnaire, it should be pretested by a few select members
of the targeted respondents before it is released formally to the targeted population to solicit
actual responses. This may help identify errors and omissions such as clarity of directions, the
use of proper industry terminology and units of measure, interpretation concerns, missing
questions, and other considerations.
8. During the survey period, be prepared to modify the delivery of questionnaires in the event
responses are lower than anticipated. For example, use such venues as conferences,
symposiums, seminars, and workshops. Also, on-line websites where the targeted population
frequent can be utilised.
9. Use the data validation feature in Excel to reduce variety in responses. For example, cells can
be configured to only accept a yes or no box, where a percentage is required a number greater
than 100% can be blocked.
10. Depending on the availability of a license, consider the use of an on-line, cloud-based survey
development software service company (such as Survey Monkey). In addition to presenting
the questionnaire and collecting that data, it can also do analysis of data and presentation of
results.
C.5 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

This section contains the complete text of the questionnaire used to conduct the subject survey.
SURVEY TO ASSIST
CIGRE SC B3 WG No. 3.43 "Contemporary Solutions for Low Cost Substations"
SECTION 1 - Introduction and Instructions
1.1 • According to the National Academy of Engineering (a private, independent, nonprofit institution that provides engineering leadership in service in the
US), a survey of the Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century revealed that the number one accomplishment that changed the world is
"Electrification" ... basic electrical service!
• Yet according to The World Bank (a vital source of financial and technical assistance to developing countries around the world to reduce poverty and
support development), around one in seven or 1.1 billion people in the world (roughly the population of India), mostly concentrated in Africa and Asia, live
without access to electricity!
• CIGRE Study Committee B3 Work Group 3.43 “Contemporary solutions for low cost substations” has started to prepare a technical brochure for
designing cost-effective and fit-for-purpose substations to provide electricity to those needing that basic service.
• The objective is to identify and develop opportunities to lower the cost and risk of new greenfield substation assets for deployment in developing and
under-developed countries, as well as remote locations in these countries. It will establish recommendations and guidance to ease the design of cost
effective substations based on currently available equipment. This will be done with consideration to the construction, operation and maintenance of these
substations with respect to currently available technologies, practices and locally available limited resources in these developing areas. In addition to the
substations themselves, sustainability of the facilities and electrical service for these regions will be a key consideration.
• Please take the time to participate to help this Work Group’s effort to provide technical guidance to support developing countries in securing access to
an affordable, reliable and sustainable energy supply that is vital to end extreme poverty and promote economic prosperity.
1.2 We would be grateful if you would complete all applicable sections of this survey following the directions given. In general we are seeking replies from
three categories of respondent, namely: Utilities, Consultants, and Manufacturers/Solution Providers. We are also seeking replies on all types of
substations such as air-insulated, GIS, hybrid, and metal-clad switchgear. For all questions, if exact data is not readily available, the best approximate
data that you can provide will be sufficient.
1.3 One general instruction for completing the questionnaire is that if you want to make a positive entry in a box please use the number 1 and not a tick or x.
Some boxes will clearly ask for a percentage, voltage rating, or an equipment type and the appropriate figure or text should be entered in these boxes.
This will greatly improve the efficiency with which the Working Group is able to extract and analyze data from your responses.
1.4 When we have received all of the responses we will carry out an analysis of the results and these will be published in a future Electra article and a
Technical Brochure. However, a personal copy of this report will be sent to each of you who have been kind enough to complete and return this
questionnaire.
1.5 We assure you that the information which you provide will be treated confidentially and will only used for the purposes of this survey and the work of the
Working Group in producing the technical brochure. Finally, we take this opportunity to thank you for your help in assisting the Working Group in this task.
1.6 As a side note, another CIGRE Study Committee B2 has Working Group B2.60 "Affordable Overhead Transmission Lines for Sub-Saharan Countries"
preparing a technical brochure on transmission lines. These groups will interface to assure seamless documentation is available as a solution to design
power system infrastructure in regions needing electrification.
246
App C Table 1 – Technical Survey Template Questionnaire
247
SECTION 2 - Respondent Profile
The purpose of this section is to collect information about all responders to assess your role in contributing to designing substations to serve
underdeveloped and developing regions.
2.1 Please indicate the nature of your business (all respondents)

Electric Power Utility Utility respondents go to Sections 2.2.1, and then all Sections 3 through 7
Consultant / Service Provider Consultant respondents go to Sections 2.2.2, Sections 3.2 & 3.3, Section 4, Sections
5.2 & 5.3, and Section 7
Manufacturer / Solution Provider Manufacturer respondents go to Sections 2.2.3, Section 3.2 questions only as
appropriate to the equipment and solutions you provide, and Section 7
2.2 Please complete the table below appropriate to your business as noted above
2.2.1 Utilities only
System Profile: based on IEC Standard Voltage Ranges to collect data on a common base (Note: LV < 1kV is omitted as out of scope )
Total Number of All Total Number of System Substations specifically

Voltage Voltage Range - System Substations with designed to serve rural areas of limited development
Category Primary Side of Substation Primary Voltage in this and electrification of non-electrified communities of
Range remote populations in the utility service territory
MV 1kV < V < 35KV
HV 35kV < V < 230KV
EHV 230kV < V < 800KV
UHV V = 1050kV or 1200kV
Service Categories: list all voltages used as defined on your system that fall into these categories regardless of IEC Standard Voltages
Voltage Range that covers this

Functional or Service Category Functional or Service Category Comments
(in kV)
Distribution
Subtransmission
Transmission
Customer Profile
No. of Customers considered as No. of Potential Customers

Total No. of Customers in
Customer Category undeveloped or remote that were considered as undeveloped or
each Category
provided service in last 5 years remote needing service
Residential: Urban / City
Rural / Agricultural
Commercial
Industrial
Geographical Coverage of Utility (please insert your response in the box belo w)
Area Indicate all that apply Specific Region(s) or Country(ies) Additional Comments
Africa
Asia
Australasia
Europe
North America
South America
2.2.2 Consultants / Service Providers only
Size of Business
Number of T&D Employees
Business related to designing substations needed for undeveloped / remote load centers within the last five years
Yes No
A Indicate if you have been solicited to provide related designs to your clients
B Indicate if you have submitted related proposals to your clients
C Indicate if clients have accepted these proposals and awarded contracts
Please indicate the approximate number of instances in each case in the table below where categories are based on IEC Standard
Voltage Ranges to collect data on a common base (Note: LV < 1kV is omitted as out of scope)
A B C
Voltage Voltage Range -
Requests Submitted Designs
Category Primary Side of Substation
Solicited Proposals Provided
MV 1kV < V < 35KV
HV 35kV < V < 230KV
EHV 230kV < V < 800KV
248
Geographical Coverage of Clients (please insert your response in the box below )
Africa
Asia
Australasia
Europe
North America
South America
2.2.3 Manufacturers / Solution Providers only
Size of Business
Number of T&D Employees
Most Beneficial Products or Services of currently available technologies requested/provided for low cost substations in developing
countries where categories are based on IEC Standard Voltage Ranges to collect data on a common base (Note: LV < 1kV is omitted
as out of scope)
Voltage Voltage Range -

Brief Description (ex. specific type of equipment, system, device, etc.)
Category Primary Side of Substation
MV 1kV < V < 35KV

HV 35kV < V < 230KV
EHV 230kV < V < 800KV
Geographical Coverage of Clients (please insert your response in the box below )
Africa
Asia
Australasia
Europe
North America
South America
SECTION 3 - Current Substation Design Practice
The purpose of this section is to collect information about your current practices relevant to the technical aspects in designing your substations to
serve underdeveloped and developing regions.
3.1 Substation Configuration (as applicable to a Utility responder's system used in serving undeveloped regions)
3.1.1 Primary Side Configuration
Typical Primary Side / Source Line Terminal Configuration (insert approximate percentage of system type in use )
Radial or single source line only
Loop or double source lines for reliability/flexibility
Network of three or more source lines for more reliability
3.1.2 Transformer Configuration
Typical Substation Transformer Configuration (insert approximate percentage of system types in use )
Single step-down transformer
Double step-down transformers
Three or more step-down transformers
3.1.3 Bus Configuration
Typical Substation Bus Configuration (insert approximate percentage of system types in us e)
Single bus for the primary voltage
Main and reserve buses for the primary voltage
Breaker-and-a-half for the primary voltage
Double bus / double breaker for the primary voltage

No busbar on the primary voltage (ex. tail-fed transformer )
Other Primary Bus Describe:
Single bus for the secondary voltage

Main and reserve buses for the secondary voltage
Breaker-and-a-half for the secondary voltage
Double bus / double breaker for the secondary voltage
Other Secondary Bus Describe:
249
3.1.4 Secondary Side Configuration
Typical Secondary Side / Load Line Terminal Configuration (insert approximate percentage of system types in use )
Single radial distribution feeder to a load center

Multiple radial distribution feeders to multiple load centers
Multiple distribution feeders networked together
3.2 Substation Electrical Equipment (used in serving undeveloped regions as applicable to a Utility responder's system OR as
applicable to a Consultant responder's designs provided OR as applicable to Manufacturer respondent's equipment supplied )
3.2.1 Substation Equipment Basic Ratings

Primary Side / Source Terminal Voltage Ratings based on IEC Standard Maximum Voltages to collect data on a common base
Primary Bus No. of Substations with

Max. Voltage this Voltage in
kV Developing Areas
33
44
66
72.5
123
145
245
362
420
550
800
1200
Secondary Side / Load Terminal Voltage Ratings based on IEC Standard Maximum Voltages to collect data on a common base
Secondary Bus No. of Substations with

Max. Voltage this Voltage in
kV Developing Areas
12
24
36
40.5
72.5
123
145
245
Transformer Power Ratings
Transformer No. of Transformers

Power with this MVA Rating in
MVA Developing Areas
<5
5 - 10
10 - 19
20 - 31.5
>31.5 - 40
> 40
3.2.2 Substation Equipment Basic Types

Primary Side / Source Line Terminal Equipment (insert your responses in the box below )
Indicate all
Equipment Specific Equipment (ex. vacuum, SF 6) Additional Comments
that apply
Fuse
Manual Disconnector
Motorized Disconnector
Loadbreak Disconnector
Circuit Switcher
Circuit Recloser
Circuit Breaker
Metal-Clad Switchgear
GIS
Hybrid Switchgear
Other Describe:
250
Secondary Side / Load Line Terminal Equipment (insert your responses in the box below )
Indicate all
Equipment Specific Equipment (ex. vacuum, SF 6) Additional Comments
that apply
Fuse
Manual Disconnector
Motorized Disconnector
Loadbreak Disconnector
Circuit Switcher
Circuit Recloser
Circuit Breaker
Metal-Clad Switchgear
GIS
Hybrid Switchgear
Other Describe:
Power Transformer (insert your responses in the box below )
Transformer Typical Transformer: Typical Transformer:

Power Cooling Design Insulating Oil Design General Comments
MVA (ex. OA/FA/FA ) (ex. conservator tank or gas space )
<5
5 - 10
10 - 19
20 - 31.5
31.5 - 40
> 40
Voltage Regulation (insert percentage of system types in use )
Transformer Load Tap Changer (LTC)
Transformer De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC) or Off Circuit Tap Switch (OCTS)
Voltage Regulators on transformer leads
Voltage Regulators at the substation on distribution circuits
Voltage Regulators outside the substation on distribution circuits
Other (describe):
Protection and Control Equipment (insert percentage of system types in use )
Fuses
Electromechanical Relay Controlled Circuit Breakers
Microprocessor-based Relay Controlled Circuit Breakers
Other (describe):
Communication Facilities (insert percentage of system types in use )
Power Line Carrier (PLC)
Dial-up Telephone Line
Fiber Optic Connection via OPGW
Radio (describe type):
Other (describe):
SCADA and Monitoring Facilities (insert percentage of system types in use )
SCADA used on transmission system
SCADA used on distribution system
Equipment Monitoring (i.e., on-line transformer condition)
Operational WAN system used
Security camera remote monitoring
Other (describe):
Other (describe):
Location of Protection and Control Equipment (insert percentage of system types in use )
Relay installed in breaker control cabinets
Relays mounted in small outdoor enclosures or cabinets
Relays mounted in walk-in cubicle in metalclad switchgear line-up
Relays installed in walk-in control building
Other (describe):
251
3.2.3 Other Substation Electrical Aspects
Primary Side Bus Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Typical Bus Conductors: Insulator Type (indicate percent used )

Indicate Type & Material
Transmission Bus Type
percent used (ex. 2" SPS alum. tubing, or Toughened Synthetic
954 ACSR or AAAC conductor ) Porcelain
Glass (ex. polymer)
Strain or Suspension Conductor
Rigid Tubing or Pipe
Rigid Rectangular Bus Bar
Other (ex. rigid angle or IWCB)
Secondary Side Bus Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Typical Bus Conductors: Insulator Type (indicate percent used )

Indicate
Distribution Bus Type Type & Material
percent used Toughened Synthetic
(ex. 3" X 3" Alum Angle ) Porcelain
Glass (ex. polymer)
Strain or Suspension Conductor
Rigid Tubing
Rigid Bus Bar
Other (ex. rigid angle or IWCB)
High Voltage Electrical Connector Type for Bus and Equipment Connections (insert your responses in the box below )
Typical Connector Type (indicate percent used )

Material:
Connection Type
(ex. bronze, Mechanical
Bolted Compression Swaged Welded
aluminum ) (ex. wedge)
Conductor Splice Connections NA
Conductor Terminal Connections NA
Conductor Tee Connections NA
Tubing Splice Connections NA
Tubing Terminal Connections NA
Tubing Tee Connections NA
Other Describe:
High Voltage Bus Support Type for Strain and Rigid Bus (insert your responses in the box below )
Typical Connector Type (indicate percent used )

Material:
Bus Support Type
(ex. bronze,
Bolted Compression Welded Other
aluminum)
Conductor Clamp to Bus Support Post Insulator NA NA
Conductor Clamp to Strain / Suspension Insulator NA
Tubing Clamp to Bus Support Post Insulator NA
Other Describe:
Wildlife Protection Type Used on Electrical Connection (insert your responses in the box below )
Wildlife Protection Type (indicate percent used )

Wildlife Protection Indicate all voltage
Location levels where used Preformed Plastic Wrap Netting, Mesh
Barrier Other
Plastic Guard (heat shrink ) or Fence
Transformer Bushings
Breaker Bushings
Recloser Bushings
Switch Terminals
Equipment Perimeter
Fence Perimeter
Other:
Earthing Mat or Grid Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Typ. Ground
Typical Grid Conductors: Grid Connectors (indicate percent used )
Insert Rods:
Type & Material
Earthing Grid Type percent Type & Material
used (ex. 4/0 Copper or Exothermic Bolted or
(ex. 3/4" X 8' Compression Brazed
19#9 copper-clad steel ) Welded Wedge
Copper Clad Steel )
Standard Grid
Site Specific Grid Design
Other:
Overvoltage Protection Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Overvoltage Protection: Locations Used (indicate percent used )

Insert
Overvoltage Protection Type & Material
percent
Type (ex. rod or ball gap, or Transmission Line Transformer Distribution Other (include
used
metal oxide arrester ) Terminals Bushings Line Terminals description )
Air Gaps
Surge Arresters
Other:
252
Lightning Shielding / Protection Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Lightning Protection: Lightning Protection Design Methods

Insert (indicate percent used )
Lightning Protection Type & Material
percent
Type used (ex. steel poles, shield Rolling Angle or Cone Collection Other (include
conductor, or Dynasphere ) Sphere of Protection Volume description )
Masts or Poles or Rods
Shield or Static Conductor
Masts & Shield Conductor
Active Devices
Other:
3.2.4 Substation Auxiliary Systems
AC Station Service (insert your responses in the box below )
Insert
AC Station Service Source & Type
percent used
Dedicated station service transformer on distribution bus inside the substation

Station service power winding on a potential transformer on a high or low side bus inside substation
Dedicated station service circuit from a distribution line outside of the substation
Diesel generator set as a back-up supply
Other (ex. DC-AC inverter, etc. ) Describe:
Any other backup generator used? yes: no: Describe:
Indicate total number of auxiliary AC supplies available:
DC Station Service (insert your responses in the box below )
Battery System
Insert Battery Voltage
DC Station Battery Standby time
percent used (ex. 48V, 125V )
(ex. 8 hr, 12 hr )
Lead acid storage battery
NiCad storage battery
Other Describe:
Insert
DC Station Battery Charger
percent used
Battery charger supplied from AC station service

Battery charger supplied from solar cell array
Other (ex. DC-AC converter, etc. ) Describe:
Indicate total number of auxiliary DC supplies available:
Is battery standby / survival time based on response time of maintenance crew?
3.2.5 Substation Material and Equipment Procurement
Major Equipment and Material Procurement Method (as applicable to all responders in their respective roles)
Insert
Procurement Methods for Equipment and Material percent
used
Purchase Order with Competitive Bidding: multiple quotes solicited, evaluated and contract awarded
for a one time order of a major equipment item (ex. power transformer or control building )
Purchase Order to Sole Source Supplier: contract negotiated and awarded to a preferred supplier for a
one time order of a major equipment item (ex. power transformer or control building )
Blanket Purchase Order: multi-year contract with a vendor to release multiple orders of commonly used
material on an as-needed basis (ex. switchgear or steel structures )
Company Storeroom: an in-house materials management system that obtains and stocks commonly
used standard material for projects; typically minor equipment/material (ex. conductor, connectors )
Distribution Supply House: a third party service provider that secures, packages and delivers electrical
material as requested (ex. conductor, connectors )
Contractor: the contractor constructing the project provides electrical material as specified by the
designer; typically for minor equipment/material (ex. conductor, connectors )
Other Describe:
253
3.3 Substation Physical Design (used in serving undeveloped regions as applicable to a Utility responder's system OR as
applicable to a Consultant responder's designs provided)
3.3.1 Substation Site Preparation
Substation Property / Land Acquisition (insert your responses in the box below )
Comment as applicable:
Indicate
Property / Land Acquisition Techniques ex. no. of years leased,
percent used
methods to reduce cost, etc.
Property purchased in fee from private owner
Property purchased in fee from governmental agency owner
Property leased from private owner for specific number of years
Property leased from governmental agency for specific no. of years
Other Describe:
Substation Site Preparation (insert your responses in the box below )
Comment as applicable:
Indicate slope on graded area, slope
Site Preparation Techniques
percent used of drainage ditch, soil erosion
and storm water devices
Substation constructed on the existing grade or slope of the land
Excess soil cut and filled in to provide graded pad for substation
Multiple elevations or step graded for substation
Drainage accomplished with surface ditching or trenching
Drainage accomplished with subsurface piping
Soil erosion prevention devices used (ex. silt fence )
Storm water management devices (ex. detention or retention ponds)
Is space provided for use of a mobile-sub during extended O&M?
Other Describe:
3.3.2 Substation Foundation Types
Substation Foundation Type (insert your responses in the box below )

Use the following ranges in responding to this question: 1kV < MV < 35KV 35kV < HV < 230KV 230kV < EHV < 800KV
Foundation Material Foundation Design Type (indicate percent used )

(ex. reinforced concrete, Other (ex.
Structure Type Deep Type: Shallow Type: Combination:
or precast foundation, beams or
or wide flanged steel beams ) Augured Piers Slab or Pad Pad-and-Pier
micro piles )
MV Source Line Deadend
MV Disconnector Support
MV Circuit Breaker
MV Post Insulator Support
MV CCVT/ VT/ CT Stand
HV Source Line Deadend
HV Disconnector Support
HV Circuit Breaker
HV Post Insulator Support
HV CCVT/ VT/ CT Stand
EHV Source Line Deadend
EHV Disconnector Support
EHV Circuit Breaker
EHV Post Insulator Support
EHV CCVT/ VT/ CT Stand
Power Transformer EHV to HV
Power Transformer EHV to MV
Power Transformer HV to MV
Control Building
GIS Enclosure Building
Substation Foundation Design Methods (insert your responses in the box below )
Standard Soil Assumed and Standard Foundations Used
Soil Sampled and Tested with Site Specific Foundations Designed
Other (describe):
254
3.3.3 Substation Structure Types
Substation Structure Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Structure Design Type & Material (indicate percent used )
Steel Wood Poles or

Structure Type Aluminum Timbers or
Poly- Reinforced Other (ex.
Lattice (all member Engineered
Square shape Concrete composite )
(angles & shapes) wood
Tube d products
channels)
Tube
MV Disconnector Support
MV Post Insulator Support
HV Source Line Deadend
EHV Source Line Deadend
EHV Post Insulator Support
Substation Structure Design Methods (insert your responses in the box below )
Standard Loads Assumed and Standard Structures Used
Site Specific Loads Used with Site Specific Structures Designed

Other (describe):
Substation Structure Finish & Corrosion/Deterioration Protection (insert your responses in the box below )
Galvanized: Hot-Dipped
Galvanized: Other (mechanical-plating, electro-plating, spraying, etc. )
Paint (ex. self-priming zinc rich paint )

Wood Preservative: Natural Decay-Resistant Species
Wood Preservative: Chemical (ex. CCA, Penta, Creosote, etc. )

Other (describe):
3.3.4 Other Substation Physical Aspects

Substation Control Building Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Typical Small Typical Large

Indicate
Typical Control Building Construction Type Building Size: Building Size: General Comments as applicable
percent used
(ex. 3mX3m ) (ex. 5mX12m )
Built On-Site Masonry Blocks or Bricks

Built On-Site Pre-fabricated Concrete Slabs
Built On-Site Self-Supporting Locking Steel Panels
Built On-Site Steel Frame with Steel Sheeting
Built On-Site Wood Frame with Wood Sheeting
Prefabricated Off-Site Steel Frame & Sheeting with
internal utilities installed (lights, cable ladder, etc.)
Prefabricated Off-Site Steel Frame and Sheeting with
internal utilities installed plus control panels
Other: Describe:
Yes If yes, how often? No
Is an office building ever installed as part of the substation facilities?
Is a security hut or porta-cabin installed as part of the substation facilities?
Substation Cable Installation (insert your responses in the box below )
Indicate
Outdoor Control Cable Installation Devices
percent used
Cable Trench: one piece formed channel type
Cable Trench: component type with brackets and sidewalls
Cable Trench: formed and cast in place by construction contractor
Duct Banks buried metallic or non-metallic conduits
Direct Burial: direct burial cable with no trench or conduits
Other Describe:
255
Substation Oil Containment System Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Indicate General Comments as applicable

Oil Containment Techniques
percent used (ex. how volume is determined )
Collection sump around transformer with concrete walls and pit
Collection sump around transformer with polyvinyl liner
Collection sump around transformer with impervious clay liner
Earthen berms built up around the transformer or substation
Fabricated barriers installed around the transformer or substation
None used
Other Describe:
Indicate
Separate Oil Holding Reservoirs General Comments as applicable
percent used
Surface reservoir pit connected to collection sump to hold oil
Underground reservoir tank connected to collection sump to hold oil
Other Describe:
Indicate
Sump Rain Water Drainage Techniques General Comments as applicable
percent used
Rain water collecting in sump drained out with sump pump
Rain water in sump drained out thru oil blocking fabric panels in liner
Not required (due to use of earthen berms or fabricated barriers )
None used
Other Describe:
Substation Fire Prevention/ Containment System Type (insert your responses in the box below )
Indicate General Comments as applicable

Fire Prevention & Containment Techniques
percent used (ex. type of wall: concrete, masonry, metal )
Sufficient physical separation between transformer allowed
Fire or blast walls are installed between transformers
Fire extinguishing deluge system is installed
Transformer Protector depressurization system (ex. SERGI )
None used
Other Describe:
Substation Fence (insert your responses in the box below )
Height - meters Pertinent Material Details:

Indicate percent
Fence Type (including any (ex. galvanized steel, concrete General Comments
used
barb wire ) slabs, or treated wood )
Metal-wire chain-link fabric
Metal-wire chain-link fabric with barb wire
Metal-wire chain-link fabric with razor ribbon
Metal bars
Masonry blocks or concrete
Wood: timber or posts
Other: Describe:
Is this fence
Indicate
Fence Function connected to
percent used
the earth grid?
Security fence only around substation itself
Property boundary and security fence only around entire property
Both a property perimeter and a substation fence are used
Other: Describe:
Are "Danger"
Most common
Indicate signs posted
Gate Type gate width
percent used on the gates
(meters)
and/or fence?
Single swing panel for vehicles
Double swing panels for vehicles
Single sliding panel for vehicles
More than one vehicle gate installed
Man gate installed in addition to vehicle gate
High strength security gate or access barriers
Other: Describe:
If the entire facility is fenced (including the substation, control room, office building, etc.), briefly describe below the most commonly used construction for
that fence (ex. wire chain-link fabric, metal bars, masonry, brick, concrete, wood, etc. ):
256
SECTION 4 - General Substation Design Considerations
The purpose of this section is to collect information about your current practices relevant to the more general, non-technical aspects in designing your
substations to serve underdeveloped and developing regions.
4.1 Substation Electrical and Safety Codes, Standards, and Guides
Substation Design Compliance (insert percentage of system types in use )
Designs were dictated by mandatory codes adopted by governing / regulating agencies
Designs were adopted from voluntary standards created by utility / industry / professional organizations
Designs were utilized from internally developed company guidelines based on local experience
Designs were not covered by any of the above, but rather by the individual engineer's selection
4.2 Substation Design Legacy Considerations
Substation Design Influencing Factor (insert percentage of system types in use )
Designs were dictated by whatever legacy designs and equipment happened to be utilized in the region before
Designs were somewhat based on legacy designs/equipment with newer technologies incorporated where possible
Designs were mainly influenced by the latest design techniques /equipment to take advantage of new developments
Other Influencing Factors Describe:
4.3 Substation Design Considerations on Expanding Existing Facilities
Although the scope of this Working Group covers new "green field" substations, it is inevitable that the need will arise to upgrade, augment, and expand
existing substations. With respect to this subject, provide any pertinent comments below;
How many major/minor greenfield projects have you conducted in the last five years?
How many major/minor brownfield projects have you conducted in the last five years?
Since the scope of this questionnaire concerned greenfield installations, if all your answers above do not adequately represent your designs for brownfield
installations, describe any significant differences below:
4.4 Overall Design and Construction Considerations for Substation Projects

Substation Project Delivery Methods (answer as applicable to the responder's role of Utility, Consultant or Solution Provider)
Percent
Project Delivery Methods
used
Internal Design and Construction: owner performs all design, procurement and construction activities all with internal
engineering staff and construction crews
Internal Design with External Construction: owner performs design and procurement activities and then contracts
construction to external entity
Design-Build (D/B): owner contracts the design and construction services to a single entity
Design-Bid-Build (D/B/B) or Traditional Method: owner contracts with separate entities for the design and construction;
typically design is done by a consultant, and then bid to contractors for construction
Engineer-Procure-Construct (EPC): owner contracts one entity to do design, procure, and construct everything; often
subcontractors are used; sometimes referred to as turnkey method
Engineer-Procure-Construction Management (EPCM): Owner contracts one entity to provide design, procurement and
construction management services but owner directly contracts construction services and administers that contract
Other Describe:
4.5 Substation Project Management Considerations

Substation Project Management Aspects (answer as applicable to the responder's role of Utility, Consultant or Solution Provider)
Percent
Project Management Aspects
used
Planning: detailed initial planning with all personnel involved to review and develop proposed scope, to pose alternates
solutions, and decide on final approach to execute the project
Estimating: all project costs are estimated (ex. property, equipment, material, engineering, labor, construction, and
overheads) to create a tentative budget for authorization to proceed
Cost: the approved budget is used to create a cost baseline that becomes the basis to collect and monitor cash flow to
manage project financial performance
Schedule: the approved scope and execution approach is used to create a schedule baseline that becomes the basis to
assign resources and monitor completion of milestones to manage the project schedule performance
Resources: ensure that each activity has the appropriate roles and responsibilities assigned with sufficient man-hours to
perform the work in the time-frame required for successful completion
Monitoring/Tracking: major schedule milestone activities and financial expenditures are monitored for deviations from
baselines so that adjustments can be made to mitigate risk and failure
Reporting: results of schedule progress, resource utilization, cash flow, and any deviations of these items are
communicated to the team and stakeholders in regular published reports
Close-out: post-construction audit conducted on-site to confirm scope was met and is in compliance with design standards;
to document lessons learned; and to gather as-built revisions
Other Describe:
257
SECTION 5 - General Prerequisites and Potential Challenges

The purpose of this section is to identify of opportunities to lower the cost and risks of new substations, and to solicit information on prerequisites, needs,
hurdles, and challenges encountered in designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining your substations for the less-electrified regions. This will
provide a more holistic view of current conditions to get a better understanding of the environments that utilities are operating in.
5.1 Substation Design - General Non-Technical Aspect

What approximate geographical area are you covering with your utility network (in terms of square kilometers)?
Approximately how many people live in the area covered by your utility network?
What percentage of the rural population covered by your utility network today have access to electricity?
What percentage of the urban population covered by your utility network today have access to electricity?
5.2 Substation Design - Specific Non-Technical Aspect
Describe what your main Risks Factors are during Design of your substations (ex. sufficient engineering staff, skill level of staff,
adequate standards, availability of land, purchase of main components, … )
Use the space below for Greenfield substations: Use the space below for Brownfield substations:
Describe what your main Risks Factors are during Construction of your substations (ex. permits, sufficient labor force, skill level of
labor and tradesmen, proper tools and equipment, weather, material theft, ... )
Describe what your main Risks Factors are during Operation & Maintenance of your substations (ex. experienced O&M technicians,
well-developed maintenance program, proper testing equipment, spare parts availability, weather-related outages,… )
Describe what your main Cost Factors are during Design of your substations (ex. engineering and CAD software, property purchase,
equipment purchase, ... )
Describe what your main Cost Factors are during Construction of your substation (ex. skilled labor, equipment availability, rock
removal, sub-surface water, ... )
Describe what your main Cost Factors are during Operation & Maintenance of your substation (ex. adequate maintenance budget,
labor cost, sustainability, ... )
What main factors define the Key Performance Indicators of operating substations in your region? (ex. safety, government or company
imposed service reliability standards, investor return, environmental stewardship, renewable energy, ... )
What are your Key Performance Indicators on the operation of substations? (ex. availability / reliability indices SAIDI, CAIDI, SAIFI,
overall life cycle cost, … )
What is the expected rate of return for investments made in substations?
5.3 Additional Related General Comments
What worked out well for you in designing substations for developing regions?
Please provide in the space below any comments that are relevant to the success of the subject projects which you have applied:
Would did not work well in those designs, and how would you do things differently now?
Please provide in the space below any comments related to adverse affect and failures of the subject projects which you learned:
258
SECTION 6 - Substation Design Expertise and Skills

The purpose of this section is to collect information about the education, knowledge, skills, experience and training levels and requirements of
your local utility engineering staff related to the design of substations to serve underdeveloped and developing regions.
Substation Technical Education (insert your responses in the box below )
Level of Education (indicate % of staff in each category)

Indicate Total
Number of Technical Trade School
Design Position of Title
Each Position Post Graduate Engineering Associate or No Post-
on Staff Degree BS Degree
Degree Secondary
MS or PhD 4 year
2 year Education
Supervisor
Engineer
Designer
Drafter
Technical Field Construction/Maintenance Support
Substation Field Maintenance Electricians
Other: Describe:
Substation Technical Experience and Skills (insert your responses in the box below )
Level of Experience (indicate % of staff in each category )
Area of Competency Very Good Good Sufficient Minimal

able to mentor fully capable still learning new employee
(< 8 year) (4 - 8 years) (2 - 4 years) (> 1 year)
Able to design basic additions (ex. line terminals, transformers )

Able to design new greenfield substation including siting
Able to design complex substation projects (ex. EHV stations )
Able to specify minor auxiliary equipment (ex. switchgear )
Able to specify major electrical equipment (ex. power transformers )
Able to create design standards for others to use
Able to perform construction coordinating activities
Able to perform testing and commissioning activities
Able to mentor and supervise engineering staff
Able to perform project management tasks related to substations
Substation Technical Training Needs (insert your responses in the box below )
Indicate
Indicate %
priority of this
of Staff
training
Technical Training Requirements needing
requirement
this
(1 highest to
training
5 lowest )
Basic design in substation fundamentals (ex. arrangements, equipment, auxiliaries)
Intermediate design in more complex topics (ex. siting, estimating, alternate options )
Advanced engineering (ex. creating standards, FACTS devices )
Major equipment (ex. breaker, transformer construction, function, specification )
Testing, commissioning and maintenance (ex. test procedures, programs )
Project management applicable to substation projects (ex. schedule, cost, resources )
Asset management applicable to substation equipment (ex. planning, transformer loading/usage )
Other Describe:
SECTION 7 - Contact Information

Final Remarks
• As stated in the introduction, when we have received all of the responses we will carry out an analysis of the results and these will be published in a
future Electra article and a Technical Brochure. However, a personal copy of this report will be sent to each of you who have been kind enough to complete
and return this questionnaire.
• We assure you that the information which you provide will be treated confidentially and will only used for the purposes of this survey and the work of the
Working Group in producing the technical brochure. Finally, we take this opportunity to thank you for your help in assisting the Working Group in this task.
• If you are willing to be contacted by a member of the Working Group to be interviewed in order to contribute more input to assist in their efforts, please
indicate in the box below. You will be contacted to plan an interview at your convenience.
Please contact me so that I can provide additional information: Yes: No:
Follow up contact information (Optional)
Name: Email Address:
Company: Telephone No.:
Position/Title: Fax Number:
• Finally, if you would you like to participate in this Working Group, contact your CIGRE National Study Committee SC B3 member and request to be
nominated to become a full member of the work group or alternatively a corresponding member based on your ability to participate. If you do not have a
National Committee or any local Study Committee members, contact WG B3.43 Convenor, Peregrine (Perry) Tonking (AU), at e-mail:
peregrine.tonking@gmail.com.
Working Group B3.43 sincerely thanks you for your time and effort in contributing to this questionnaire.
259
C.6 SURVEY RESULTS

This section contains the most significant set of results of the data collected from the subject survey
that were not presented in the related chapters of this brochure. Due to space limitations, minor results
were omitted. Since the data was mapped from the categories of questions in the questionnaire to the
related chapters of the technical brochure, the results are organised below by chapter so that the
corresponding main subject categories of the brochure: 1) Design Philosophies, 2)
Engineering/Technical Implementation, or 3) Project Implementation. The reader can readily find
results that correspond to chapter subject matter of interest.
4 3
20
App C Figure 1 – Survey Responses by Geographic Area from Survey Question 2.2.1
1
3
Electric Power Utility

Consultant / Service Provider
Manufacturer / Solution Provider
27
App C Figure 2 – Type of Business from Survey Question 2.1
260
100000000
10000000
1000000
100000
10000
Value
1000
100
10
0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Response No
Population Area (square kilometers)
App C Figure 3 – General Non-Technical Aspects from Survey Question 5.1
C6.1 Survey Results on Engineering/Technical Implementation
Property purchased in fee from

private owner
21%
Property purchased in fee from
governmental agency owner
Property leased from private

owner for specific number of years
13%
58% Property leased from
governmental agency for specific
no. of years
2% 6% Other - free from the government
App C Figure 4 – Substation Property / Land Acquisition from Survey Question 3.3.1
261
Percent Used
100
120
20
40
60
80
0
Percentage
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
Substation constructed on the
MV Disconnector Support existing grade or slope of the
land
MV Circuit Breaker
Excess soil cut and filled in to
MV Post Insulator Support provide graded pad for
substation
HV Source Line Deadend Multiple elevations or step

graded for substation
HV Circuit Breaker Drainage accomplished with
Deep Type: Augured Piers

Combination: Pad-and-Pier
surface ditching or trenching
Drainage accomplished with
262
subsurface piping
EHV Source Line Deadend Techniques
Soil erosion prevention devices
Structure Type
used (ex. silt fence)
EHV Circuit Breaker
Storm water management
EHV Post Insulator Support devices (ex. detention or
retention ponds)
Shallow Type: Slab or Pad

Is space provided for use of a
Other (ex. beams or micro piles)

Power Transformer EHV to HV mobile-sub during extended
O&M?
Power Transformer EHV to MV
App C Figure 6 – Substation Structure Types from Survey Question 3.3.2

Other
App C Figure 5 – Substation Site Preparation from Survey Question 3.3.1
Power Transformer HV to MV
Control Building
GIS Enclosure Building
s a mples
95% us e s oil
14
12
10
No. Responses
0
3.3 7.6 11 17.2 30 38 47 66 90 150 161 275 500
/17.5
Voltage (kV)
Distribution Substransmission transmission
App C Figure 7 – Utility Voltage Ranges from Survey Question 2.2.1
60
50
40
Percentage
30
20
10
0
MV Source MV Post HV Source Line HV Post EHV Source EHV Post
Line Deadend Insulator Deadend Insulator Line Deadend Insulator
Support Support Support
Structure Type
Square Tube Poly-shaped Tube
Lattice (angles & channels) Aluminum (all member shapes)
Reinforced Concrete Wood Poles or Timbers or Engineered wood products
Other (ex. composite)
App C Figure 8 – Substation Structure Types from Survey Question 3.3.3
263
30
25
20
No. Uses
15
10
0
Galvanized: Hot- Galvanized: Paint Wood Wood
Dipped Other Preservative: Preservative:
Natural Decay- Chemical
Resistant Species
Prevention technique
App C Figure 9 – Substation Structure Finish & Corrsion Protection from Survey Question 3.3.3
2%
Built On-Site Masonry Blocks or
Bricks
9%
6% Built On-Site Pre-fabricated

0%
Concrete Slabs
5%
0%
5% Built On-Site Self-Supporting
Locking Steel Panels
Built On-Site Steel Frame with

72%
Steel Sheeting
Built On-Site Wood Frame with

Wood Sheeting
App C Figure 10 – Substation Control Building Type from Survey Question 3.3.4
264
4%
11%
13%
Cable Trench: one piece formed
channel type
Cable Trench: component type
with brackets and sidewalls
27% Cable Trench: formed and cast in

place by construction contractor
Duct Banks buried metallic or
non-metallic conduits
Direct Burial: direct burial cable
with no trench or conduits
44%
App C Figure 11 – Substation Cable Installation from Survey Question 3.3.4
60
50
40
Percentage
30
20
10
0
MV Source MV Post HV Source Line HV Post EHV Source EHV Post
Line Deadend Insulator Deadend Insulator Line Deadend Insulator
Support Support Support
Structure Type
Square Tube Poly-shaped Tube
Lattice (angles & channels) Aluminum (all member shapes)
Reinforced Concrete Wood Poles or Timbers or Engineered wood products
Other (ex. composite)
App C Figure 12 – Substation Structures from Survey Question 3.3.3
265
0%
Collection sump around
1% 10% transformer with concrete walls
and pit
1%
3% Collection sump around
3%
transformer with polyvinyl liner
Collection sump around

transformer with impervious clay
liner
Earthen berms built up around
the transformer or substation
Fabricated barriers installed

87% around the transformer or
substation
None used
App C Figure 13 – Substation Oil Containment Techniques from Survey Question 3.3.4
8%
Surface reservoir pit connected

to collection sump to hold oil
36%
Underground reservoir tank
connected to collection sump to
hold oil
Other
42%
App C Figure 14 – Substation Oil Holding Reservoirs from Survey Question 3.3.4
266
7% Rain water collecting in sump

drained out with sump pump
Rain water in sump drained out

thru oil blocking fabric panels in
20%
liner
Not required (due to use of
earthen berms or fabricated
49% barriers)
0% None used
19% Other
App C Figure 15 – Substation Oil Sump Rain Water Techniques from Survey Question 3.3.4
1% 2% 2%
Sufficient physical separation
between transformer allowed
Fire or blast walls are installed

23%
between transformers
45%
Fire extinguishing deluge system
is installed
Transformer Protector
depressurization system (ex.
SERGI)
None used
42%
Other
App C Figure 16 – Substation Fire Prevention Techniques from Survey Question 3.3.4
267
0.03% 0.02%
Metal-wire chain-link fabric
20.03% Metal-wire chain-link fabric with

barb wire
34.39% Metal-wire chain-link fabric with
razor ribbon
Metal bars
Masonry blocks or concrete
Wood: timber or posts

41.03%
1.35%
Other
0.39%
App C Figure 17 – Substation Fence Types from Survey Question 3.3.4
12
No. Times Identified
10
8
6
4
2
0
scope/requirements
Experinced staff
Availability of land
Time to complete designs is
Outage constraints
Clearance ssues & space
Software and Design tools
purchase of main
procedures
Lack of accurate information

cost of new infrastructure,
Obtaining Approvals, public
normally very compressed

adequate standards,
availability, interfaces
Changing project
components
and government
Risks
Greenfield substations Brownfield substations
App C Figure 18 – Substation Design Risks from Survey Question 5.2
268
Designs were dictated by

10% mandatory codes adopted by
governing / regulating agencies
45% Designs were adopted from

32% voluntary standards created by
utility / industry / professional
organizations
Designs were utilized from
internally developed company
guidelines based on local
experience
Designs were not covered by any
of the above, but rather by the
individual engineer's selection
48%
App C Figure 19 – Safety Security and Environmental Considerations from Survey Question 4.1
The following table represents the respondents to the technical survey:

App C Table 2 – Summary of Respondents to Technical Survey
High Level Summary of Completed WG B3.43 Survey Questionnaires
Geographic Survey Respondent

Country Company Voltages
Region ID No. Category
(kV)
13 Madagascar Utility Jirama 20 - 138
24 Mali Utility Energie Du Mali - SA 15 - 225
25 Mali Utility Energie Du Mali - SA 15 - 225
26 Rwanda Utility Rwanda Energy Group/ EDCL 6.6 - 110
30 Ivory Coast Utility CI-Energies 15 - 225
31 Ivory Coast Utility CI-Energies 15 - 225
32 Niger Utility NIGELEC 20 - 132
Africa
33 Malawi Utility ESCOM Ltd 11 - 132
34 Togo-Bénin Utility CEB 63 - 330
35 Burkina Faso Utility SONABEL 15 - 330
36 Kenya Utility Kenya Power & Lighting Co 33 - 220
37 Kenya Utility Kenya Power & Lighting Co 33 - 220
38 Nigeria, Niger & Benin Utility TCN 11 -330
39 Ethiopia Utility Ethiopian Electric Power 15 - 500
40 not provided Utility name not provided 15 - 225
41 Kenya Utility KETRACO 132 - 220
17 Kenya, Nigeria, Ethiopia Consultant name not provided 10 - 550
269
High Level Summary of Completed WG B3.43 Survey Questionnaires
Geographic Survey Respondent

Country Company Voltages
Region ID No. Category
(kV)
India, Bangladesh, Nepal,
Utility Power Grid Corp. of India Ltd 10 - 550
Bhutan
2 Japan Utility Chubu Electric Power 22 - 420
Asia 3 Japan Utility Kansai Electric Power 33 - 500
4 Japan Utility TEPCO Power Grid 22 - 500
Utility/Service
12 India Sterlite Power 35 - 800
Provider
11 South Pacific Utility American Samoa Power Authority 13.2-34.5
20 Australia Utility Western Power 33 - 330
Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji,
21 Tonga, Myanmar, Cook & Consultant AECOM 12 - 66
Australasia Solomon Islands
Consolidated Power Projects
22 Australia (west) Consultant 33
(owned by Quanta Services)
23 Australia (south) Utility ElectraNet 11 - 275
42 Australia Utility Ergon Energy 11 - 132
1 Israel Consultant Retired 24 - 420
132 -
5 Oman Utility Oman Electric Transmission Co.
400
Federal Electricity & Water
6 UAE Utility 11 - 132
Authority
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Gulf Corp. Council Interconnection
Middle East 7 Utility 420
Qatar, Bahrain Authority
132 -
8 UAE Utility Abu Dhabi TRANSCO
400
Gulf Corp. Council Interconnection
9 Qatar Utility 66 - 400
Authority
Dubai Electricity & Water
10 UAE Utility 11 - 400
Authority
14 Ireland Utility ESB International 10 - 400
15 Switzerland Utility Azienda Elettrica Ticinese 12 - 72.5
Europe
16 Norway Utility Hafslund Nett AS 5 - 132
18 Denmark Utility Danish TSO 50 - 400
South Empresa Electrica Valle Hermoso
19 Bolivia Utility 44 - 69
America SA
270
DETAILED DESIGN PROCESS

D.1 DESIGN PROCESS FLOWCHART
The purpose of this appendix is to accompany and augment the subject matter presented in Chapter 4
“Substation Design Process”. As noted in that chapter, an extensive body of knowledge has been
developed over the years on how to design a substation. This accumulated knowledge aims at
promoting the most efficient use of designer’s time and resources to produce the most cost-effective
final designs to enable construction of a substation in the most efficient manner to meet the
requirements of the network planners.
To effectively and efficiently achieve all aspects of these objectives, the design work must be carried
out in a well organised manner. This is best accomplished by way of a well-documented design process
that coordinates all the efforts of the various roles on the activities occurring during a substation project.
What Chapter 4 has communicated in a written/descriptive format on coordinating the design process,
Appendix D communicates in a visual/graphic format. Often times both formats are beneficial since
readers process information differently. The intent is to make the subject material easily adaptable for
use by all users. For more details on the substation design process, refer to Chapter 4.
As for the flowchart’s structure, it is built around a project to install a new substation. The flowchart
steps start with the necessary network planning studies, followed by possible intermediate major actions
or activities, and ends with the facilities being energised and placed in service. It is organised along
the lines of the major generic roles or resources contributing to the project. Finally, major links between
preceding and succeeding activities show the typical flow through the project.
As with any process, this one cannot be all encompassing for every situation. There may be exceptions
due to the project location, scope of work, and/or prevailing circumstances. In those cases, the designer
must be able to adapt to the situation based on past experience and best practices to meet the needs
of the project. The exact details of the process and how the various stages are integrated should be
modified depending on the location, client, project size, project delivery method, and others into a
coordinated overall plan that optimises the use of all resources and minimises the required level of
effort. For example, a project for a new substation vs. an expansion vs. an addition versus an asset
renewal will contain only the required elements of the flowchart that apply. The key is to get the correct
activities with good interaction between the roles, which are essential for a successful project.
Also keep in mind that this is not truly a structure for Project Management purposes intended to plan a
schedule for execution. That must be accomplished via Gantt and PERT Charts tailored to the specific
project where activities are sequenced in time and structured along series and parallel paths to minimise
the critical path. However, this Design Flowchart would certainly be an excellent resource for the project
team to use for initiating a Project Execution Plan.
Once a generic flowchart is modified into workable solutions for the different types of projects
encountered, it is good practice to save the best of the commonly used charts and document them as
templates for future use. This will save time in initial planning phase and allow the designers to
concentrate on their real tasks of engineering.
271
Detailed Design Process
Asset Management
New substation Scope and capital Approv e outli ne
Sy stem Studies Optioneering Select best option
required? approv al designs
Technical & commercial poli cies

Approv e FEED
Management
Set up project Kick-off meet ing.

Project
Collate Collate Collate

structure and Confirm scope &
Review Review Review
processes programme
Design Management
Technical kick-off Collate Overall design,

meeting. Confirm design Arrange site Studies
Review FEED Arrange studies safety, HAZOP
team & design processes investigation
review
FEED, Single-Line Di agram, Sustai nability &

Primary Design
Prelimi nary layout, basic Safety in Design

Technical & commercial poli cies cal cul ations (SID) review
Studies
Studies
Site Investigation
Sit e inv estigation

Architect
Outline
Review
architect ural design
Single-Line Di agram,
Outline electrical schemes,
Secondary Design
Technical & commercial poli cies Review

control & protection
philosophi es
Civil
Structural
Building Services
Detail Secondary Design
Procurement
Commissioning
Construction &
App D Figure 1– Detailed Substation Design Process Sheet 1
272
Detailed Design Process
Asset Management
Approv e material Approv e detai l designs
specifications and & procurement Review poli cies
detail designs
Management
Project
Start detail design Collate Collate

Split
Review Review Project review
Elements
Design Management
Overall design, safety, Review

Split Design Final overall design,
Elements HAZOP review safety, HAZOP review Design rev iew
Primary equipment
Primary Design
Review
specification
Final layouts &
elev ations. Final
Review
building requirements
Earthing, structures, part lists
Review
cable routes
Studies
Site Investigation
Architect
Final architect ural

Review
design
Secondary Design
Secondary Singl e-Line Di agram,

Review Instrument t ransformer & relay
specifications, cabinet requirements
Civil grading, drainage,

Final civi l design &
Civil
access, foundation Review

Review material list
locat ions, oil containment
design
Structural
Structures, foundation
Review Final structural design
design Review
& material list
Building Services
Building servi ces Final building servi ces

Review Review
design design & material list
Detail Secondary Design
Det ail secondary designs, schematic,

wiring & cable detai ls. Distribution boards,
Review
Protection setti ngs, bat tery & charger
details. Mat eri al li sts
Procurement
Equi pment
Mat eri al li sts
procurement
Commissioning
Construction &
Const ruction & commissioning (al l proposed

design changes must be approved by
designers). As-built records completed by
relevant designers
App D Figure 2– Detailed Substation Design Process Sheet 2
273
274
OPERATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND

PROTOCOLS
In order to guide the consideration of the advantages of modern communication mechanisms, it is
necessary to have an appreciation of the limitations of the systems that have been used in the past.
Prior to the mid-1980’s, operating the power system was primarily based on a manned substation
philosophy with purely local controls. Since the mid 1980’s, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems are used to monitor and manage one or more remote systems from a common
location. The Central Control Room/Master Station is in communication with substation Remote
Terminal Units (RTU) or Gateway.
An RTU in each remote location generally serves multiple purposes: to manage the communication with
the Master Station, support the operation of the local HMI, provide some centralised automation or
control pertaining to the whole substation and is the interface either by hard wires or communications
links to sensors and IEDs within the local facility. The RTU accepts commands to operate control points
or change settings and reports status, analogue, and accumulator data to the SCADA Master Station.
Other architectures use Gateways as specific interfaces, or proxy/protocol converter, for the
communication to the Master Station. The HMI is then provided on a separate work station PC and the
automation provided on a separate computer. The HMI and the station computer may also be a
combined system and/or implemented as “virtual machines” on the same hardware.
The different “generations” of SCADA system hardware implementations can be loosely depicted in App
E Figure 1, App E Figure 2, App E Figure 3, and App E Figure 4
The first generation, App E Figure 1, from around the mid-1980’s were characterised by fairly substantial
RTU cabinets in order to cater for the sometimes thousands of wires that needed to be connected to
the RTU from the various equipment in the substation. PCs were only in their infancy and hence the
RTU supported the HMI operation. The substation equipment at this stage was still essentially “dumb”
providing only analogue or binary signals via hardwired connections. However the RTU provided a
useful control point and some intelligent functionality for alarms and operation of the substation.
The second generation, App E Figure 2 was a result of the various devices in the substation integrating
basic serial RS232/RS485 communication at a few kilobits/second from around the early 1990’s. This
allowed a significant elimination of cabling to the RTU at least to the various devices in the substations.
These devices supported the communication system but were still somewhat limited in their own
functionality – often still being a largely single-function device with only a few data points but at least
its operations could be communicated to the SCADA system.
The third generation, App E Figure 3, introduced the gateway concept as a protocol converter/proxy
between the Master Station and the substation and the segregation of the station computer
functionality. This was also based on the advent of Ethernet LAN technology replacing the serial
RS232/RS485 systems. Bay Controllers were introduced to provide more local control and intelligent
functions on a distributed basis, largely due to the explosion of information in the now multifunction
IEDs.
The introduction of IEC 61850 in 2002-2004 included MMS, GOOSE and Sampled Value communication
mechanisms which has paved the way for the fourth generation, App E Figure 4, “digital substation”
concept. This is where all devices, including the secondary interfaces for primary plant and equipment,
has only its auxiliary supply and a LAN connection, hence significantly smaller in size. A direct
consequence of the elimination of all these secondary control cables is substantially smaller control
rooms and virtually elimination of yard trenches and cabling as well as many consequential engineering
benefits in documentation and elimination of human error.
275
Master Station
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4
RTU
Multi-core wiring
Controllers
ontrollers
Devices &
Controllers
Sensors
Sensors
Sensors
Plant &
Sensors
App E Figure 1 – First generation SCADA with hardwired field connections to “dumb” devices
Master Station
RTU
Multi-core wiring
Communication System
(typically RS232/RS485
Devices &
Controllers IED IED IED
Plant & Plant & Plant & Plant &

Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors
App E Figure 2 – Second generation - provision of serial comms to some semi-intelligent devices
276
Master Station
Station
Computer Gateway
Communication System – Control room only

(typically Ethernet LAN)
Bay Bay
IED IED IED
Controller Controller
Plant & Plant & Plant & Plant & Plant &
Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors Sensors
App E Figure 3 – Third generation with gateway architecture
Master Station
Station
Computer Gateway
EtherNet LAN Communication System – Control Room and Yard
Bay Bay
IED Controller IED Controller IED
Plant & Plant & Plant &

Sensors Sensors Sensors
App E Figure 4 – Fourth generation - the “digital” substation
One can already see further hardware evolutions of the Substation Automation Systems coming onto
the commercial market with fewer individual boxes to the extent of the so-called “one-box solution” to
replace all the IEDs and Bay Controllers.
To note that the digital substation concept is already being deployed with conventional wire-wound
“Ferranti” effect CTs and VTs. A further independent step being considered by many utilities now is the
adoption of “non-conventional” or “low power” instrument transformers (NCIT/LPIT). These alternative
sensors are typically Faraday Effect and Pockels Effect optical sensors, or Rogowski Coil sensors. Whilst
the choice of such sensors is technically independent of the digital substation, their deployment is greatly
277
facilitated by avoiding the need to create 1 A and 110 V signals as their conventional counter parts do.
On the other hand, mixing conventional and NCIT in the same digital substation must be correctly
engineered to achieve consistent and coherent performance of the overall system in all steady-state
and transient conditions. The overall advantage of NCIT technologies is the potential to reduce the
number of sensors cores per location from 4/5/6 to potentially just two has a significant impact on
substation footprint and cost.
A subtlety of these evolutions in the substation deployment is that the Master Station overall
communications to the substation has remained essentially the same throughout and has been
characterised by its own communication protocols to suit. There has however been significant
expansion of the functions of the Master Station both in consequence of the increased data availability
in the substation and in reverse demanding increased data from the substation for more advanced
functionality. Even in the period between 1990 and 2005, it was common to see a ten-fold increase in
data points handled at each substation. This was prior to the advent of IEC 61850 and the ubiquitous
“Internet of Things” exploding in substation technologies. This has also meant a significant increase in
telecommunications bandwidth requirements at each substation from perhaps a few tens of
kilobits/second in the 1980’s, to now substantial Ethernet bandwidth requirements for both the amount
of data and simply being the common industry technology.
The engineering and configuration of the Master Station is a therefore huge task, particularly for 100 or
more remote substations for a typical transmission utility or many times that for a distribution utility.
As the “eyes, ears and hands” of operating the power system, updates of the Master Station systems
has to be carefully planned and managed. A further complexity, as suggested in these diagrams, is that
the Master Station may be working with multiple different generations of substation SCADA systems.
The entire substation asset base cannot be universally upgraded “overnight” to match a new Master
Station. Support for legacy systems is therefore a significant consideration for Master Station upgrades.
Although there are many arguably as diverse as they are similar protocols (some have estimated over
50 in the utility domain), the following sections provide a clearly over-simplified description of the more
commonly used traditional substation SCADA protocols. This is followed by a more in depth description
of IEC 61850 as a complete change of engineering process for the entire Substation Automation System.
E1 TRADITIONAL SCADA PROTOCOLS

In early SCADA systems, each vendor developed their own proprietary protocol for communication
between devices. Since the 1990’s there has been increasing use of standard protocols within the
electricity industry: IEC 60870-5-101 / -104, IEEE 1815 (DNP3) and (to a lesser extent) Modbus have
become the majority of wide-area SCADA communication deployments.
These protocols are based on the Master/Slave model where there is only one Master in the network
that controls all communication, and specifically the Slave cannot initiate any communication sequence.
This must be managed in the substation RTU context where the Master Station as well as the local
substation HMI may request various pieces of information.
When all devices support the same protocol, there is usually little problem for devices to communicate
with each other as long as they support the same subset of protocol features. Any device-specific
differences involved in the implementation of protocol or different selection of optional features may
result in communication errors. By design, SCADA systems can be highly customised to meet the specific
requirements of an individual installation. This customisation typically requires considerable engineering
effort in both design and implementation phases. Irrespective of which protocol and devices are used,
including IEC 61850, attention must be given to verifying protocol compatibility and device
interoperability as one aspect of the engineering of the system.
Most traditional SCADA protocols have no defined semantic for the data to be communicated. Hence
each vendor may name the same piece of information in their IED totally differently and assign their
own choice of data point number to fields providing the same information, e.g. the meaning of data
point #2375, or even if it is a read and/or write-able field, is not self-evident and may be device-specific.
278
Given the huge increase in data, controllable and setting points involved in modern SAS, these protocol
variations and the lack of semantic present a significant problem, to the extent of being practical barriers
in some cases, for efficient and consistent systems engineering.
Both DNP3 and IEC 60870-5 protocol are based on a three-layer Enhanced Performance Architecture
(EPA) reference model for efficient implementation within RTUs, meters, relays, and other IEDs.
E1.1 IEEE Standard 1815 or DNP3.0 Protocol

DNP3 was originally created by Westronic Inc. (now GE). In 1993, the DNP3 “Basic 4” protocol
specification document set was released into the public domain, with management turned over to the
DNP Users Group. DNP3 was adopted as IEEE Standard 1815 in 2010 and continues to be extended as
new editions are published. It is specifically developed for inter-device communication involving SCADA
RTU’s, and provides for both IED-to-RTU and master-to-IED/RTU primarily as Master/Slave
communication. As it is a buffered protocol, it is often used for remote communications where network
reliability may be a factor. It does not, however, provide for security or validation of source and
destination of that data.
E1.2 IEC 60870-5-101 Protocol

The IEC Technical Committee 57 have developed a Master/Slave protocol standard for telecontrol,
teleprotection and associated telecommunications for electric power systems released in 1995. The
result of this work is IEC 60870-5. IEC 60870-5-101 (T101) is a companion standard generated by the
IEC TC57 for electric utility communication between master stations and RTUs. The IEC 60870-5-101
is based on the five documents IEC 60870-5-1 through -5-5. Like DNP 3, T101 provides structures that
are also directly applicable to the interface between RTUs and IEDs. It contains all the elements of a
protocol necessary to provide an unambiguous profile definition so that vendors may create products
that interoperate fully. IEC 60870-5-104 defines the transport of IEC 60870-5-101 data over TCP/IP
communication networks.
E1.3 Modbus Protocol

Modbus is an older messaging protocol, arguably the most widely used local control network protocol
in the industrial manufacturing environment, and has been a de facto standard since 1979. It is an un-
buffered protocol (messages are lost if the communication link is interrupted) which provides
Master/Slave communication between devices connected on different types of buses or networks where
communications are reliable. A common architecture in older SCADA environments is to have Modbus
used between devices in the local site, including the RTU and HMI, with the RTU providing translation
and buffering to a DNP3 based SCADA system remotely. Modbus has been accepted as a Fieldbus
specification standard: IEC 61158-6-15.
E2 MODERN SUBSTATION AUTOMATION SYSTEMS

Apart from the hierarchical SCADA communications typically operating in the 0.1 – 10 second time
frames, connecting wires “horizontally” between the IEDs and the various pieces of plant and equipment
is another form of real-time, i.e. sub-millisecond, communication over wires that must be engineered.
This includes the CT/VT signals, CB/isolator open/trip/close commands and status, protection operation
information, and all manner of start/stop and on/off signals. This wire-based engineering with hundreds
of drawings and thousands of wires and terminations has become a major burden as functionality and
the number of pieces of information to be transmitted has literally exploded since the advent of
multifunction IEDs. The mere fact of repetitive human involvement in the interpretation and creation
of the system from Word specifications-to-Excel lists-to-CAD drawings-to-physical connection of wires
and functional testing requires a huge amount of engineering and checking that can never be
guaranteed to be 100%.
The concept of IEC 61850 was borne in this context of needing to carry out the complete secondary
system engineering more reliably, efficiently and seamlessly to configure the plethora of different types
and brands of IEDs to communicate eliminating semantic and protocol variations. Notably creating
another “mere protocol” was not the objective. This work was not an “averaging process” of various
proprietary systems, but rather started from a “blank screen” of what is needed to meet the objectives.
279
During the development phase, it became evident there were many synergies with another emerging
mechanism, UCA2.0, and hence the work programs merged. After 10 years of significant work, including
a specific modification to the global Ethernet standard, IEC 61850 was first released as some 14 Parts
over the 2002-2004 period. Now after some 15 years of experience it has been deployed in various
degrees in tens of thousands of substations worldwide, now contains some 30 Parts with many new
Parts in preparation for ever expanding applications.
E3 IEC61850 ENGINEERING PROCESS

IEC 61850 is a complete change in mind set, skills, engineering process, and tools. Whilst there are
many references to detailed explanations of the Standard, including several CIGRE Technical Brochures
the following serves as an overview to provide visibility of the extent of this Standard.
A key objective of the new standard was devices from one vendor would be able to communicate with
those of other vendors, i.e. devices should interoperate without proprietary interfaces and that the
engineering configuration of that communication is done with as little human intervention and
interpretation as possible. To achieve this four key components are required:
 Defined engineering process with defined tools and file exchange formats;
 Common data semantic for all pieces of information and parameters;
 A set of appropriate and defined communication message formats (protocols); and
 Defined compliance certification.
These elements provide the asset owners and systems integrators the necessary information to choose
the most appropriate interoperable devices for each of their applications, i.e. IEC 61850 does not
standardise what functionality is contained in the substation, but does provide a far more efficient and
flexible process to do so. As such IEC 61850 a more than just a protocol, it is an engineering
interoperability standard. IEC 61850 is a vendor agnostic engineering process used to configure IEDs
to communicate.
Using standard engineering processes for these communication systems is a very important decision
that leads to cost reduction and maximised flexibility within the electrical facility sector. The benefits
for the asset owner broadly include but are not limited to:
 Vendor-agnostic specification of required functionality;

 Vendor-agnostic configuration of function communications;
 Elimination of a large volume of secondary wiring diagrams showing thousands of
wires/terminations, and therefore elimination of the associated extensive installation, checking
and testing processes;
 Reduced substation footprint with virtually no trenches and minimal cabling;
 Reduced control room footprint with fewer panels, IEDs and wiring;
 Dramatically faster engineering and commissioning (hours rather than months);
 Increased reliability using proven in-service library elements for repetitive use in every new
substation or augmentation or replacement;
 Faster and automated local and even remote testing mechanisms;
 Far greater “self-healing” resilience of the SAS that allows the primary system to remain
operational with fewer consequential outages;
 Dramatically minimised re-engineering of functions and signals when changing vendors;
 Creation of the “digital substation” for all protection, automation, control, SCADA, metering,
condition monitoring in the substation;
 Availability of all required information to confidently select vendors IEDs to achieve the
interoperable functionality required; and
280
 Continuous access to “as operating” documentation (not just as built drawings).
IEC 61850 is not something that an asset owner can buy “off-the shelf” with meaningless specifications
as “all IEDs shall be IEC 61850 compliant” in as much as “buy a roadworthy vehicle” is as the only
criteria. Indeed there are references from significant industry associations, e.g. ENTSO-E, of less than
satisfactory outcomes typically from when such approaches have been used. In the case of ENTSO-E,
they have gone on to undertake a range of investments and have become a significant thought leader
in the deployment of IEC 61850 and its continuing evolution. The sorts of investments required for the
gain of above-mentioned advantages is wide ranging, including the following:
 Upskilling staff and contractors in learning new concepts, jargon, tools and practical solutions
(what to do and what not to do);
 Merging/cooperation of IT, OT and secondary systems technical domains;
 Having a vision of deployment stages in the short, medium and long term;
 Establishing system based specifications and engineering processes with a new suite of
appropriate engineering and testing tools;
 Additional IED procurement considerations of application-compliance beyond just certified
compliance (a device may “comply” but does not have the features and options for your
application needs);
 Establishing a reliable LAN architecture with associated equipment;
 Establishing a Proof Of Concept lab to “iron out” skills, tools, IED selections, functional solutions
and physical arrangements well prior to the first project;
 Implementation of appropriate cyber-security on configurations and messages; and
 Implementation of user/IED LAN access approval and revocation system.
Such an investment program could realised within a 12-36 month period depending on the scope of
deployment and resources applied to the process.
IEC 61850 is a base standard for virtually all aspects of secondary systems information flow from
generation to home automation as enabling efficient deployment of “smart grids” and “smart cities”.
The Standard now has over 30 Parts, and more in preparation, covering many application domains
including:
 Protection;
 SCADA;
 Metering;
 Condition monitoring;
 Controls and automation;
 Distribution automation;
 Distributed energy resources (virtual power plants, hydro, wind, solar, battery, electric-vehicle);
 Synchrophasors; and
 LAN configuration.
The advantage of IEC 61850 for the secondary systems is only realised if one approaches it with the
correct engineering process, tools and architecture. IEC 61850 defines three tools to be used:
 System Specification Tool (where you specify the SLD and functions);
 System Configuration Tool (where you integrate the chosen vendors and create the
communications between the devices); and
281
 IED Configurator Tool (vendor specific management of the capability and deployment to the
IED).
It is important to carefully select the correct tools, and use them in the correct manner, as it can be
very dangerous to just use a combination of multiple vendor specific tools. Using a cobbled-together
proprietary engineering process that has the semblance of IEC 61850 but is in fact contrary to the
principles of IEC 61850 generally results in undesired outcomes or at least a less than satisfactory
experience.
Six specific file types are defined for exchange of information between the tools to eliminate human
interpretation and format translation (e.g. Word to Excel to CAD to physical wires) from one engineering
stage to the next, starting from creation of the single line diagram (SLD) to final configuration file
loading to the IEDs.
The object-oriented data model of IEC 61850 IEDs is defined in the so-called Logical Nodes (LNs)
providing the semantic for every piece of information and every parameter associated with that IED.
All primary plant and secondary system functions are modelled in the various LNs. There are already
over 250 LN types available which may have multiple instances in one IED depending on the role of the
IED and the vendor’s choice of functionality support. Each LN provides several/tens of Data Objects
(DO) and each of those DO having several Data Attributes (DA) either as Mandatory or vendor-Optional
elements. Vendors are free to choose the functions their device will support, and hence the selection
of Logical Nodes. Within the Logical Nodes there are various Mandatory and Optional elements and
hence the selection of a particular IED must include consideration of support for the required data model
for the application. The IED data model is therefore a rich environment for information about the power
system and the configuration of the IEDs.
Having used the three tools and the six file types properly, all the secondary drawings and setting files
are effectively embedded in one single file for the configuration of all the IEDs in the substation. Having
engineered and proven a particular function-to-function message, which never has to be re-engineered
or re-drawn or re-wired or re-tested. This engineering can be copied directly to every instance of that
function without human interpretation/implementation errors creeping in. It only remains that any
change of IED implementation validates support for the required functionality. As a result, an additional
bay can be added and connected up with only a few extra fibers to be commissioned, all within a couple
of hours of engineering and commissioning.
The IEC 61850 separates data model and communication. The communication can be realised by Client
Server or multicast Publisher Subscriber messages carried out over a standard Ethernet LAN.
Client-Server is similar to Master-Slave described earlier, but allows multiple Clients instead of the one
Master, and the Server can initiate communications autonomously which a Slave can’t. Clearly both
Client and Server must be active in the communication in the same sense as making a telephone call.
Publisher-Subscriber is more akin to multiple television stations communicating independently

(publishing) without specific knowledge if anyone is tuned in (subscribed) to their particular message,
but equally they may be tuned in to multiple stations. The multicast capability provided by IEC 61850
allows devices to communicate their ad hoc state changes and respond autonomously to these changes
between themselves without the need for centralised communication through Client-Server
communication. Hence a protection IED will typically implement Server, Publisher and Subscriber
mechanisms. An HMI is likely to just be a Client only, whilst a Gateway is a Server to the Master Station
and a Client to the IEDs. If new communication protocols and their technical implementation, such as
web service, are introduced, the application is not affected. In reality any LAN cable can, and often
does, carry any or all types of messages as analog samples, command/responses, automatic reports,
file transfers and event information.
The IEC 61850 station bus is a physical implementation and is not restricted (as some incorrectly state)
to carriage of just MMS and GOOSE. Station bus provides connectivity to station level devices (Station
HMI, central RTU, station wide computers for auto reclose, remote gateways and others) and to the
bay level devices (protection relays, TF voltage regulation, metering and others), i.e. station bus is
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basically limited to the part of the LAN inside the control room, but may carry GOOSE, MMS and Sampled
Values.
The IEC 61850 process bus is often mis-represented as only the carriage of so-called sampled value
analog waveform information from so-called Merging Units. In reality process bus is the physical section
of LAN network providing connectivity to all the primary plant and sensors (the process real-world), i.e.
process bus is the LAN outside of the control room and may also carry GOOSE, MMS and Sampled
Values.
As a LAN based system, selection of the LAN arrangement can significantly limit, or enhance the
performance of the system and its resilience to device failures. Equally, as a LAN based architecture,
cyber-security must be integrated into the design considerations from the outset.
Automation systems have been organised hierarchically with separate station, bay and process levels.
Typically, IEC 61850 vertical communication across these levels is dominated by client/server MMS bi-
directional relationships for both station-bay and station-process communication. Within the bay level,
and from bay level to process level, the communication takes place as publisher/subscriber relationship
for automatic functions via GOOSE messages (Generic Object Oriented Substation Events). The
synchronous analog samples are transmitted as publisher/subscriber messages unidirectional from
process level Merging Units to bay level IEDs.
A key challenge with so much information and exchange of signals is the availability of the utopian “as
built” documentation. Wire based systems often with several hundred secondary system wiring
diagrams rarely can validate that the set of as-builds are accurate, or in fact available on the day of
energisation, perhaps not even several months/years later. A significant feature of the IEC 61850
structure is the self-description nature of the configurations. This is the ability to interrogate the system
and IEDs to identify their configuration. That together with the automated alarms on any configuration
change means we enter a new era of asset management, operation and maintenance of truly having
access to “as operating” documentation. This is a significant increase in reliability in respect of carrying
out operation and maintenance activities, and of course as the starting point for any augmentations or
replacements.
E4 TIME SYNCHRONISATION
An additional aspect of SAS is the need for synchronisation of the clocks of the various IEDs. In the
first generation of SCADA systems (App E Figure 1), the protection devices operated completely in
ignorance of the actual “time of day”, evidently as most were electromechanical devices with no
computing power and no embedded clock. Time was only relevant to the information at the central
RTU in order to establish the correct Sequence of Events, at least as known by the RTU.
As devices became inherently more intelligent, and with the variable vendor dependent and network
dependent latency of the communication between the IED and the RTU, it has become more critical for
time stamping of events “at source”, i.e. within the IED, and therefore the IED needed it sown clock
and all clocks need to be synchronised to get an accurate Sequence Of Events. The SOE logs generally
need better than 10 ms coherency and hence the IEDs need accuracy and coherency to around one
millisecond. A master clock is then the substation wide reference, but this also needs to be coherent
with other substation masters in order that events at different substations can be accurately time-
aligned. Various time distribution mechanisms are available within the substation such as 1 pulse per
second (with no inherent knowledge of actual time), IRIG-B, Network time Protocol (NTP) and Simple
Network Time Protocol (SNTP).
Although the protection IEDs may now be “time-aware”, the exchange of GOOSE messages remains
”time agnostic”. The overall design requirement is an overall transmission latency function-to-function
of less than 3 ms. The GOOSE message itself does have a time stamp in its header of when that
message was created, but as a repetition message process of multiple object data, this is not the time
stamp of any specific event. Naturally this is consistent with old electromechanical time-ignorant”
devices. Of course it is possible to include the event time stamp from the IED data model, however this
adds a significant bandwidth requirement and adds little value to the Subscribing IED which can only
work on the basis of when the message arrives.
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On the other hand Sampled Values is reliant on time coherency between all the Merging Units regarding
the start of each 1-second time interval within 1 ms of each other. This is because the SV message
contains a time stamp of a set of samples indicated as a counter starting from 1 at the beginning of
each 1-second window, i.e. it is essential to know that the set of samples from all MUs tagged as #2387
by each MU was taken at the same instant +/- 1 microsecond. This extreme coherency requirement is
far beyond the realms of the previous mentioned time synchronisation mechanisms. Therefore IEEE
1588 (v2 2010) has been adopted as the time synchronisation system recognised in IEC 61850 90 3.
This also has the advantage of eliminating separate time synchronisation networks, but does require
the LAN switches to support IEEE 1588 v2 clocks themselves.
E5 LAN ARCHITECTURE
The design of the substation LAN architecture can be a critical element in establishing a system that
provides high reliability, high resilience and easy to maintain. Performance of the protection system is
generally the most onerous requirement but in itself has different requirements depending on the types
of messages to be carried for the particular set of functions being deployed. Specialist advice should
be sought to review the performance objectives and respective issues.
There are however three leading architectures now in common use:
E5.1 Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol RSTP

RSTP has a number of variants: Spanning Tree Protocol STP / Enhanced Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol
e-RSTP and Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol. In principle RSTP is a ring of switches such that messages
can be sent and delivered in either direction around the ring. However to eliminate perpetual circulation
of messages and a fixed delivery route, the LAN switches automatically disable one link in the ring. If
an actual failure of the ring occurs, the switches re-enable the open link which allows messages to still
be sent between all devices. The time from a break in the ring to its recover is referred to as the re-
convergence time. Depending on the particular protocol and the number of switches in the loop, re-
convergence may take from a few tens of milliseconds to perhaps even seconds. Whilst perhaps even
0.5 seconds is not a significant problem for SCADA type applications, particularly with buffered
messages, clearly protection systems missing messages for such a long period may be prone to mal-
operation or no operation. It is for this reason that so-called “bumpless” architectures were created for
mission critical real time applications where the applications cannot tolerate anything more than a slight
delay in messages, and certainly not any missing messages.
E5.2 IEC 62439-3 High-availability Seamless Redundancy HSR

HSR is one of the bumpless architectures which enables reliable deployment for protection applications.
This is similar to RSTP as a ring based system, but the network switches are effectively integrated into
the IEDs directly. The IEDs are then directly connected in a loop.
As the IED has its own dual ports, the message can be sent in both directions around the loop
simultaneously with a direction identifier in the header. The other IEDs will receive both messages but
one slightly delayed. The receiving IED will simply use the first message it receives, i.e. even if the loop
is broken in one place, the receiving IED will receive at least one message.
HSR eliminates most of the need for network switches. However there is a limit to the number of IEDs
in each loop (25 to 50 depending on the particular IEDs), beyond which loops must be interconnected
with Redundancy Boxes or Quad Boxes. Redundancy Boxes may also be required if the IEDs, including
PCs and gateways, only have a single “standard” port arrangement.
Naturally all IEDs in the loop must support the HSR protocol and have sufficient port speed to support
the highest bandwidth requirements. Arrangement of the IEDs in the loop needs particular
consideration, particularly if X and Y protections are in the same loop where they must not be allowed
to be isolated by, for example, the failure of one of the auxiliary supplies to the IEDs, e.g. an X IED with
Y IEDs on both directions around the loop.
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E5.3 IEC 62439-3 Parallel Redundancy Protocol PRP

PRP is the alternative bumpless architecture also enabling protection applications. It assumes the IEDs
have two ports, each connected to an independent LAN. Each IED is then able to send messages
simultaneously on both LANs, allowing both messages to be received by other IEDs. Even if one LAN
fails to deliver the message, the other LAN will still be operating to deliver the message successfully.
This arrangement does mean duplicating the number of LAN switches. However higher reliability and
resilience can be created if each LAN is itself configured as RSTP for example so that each will recover
and maintain complete redundancy operation until maintenance staff an rectify the LAN failure.
E6 CYBER SECURITY
In the early days of SCADA systems, the proprietary protocols and the use of private communication
paths which had no connection to external access points (e.g. the internet) meant both “security by
obscurity” and an effective “air gap” security was created.
The introduction of LAN based communications has introduced a multitude of access points and attack
vectors to the substation LAN. Security must consider both the automatic real-time message exchange
of the automation systems, but also the LAN-based access, and revocation of access rights, to the
various operation and maintenance personnel whether they be in the substation, or at a remote location
and whether using hard connections or some form of Wi-Fi access to the equipment. This must be
established in consideration of the scalability for the ultimate fleet of IEDs in the utility which can easily
be in the several hundreds of thousands of IEDs of all descriptions. There are a number of CIGRE
references regarding cyber security implementation which are a useful resource to understand what is
required to be specified. Cyber security systems must therefore be established by specialists in real-
time critical-infrastructure systems security.
E7 COMPARISON OF PROTOCOLS
App E Table 1 – Comparison of Communications Protocols
Feature IEC 60870-5-101 DNP 3.0 Modbus IEC 61850
Standardisation IEC TC 57 WG 03 DNP User Group Modbus IEC TC 57 WG 10

Organisation Organisation
3-layer EPA 3-layer EPA Based on Ethernet

Architecture Application layer
architecture architecture plus Protocol TCP/IP
messaging protocol
Transport function
Defined
engineering No No No Yes
process and tools
Defined
engineering file No No No Yes
types
Balanced Mode: Balanced Mode: Application layer TCP/IP Ethernet

Point to Point Point to Point & messaging protocol over Cat5/6 cable,
(serial) Point to Multipoint; fibre, Wi-Fi
Serial, TCP/IP and
UDP/IP Single master,
Unbalanced Mode: multiple slave with
Physical layer
Point to Point & profiles for serial or
It supports multiple
Point to Multipoint TCP/IP.
masters, multiple
(serial)
slave and peer-to-
peer
communication
IEC 60870-5-104
provides the same
285
functionally over
TCP/IP
Both IEC 60870-5-
101 and DNP3
provide
- Time
synchronisation
- Time stamped
events
- Select before
Polling by data
operate
priority level
- Polled report by
exception
Multiple data types
- Unsolicited
per message are
responses Does not give time
allowed
stamped events.
- Data
group/classes
Object-oriented
Internal Indication
- Broadcast Does not provide data model: Logical
field present in
Application layer addressing polled report by Device, Logical
response header
exception Node, Data Object,
Data Attribute
IEC 6087-5-101/- structure
Application layer
104: Checksum ensures
confirmation of
proper end-to-end
Limited to single events
communication
data type per
message
Remote starting /
stopping of
Can control one software
point per message applications
only
No internal
indication bits
No application layer
confirms for events
A few application Permits vendors to Allows user to IEC 61850 based
specific data types create application create application information model
available specific extensions specific model of the
Application communication
Specific network and its
information Data objects and Data objects and description in
model messages are not messages substation
independent to independent to configuration
each other each other language (SCL)
files.
Enable/ disable Define group of Efficient online Efficient online
data configuration could configuration could
communication
Online be made by be made via TCP/IP
control objects
configurations Modbus TCP/IP
Selecting data for
responding
286
Loading
configuration
Enable/ disable
communication
control objects
Change report /
logging behavior
Loading
configuration
Change report /
logging behavior
Europe (South North America Used worldwide for Europe, China,
Dominant market America, Australia (Australia and application with low Asia, rapidly
and China) china) volume data expanding world-
wide
287
288
GUIDANCE ON THE PROCUREMENT OF

SUBSTATIONS USING THE WORLD BANK
PROCUREMENT REGULATIONS FOR IPF BORROWERS.
Franklin K. Gbedey, Senior Energy Specialist, and Kwawu Mensan Gaba, Global Lead, Power Systems
Procurement Accredited Staff, The World Bank
F1 INTRODUCTION
This contribution seeks to present the key principles guiding the Procurement of Substations based on
The World Bank Procurement Regulations 1, and specific check points which require the attention of
project engineers and procurement specialists, from the beginning of the procurement process up to
the delivery of the completion certificate. It provides a reference guide on practical issues which could
result in construction delays, price increases and operation cost escalation, when they are not properly
handled from the beginning. Special attention is also given to principles which application ensures the
optimal cost (construction and operation) and guarantees the necessary key functions of the substation.
The World Bank Procurement Regulations are applied to Goods, Works, Non-Consulting Services and
Consulting Services and are based on the New Procurement Framework, effective since July 1, 2016.
As per the Policy, the Procurement Regulations apply to all projects for which the Project Concept Note
is approved after July 1st, 2016, excluding ‘’procurement under Bank guarantees and under Bank-
financed loans made by eligible financial intermediaries, for which the final recipient of loan funds is a
private borrower’’2. The Core Principles of the Policy are: Value of money, Economy, Integrity, Fit for
purpose, Efficiency, Transparency and Fairness.
After an overview of the World Bank Procurement Regulations relevant to the procurement of
substations, this document will discuss the selection methods and the procurement process to give some
guidance on the selection methods suitable to the special cases based on specific market and project
environment conditions. The Bidding packaging of the substation projects, the standard Request for
Bids, Bids evaluation, contract types will be exposed thereafter. Guidance will be also given on the
evaluation of the bids, including the procurement of transformers.
With regards to the optimal design of substations in sub-Saharan Africa, where the needs in rural/remote
areas are specific and the resources limited, the Value Engineering approach included in the new
procurement provisions could be used to ensure the necessary functions of the substation at the optimal
cost. Therefore, a special attention will be given in this document on the approach.
F2 OVERVIEW OF THE WORLD BANK PROCUREMENT PROVISIONS RELEVANT TO

THE SUPPLY AND INSTALLATION OF SUBSTATIONS
The World Bank Procurement Provisions described in The World Bank Procurement Regulations are
applied to Goods, Works, Non-Consulting Services and Consulting Services which can be found at
https://policies.worldbank.org/sites/ppf3/PPFDocuments/Forms/DispPage.aspx?docid=7398246c-
6904-4546-9313-4dd7a8f93faa&ver=current. In this contribution, the World Bank has selected and
described below a set of key provisions which are relevant to substation projects.
F2.1 Standard Procurement Documents - SPDs

The Bank SPDs can be found on the following website:
www.worldbank.org/procurement/standarddocuments.
They are mandatory for all Bank-financed projects for which the project concept notice (PCN) was held
after July 01, 2016. For Procurement involving national competitive Procurement, the Borrower may
use its own Procurement Documents, acceptable to the Bank. The plant SPDs are applicable to the
1 Other international financial institutions also have procurement rules, which may or may not be different from the World Bank Regulations. In
case of project co-financing, the project team should pay special attention to avoid or minimize possible conflicts between the different sets of
rules for a streamlined procurement process.
2
Bank Policy. Procurement in IPF and other Operational Procurement Matters. June 28 th, 2016
289
supply and installation of substations and include the Request for Bids (Without Prequalification) and
the Request for Bids (With Prequalification). The SPDs are mainly composed of the Instruction to
Bidders (ITB), the Bid Data Sheet (BDS), Evaluation and Qualification Criteria, Employer’s Requirements,
Conditions of Contract. In the prequalification process, all substantially qualified applications are
selected (App F Figure 1).
App F Figure 1 – World Bank prequalification process
The prequalification is used with the Request for Bids, and the Initial selection is used for the request
for proposals and the competitive dialogue process. Prequalification is optional depending on the nature
and complexity of the Goods, Works or Non-Consulting Services.
The ITB provides the General instructions on the procurement relevant information to help Bidders
prepare their Bids. The ITB also provides information on the Submission and Opening of Bids, the
Evaluation and Qualification Criteria, the Award of Contract. The provisions of the ITB are to be used
without modifications. The BDS contains provisions of the ITB which are specific to the procurement
and can be modified to adapt to the context of the procurement.
For the procurement of a substation, the BDS contains the identification information of the Bids and the
Employer. The Employer could be the Utility or the Project Implementation Unit in charge of the
procurement. The number of lots (contracts) should be indicated in case the packaging of the
procurement includes multiple lots (generally multiple substations). The BDS should also contain the
name of the Borrower (in case of IDA or IBRD financing the Government), the amount of the loan/credit,
the name of the project. Joint Venture (JV) of construction firms are eligible and the BDS indicates the
maximum number of member allowed. To clarify the information provided in the Bid document and to
answer the clarification questions of the Bidders, the organisation of a pre-Bid meeting and/or site visit
is indicated in the BDS. The cost of visiting the site is at the Bidder’s expense. During the pre-Bid
meeting/site visits, potential Bidders can ask questions to clarify for example the substation layout
drawings, the technical specifications, the bill of quantities, site availability/localization (it is
recommended to visit the site) and any other issues relevant to facilitate the understanding of the
Bidding document and the employer requirements. Minutes of the Pre-Bid meeting, including the
clarification questions raised by the Bidders and responses provided, are prepared and transmitted to
all Bidders who have acquired the Bidding document. The BDS include the possibility of alternative Bids
on time schedule and technical solutions. The evaluation method of the alternative Bids should be
describing in the Evaluation and Qualification Criteria section. For an air-insulated substation, the
alternative technical solution could be a busbar layout arrangement to reduce the area of the substation,
an alternative primary and secondary side bus type (suspension conductor, rigid tubing, rigid
rectangular, rigid angle, Integral Web Channel Bus), a GIS (Gas Insulated Switchgear) solution or the
inclusion of GIS elements. The Bid currency, price, validity period, price adjustment factors and
securities are included in the BDS.
In the section of Submission and Bid Opening of the BDS, the employer’s (Utility of PIU) address for the
submission of the Bids and precise deadline (date and time) for the submission are mentioned, as well
as the address of the place and the precise time of the public Bid opening. The methodology for price
adjustment for evaluation purposes only is described in the Evaluation and Comparison of Bids section
of the BDS as well as the currency and the exchange rates to be used for the evaluation. A Standstill
period of ten (10) business days is given (unless extended in accordance with the ITB) in the BDS to
allow the Bidders to examine the award notification and to decide whether it is appropriate to file a
290
complaint or not. An unsuccessful bidder can request a debriefing from the Employer within three (3)
business days on receipt of the notification of the Employer’s intention to award the contract. The
Employer is required to provide a debriefing within five (5) business days. The standstill period shall be
extended until five (5) business days after the debriefing, in case the Employer decides to provide the
debriefing outside the timeframe of five (5) business days.
F2.2 Standards and Technical Specifications

The specifications for the equipment and works shall not be restrictive but shall be the broadest to
promote competition and ensure the quality and the performances required. International standards
(such as IEC) shall be used as much as possible and whenever other standards or national standards
are used, other standards that are at least substantially equivalent shall be accepted. Brand names,
catalogue references shall be avoided. When a brand name is specified (in very rare cases), it should
always be qualified with the terms “or equivalent” to allow the acceptance of equipment and works that
have similar quality and performance at least substantially equivalent to those specified. At least
conceptual drawings, sketches and pictures shall be included in the specifications to help explain the
employer’s requirements. If Bidders are invited to submit alternative technical solutions, it shall be
described in the specifications.
For the supply and installation of substations, the Specification section shall start with the general
description of the electrical/control equipment and the civil works. The equipment generally includes:
cables, wiring and raceways; medium voltage switchgear; high voltage switchgear; power transformers;
auxiliary transformers; reactors; grounding system; AC low voltage distribution system; DC distribution
system; Lighting and small power system; standby diesel generator; Fire alarm and detection system;
clock system; telecommunication equipment (SDH, PLC, PABX, or other); control, monitoring and
measuring equipment; Protection and metering equipment. The civil works includes: grading,
excavation and compaction of the site; check of the characteristics of the terrain (soil resistivity,
chemical characteristics, ground water level and others); foundations; fencing of the substation
compound; construction of control building, warehouse, residence and guard house; access roads
towards the substation area as well as substation internal ways and roads; drainage system and cable
ducts; systems of water supply and sanitation; concrete for embedded parts and finishing concrete; all
finishing works as masonry works, flooring, ceilings, doors, windows, painting, sanitary installation,
sundry items; ventilation and air conditioning.
The specifications also describe the general aspects of the site conditions and design criteria, health
and safety measures, relationship with other contractors, drawings, layout of works and surveys,
standards codes and regulations, quality of equipment, site facilities, meetings and progress reports,
equipment operation manuals, as-built and record drawings, and training and technical assistance.
The specific project information is detailed, following the general information described above. In the
specific information section, the precise civil works as well as the equipment to be installed are
described. Details of the number and type (HV and MV) switching bays is given with their equipment
(lightning arrestor, current transformer, circuit breaker, line and bus bar insulators and earthing
switches). If applicable, capacitor and transformer bays are also detailed as well as the corresponding
civil works. In this section the control building equipment (including telecom) are also listed with the
overall list of submittals required from the contractor.
The list of the submittals required from the contractor are: the layout of the switchyard including section
and plan views; the layout of foundations, form-work and reinforcement drawings, structural calculation;
the layout of cable ducts and construction drawings; the layout of drainage and execution plans; the
detailed single line drawings (SLD HV and MV, Protection SLD); the patterns developed; the locking
schemes; the wiring and terminal blocks; the list of protection relays and selectivity control; the plans
of switchboards and cabinets; the plans of installation of lighting systems, and lightning protection; the
layout of relays rooms, control room and installation of diesel generator with auxiliaries; the calculation
notes; the plans and supporting technical analysis and water drilling for drinking water and sanitation
systems; the certification testing; the architectural, structural, sanitary, sewage and VAC drawings of
the buildings; and the soil investigation report.
It is also good practice to include in the specifications the following sample forms: the Completion
Certificate; the Operational Acceptance Certificate; the Change Order Procedure and Forms; the Change
Order Procedure (Request for Change Proposal; Estimate for Change; Acceptance of Estimate; Change;
Pending Agreement Change; Application for Change Proposal). The detailed price schedules (Bill of
291
Quantities) for works and equipment are included in the Forms and Procedures section. The employer’s
drawings should also be added to the Specifications.
F2.3 Contract Type

Contracts for substations are normally on a “single responsibility” basis. The contract price shall include
all the contractor’s obligations in respect of the design, manufacture, including procurement and
subcontracting (if any), delivery, construction, installation, completion and commissioning of the
substation.
F2.4 Contract Conditions

The objective of the contract conditions is to provide the proper allocation of responsibilities, risks and
liabilities. The General Conditions of Contract (GCC) and the Particular Conditions of Contract (PCC) are
included in the Request for Bids (RFB) document. Minimum changes, acceptable to the Bank, can be
made to the RFB, as necessary to address any specific conditions.
In the PCC, the law in which the contract shall be interpreted is mentioned as well as the ruling and the
communication languages. The period of supply of the spare parts by the Contractor (usually 10 years)
and the conditions of the supply are described in the Scope of Facilities section. The Time for
Commencement is within 28 days from the effective date for determining time for completion. The time
for completion is given based on the scope of work and local conditions. On average a period of 18
months is usually from the effective date to complete a substation project in Sub-Saharan Africa (with
the proviso that there would be no constraint on transformer manufacturing). The amount of the
performance security must be given as a percentage of the contract amount, which should not exceed
10% for the substation contracts. The percentage of reduction of the Performance Security of the value
of the component covered by the extended defect liability to cover Contract’s defect liability shall be
5%. The Guarantee Test of the facilities shall be successfully completed within 90 days from the date
of completion. Applicable rate for liquidated damages is 0.05% per week and the maximum deduction
for liquidated damages if the contractor fails to attain completion of the facilities or any part shall be
ten percent (10%) of the contract price.
The Contract Documents comprise the following: The Contract Agreement and the Appendices hereto;
the letter of Bid and Price Schedules submitted by the contractor; the Particular Conditions; the General
Conditions; the Specification; the Drawings; other completed bidding forms submitted with the Bid; any
other documents forming part of the Employer’s Requirement and any other documents (to be
specified). The key contract conditions are described in the annex.
F2.5 Bid Preparation Period and Submission

For international competitive procurement, a minimum of 30 business days is allowed for the preparation
and the submission of bids. For a substation project, a pre-bid meeting is recommended given the
complexity of the procurement. The pre-bid meeting will allow potential bidders to seek clarification
and visit the project site. The details of the pre-bid meeting and the site visit are given in the Bid Data
Sheet.
F2.6 Evaluation Criteria

To establish the substantial responsiveness of the bid to the work requirement and the completion time,
according to ITB 16.1, the bidder shall give a detailed presentation of the firm’s design, engineering,
installation and project management methodology. The presentation shall include a method statement
on: (i) the engineering of substations (civil and electrical), (ii) the installation and erection in substation
projects, (iii) the management of the project (project time – implementation schedule with resources,
(iv) the quality control processes, (v) the security, health, environmental and social aspects, (vi) the
coordination with other contractors, (vii) the demobilisation and remobilisation and (viii) the operation
and maintenance (procedures for operation and the routine and preventive maintenance required).
F2.7 Price Adjustment

When the contract period is more than eighteen (18) months (excluding default and liability period),
contract price shall be subject to adjustment. Contracts of shorter duration may also include provisions
for price adjustments when applicable local or foreign inflation is expected to be high. The price shall
292
be adjusted based on a formula included in Appendix 2 of the bidding document. Official price indices
are used for the price adjustment. In practice, price adjustment is usually used for large substation
contracts or under some difficult contract execution conditions (contracts in fragile countries and conflict
zones where the difficult business environment can impact the duration of the substation construction).
The date of adjustment shall be the mid-point of the period of manufacture or installation of the
substation.
F2.8 Seriously Unbalanced Bids and Abnormally Low Bids
In the Borrower’s opinion, the lowest evaluated bid can be seriously unbalanced, and in that case, the
borrower can request written clarifications, including the detailed price analysis, from the bidder to
establish price consistency with the scope or works, methodology and schedule. After evaluating the
detailed price analysis, the employer can accept the bid or, when the consistency is not established after
the clarification the borrower can reject the bid or request the bidder to increase performance security
to a level not exceeding 20%. The borrower can also find the lower evaluated bid price abnormally low
so that the bidder capacity to perform the contract is questioned. To establish the bidder capacity to
perform the contract, the borrower can request written clarifications and detailed price analysis. When
the bidder failed to demonstrate his capacity to deliver the contract, his bid shall be rejected.
F2.9 Most Advantageous Bid

In accordance with the selection method, and based on the evaluation criteria, the contract shall be
awarded to the most advantageous bid. For works, when rated criteria are used the contract shall be
awarded to the substantially responsive and the highest ranked bid. When rated criteria are not used,
the contract shall be awarded to the substantially responsive bid with the lowest evaluated cost.
F2.10 Best & Final Offer and Negotiations

In a Best and Final Offer (BAFO) option the bidders, who submitted a substantially responsive bid, are
requested to submit their BAFO. In this process, the opportunity is given to bidders to improve their
final bids, technically and financially. There is no negotiation after the BAFO. The bidders are informed
in the Request for Bids that the BAFO is to be used and they are not obliged to submit the BAFO.
When allowed in the Request for Bids Negotiations shall be conducted with the Bidder who submitted
the most advantageous Bid. In case of disagreement, the Negotiation shall be conducted with the next
most advantageous Bid, so on down the list until a satisfactory outcome is achieved. Provided they do
not change the minimum requirements of the Bid Negotiations may involve terms and conditions, price,
and/or social, environmental, and innovative aspects. A Probity Assurance Provider, agreed with the
World Bank, is required for BAFO and Negotiations.
F3 SUBSTATION PROCUREMENT PACKAGING

Substation projects usually require the supply of large and heavy equipment such as transformers, SVCs,
shunt capacitors and shunt reactors. The manufacturing duration of these equipment can affect the
construction period of the substations. Moreover, most of the bidders are not manufacturers of these
equipment and the value added of them supplying these equipment is questionable. In projects where
a substantial number of the heavy equipment are supplied, there is a need for standardisation of the
equipment to optimise the spare parts required for maintenance. Therefore, it is recommended that in
large substation projects, the heavy equipment is procured separately using the Request for Bids for
the supply of the Goods, in which the supplier is responsible for the installation and the guarantee of
the equipment. This approach is used in many World Bank projects to save time and money during
construction and ensure the efficient management of spare parts during operation and maintenance.
F4 PROCUREMENT OF POWER TRANSFORMERS

The transformer is a key component of a substation and its acquisition should be handled with
consideration to avoid errors which could result in delay, cost escalation, expensive operation,
maintenance cost and failure. The technical specifications of the transformer should be described in a
detailed manner to allow the user to clearly define the exact requirements and the manufacturer to
understand the user’s needs and constraints. Generally, for the sake of open competition, IEC 60076
specifications are required in the Request for Bids. This standard specification concerns the general
requirements for the acquisition of the transformer and do not address specific conditions of service
293
(severe weather environment for example) which can be vital for the operation and the economy of the
transformer over a long period of time. However, the requirement of specific manufacturing processes
which could restrict the competition should be avoided as much as possible.
The specifications of the transformer should be prepared to provide the manufacturer all the information
needed for the design of the transformers such as power rating, voltage ratio, type of cooling, short
circuit capacity, winding insulation, tapping range and others. The manufacturer should also be
provided with information on the reliability, operation losses, maintainability and service life.
Information of the interfacing equipment in the substation are also necessary to ensure the success of
the installation and subsequent commissioning.
For the evaluation of bids for transformers, the initial cost and the operation cost (which includes losses)
should be considered. For comparison, the cost of valuation of the present value of losses (load and no
load), the discount rate and the depreciation period, should be mentioned in the Request for Bids. A
simplified method for loss evaluation with an example is described App F Table 1 below:
App F Table 1 – Comparison of Transformer Costs
Transformer annual cost of capital (Ca) Practical example of transformer cost estimate for bid evaluation
𝑑 Type of transformer: 35 MVA - 161/20 kV

𝐶𝑎 = 𝐶𝑖.
100
Lifespan of the transformer………………....... 25 years
Ci = Initial Cost of Transformer
𝛼𝑛
d = 𝑖. 𝛼𝑛−1 depreciation factor Interest rate ………………………………………... 10%
𝑖
α =100 + 1 = interest factor
Cost of energy ………………………………........ 0.20 US$/kWh
i = interest rate
n = number of years of depreciation Load factor………………………………………...... 0.6
Cost of transformer no-load losses Depreciation factor …… ………………………… 11
𝐶𝑜 = 𝐸𝑐. 𝑃𝑜. 8760 Transformer A Transformer B

Po (kW) 21 18
Ec = Energy cost (per/kWh) Pw (kW) 136 151
Po = No load losses (kW) Co ($/year) 36,792 31,536
8760 = Hours per year Cl ($/year) 85,778 95,239
Bid price 11,315,643 11,719,359
Ca ($/year) 1,246,623 1,291,099
Cost of transformer load losses
Total Cost 1,369,192 1,417,874
(/year)
𝐶𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐. 𝑓 2 . 𝑃𝑤. 8760
Ec = Energy cost (per/kWh)

Pw = Load losses (kW)
f= Load factor
8760 = Hours per year
Total cost of transformer losses
𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶𝑙
F5 CONTRACT MANAGEMENT
For effective implementation, a contract management plan is developed at the contract creation and
completed when the contract is finalised. The contract management plan shall identify the potential
risks. In a substation contract, the potential risks are (i) the access to the site which is usually subject
to the payment of the compensation to the project affected personnel, (ii) road conditions to supply
heavy equipment such as transformers, SVCs, shunt capacitors to the project site, (iii) payment delays,
(iv) the delay of obtaining outages in substations to be rehabilitated, which can lead to construction
delay, (v) the weak capacity of the project implementation unit, (iv) the difficulties of the business
environment (for example the delay of custom clearance for imported equipment), (vii) subcontractors
risks, and (viii) impact of weather conditions on the construction duration. Mitigation measures shall
be proposed in the contract management plan for the risks identified.
294
The contract management plan shall include the names, role, responsibilities and contacts of the owner’s
representatives, the owner’s engineer and the contractor’s representatives. Necessary authorisation
and delegation shall be granted to parties’ representatives to ensure that all contracting decisions are
valid and enforceable. The communication and reporting procedures shall be clearly defined. In
addition, key contractual terms and conditions, the construction milestones with critical path (using
Gantt diagram, if possible), payment procedures, contract deliverables, KPIs, contract variation/change
and record keeping requirement shall also be included.
The contract and the contract management plan shall be used to monitor the implementation of the
contract to ensure that all parties are complying with the provisions of the contract. To ensure that
value for money is achieved, the employer (owner) shall ensure that the risks are proactively managed
and mitigated, the contract is completed on time within the budget, contract variations/changes are
properly justified and are managed according to the provisions of the contract, the outcome of the
contract is met, the technical and commercial requirement are met or exceeded within the budget, and
the final contract price do not deviate from comparable benchmarks.
F6 VALUE ENGINEERING
Value Engineering (VE) is a systematic analytical process during which the value of a product or plant
is improved. The value is defined as the ratio of the function to cost. Therefore, value can be increased
by increasing the function or reducing cost. VE technics can be used to improve project completion
time and constructability, to reduce the project overall and operation costs, to mitigate project risks.
For the design of substations in sub-Saharan Africa the following functions could be included in the
analysis process: improve voltage profile (reduce under voltage), improve system reliability and stability,
provide electricity to rural communities/small scale transformation industries/farms, improve the power
factor, provide electricity to urban and peri urban areas, provide electricity to industrial areas. Value
standards are determined and will serve as the basis for the analysis of the best ideas. Possible value
standards are the reliability, the ease of operation, the manufacturing and construction ease, the social
and environmental impact, the equipment longevity, the staff safety and the expansion possibilities.
Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) drawing is used for function analysis and subsequent
creativity cycle, evaluation, and development are used to select the best ideas.
In the World Bank General Conditions of Contract, a provision may be included to allow VE. The
contractor is responsible for preparing the VE proposal for the substation at his own cost at any time
for the performance of the contract. The proposal shall include at the minimum: (i) the proposed
changes and their description in comparison to the existing contract, (ii) a full cost/benefit analysis of
the proposed change(s) including a description and estimate of costs (including life cycle costs) the
employer may incur in implementing the value engineering proposal; and (iii) a description of any
effect(s) of the change on performance/functionality.
The VE proposal should not compromise the necessary functions of the substations. The VE proposal
may be accepted by the employer if the proposal demonstrates one of the following benefits; (i)
accelerates the delivery period; (ii) reduces the contract price or the life cycle costs to the Employer;
(iii) improves the quality, efficiency, safety or sustainability of the facilities; and (vi) yields any other
benefits to the Employer. The VE proposal if accepted by the employer, could result in; (i) a reduction
of the contract price; the amount to be paid to the contractor shall be the percentage specified in the
particular conditions of the contract with regard to the reduction in the contract price; or (ii) an increase
in the contract price; but results in a reduction in life cycle costs due to any benefit described above,
the amount to be paid to the contractor shall be the full increase in the contract price. The procedures
to include the modifications resulting from the VE are described in the following contract provisions: (i)
Changes Originating from Employer and (ii) Changes Originating from Contractor.
F7 SUMMARY OF KEY CONTRACT CONDITIONS

The Contract Documents comprise the following: The Contract Agreement and the Appendices hereto;
the letter of Bid and Price Schedules submitted by the Contractor; the Particular Conditions; the General
Conditions; the Specification; the Drawings; other completed Bidding forms submitted with the Bid; any
other documents forming part of the Employer’s Requirement and any other documents (to be
specified).
295
The Completion Time is counted from the date the contract becomes effective: The following
conditions are to be fulfilled for the contract to become effective:
 The contract has been duly executed for and on behalf of the Employer and the Contractor;
 The Contractor has submitted the Performance Security and the advance payment guarantee;
and
 The Employer has paid the contractor the advance payment; the contractor has been advised
that the documentary credit has been issued in its favor
The Notification of Awards conditions are the following. Prior to the expiration of the bid validity,
the employer shall notify the successful bidder in writing that its bid has been accepted (“Letter of
Acceptance”) (ITB 40.1). Until a formal contract is prepared and executed, the notification or award
shall constitute a binding Contract (ITB 40.3). Promptly upon notification, the employer shall send the
successful bidder the Contract Agreement (ITB 41.1). Within 28 days of receipt of the Contract
Agreement, the successful bidder shall sign, date, and return it to the Employer (ITB 41.2).
The Performance and Advance Payment Securities. Within 28 days of the receipt of notification
of award from the employer, the successful bidder shall furnish the Performance Security (ITB 42.1 &
GC 13.3.1). Failure of the successful bidder to submit the above-mentioned Performance Security or
sign the contract shall constitute sufficient grounds for the annulment of the award and forfeiture of the
bid security. In that event the employer may award the contract to the next lowest evaluated bidder
whose offer is substantially responsive and is determined by the employer to be qualified to perform
the contract satisfactorily (ITB 42.2). The contractor shall, within 28 days of the notification of contract
award, provide a security in an amount equal to the advance payment calculated in accordance with
contract terms and in the same currency or currencies (GC 13.2.1).
Release of Advance and Opening of the Letter of Credit. The agreed % of the total CIP amount
shall be paid by the employer to the contract as an advance payment against receipt of invoice and an
irrevocable Advance Payment Security for the equal amount made out in favor of the employer. The
employer may instruct its bank to issue an irrevocable confirmed documentary credit made available to
the contractor in a bank in the country of the contractor (Article 2 of Contract Form).
Time for Commencement and Completion. The contractor shall commence work on the facilities
within xx days from the Effective Date for determining Time for Completion as specified in the Contract
Agreement (PC 8.1). The time for completion of the whole of the facilities shall be yy days from the
Effective Date as described in the Contract Agreement (PC 8.2).
Contractors Responsibilities in Design and Manufacture and Installation. The contractor shall
design, manufacture, including associated purchases and/or subcontracting, install and complete the
facilities in accordance with the contract. When completed, the facilities should be fit for the purposes
for which they are intended as defined in the contract. The contractor confirms that it has entered into
this contract on the basis of a proper examination of the data relating to the facilities including any data
as to boring tests provided by the employer, and on the basis of information that the contractor could
have obtained from a visual inspection of the site if access thereto was available and of other data
readily available to it relating to the facilities as of the date twenty-eight (28) days prior to bid
submission. The contractor acknowledges that any failure to acquaint itself with all such data and
information shall not relieve its responsibility for properly estimating difficulty or cost of successfully
performing the facilities.
Contractors Responsibilities in acquiring Permit/Approval and Licenses. The Contractor shall

acquire and pay for all permits, approvals and/or licenses from government authorities or public service
undertakings in the country where the site is located which such authorities or undertakings require the
contractor to obtain in its name and which are necessary for the performance of the contract, including,
without limitation, visas for the contractor’s and subcontractor’s personnel and entry permits for all
imported contractor’s equipment. The contractor shall acquire all other permits, approvals and/or
licenses that are not the responsibility of the employer and that are necessary for the performance of
the contract.
296
The contractor shall comply with all laws in force in the country where the facilities are to be
implemented. The contractor shall indemnify and hold harmless the employer from and against any
and all liabilities, damages, claims, fines, penalties and expenses of whatever nature arising or resulting
from violation of such laws by contractor or its personnel, including subcontractors and their personnel.
Other Contractor’s Responsibilities. Any plant and installation services that will be incorporated in
or be required for the facilities and other supplies shall have their origin as specified under GC Clause 1
(Country of Origin). Any subcontractors retained by the contractor shall be from a country as specified
in GC Clause 1 (Country of Origin). The contractor shall permit the Bank to inspect the site and all
accounts and records relating to the performance of the contractor and to have them audited by auditors
appointed by the Bank, if so required by the Bank. If the contractor is a joint venture, or association
(JVA) of two or more persons, all such persons shall be jointly and severally bound to the employer for
the fulfillment of the provisions of the contract and shall designate one of such persons to act as a
leader with authority to bind the JVA. The composition or the constitution of the JVA shall not be altered
without the prior consent of the Employer.
Employer’s Responsibilities in Providing Information and in Site Acquisition. All information

and/or data to be supplied by the employer as described in the Appendix to the Contract Agreement
titled Scope of Works and Supply by the employer, shall be deemed to be accurate, except when the
employer expressly states otherwise. The employer shall be responsible for acquiring and providing
legal and physical possession of the site and access thereto, and for providing possession of and access
to all other areas reasonably required for the proper execution of the contract, including all requisite
rights of way, as specified in the Appendix to the Contract Agreement titled Scope of Works and Supply
by the Employer. The employer shall give full possession of and accord all rights of access thereto on
or before the date(s) specified in that Appendix to the Bidding Documents.
Employer’s Responsibilities in acquiring Permit/Approval and Licenses. The employer shall

acquire and pay for all permits/approvals/ licenses from all government authorities or public service
undertakings in the country where the site is located which (a) such authorities or undertakings require
the employer to obtain in the employer’s name, (b) are necessary for the execution of the contract,
including those required for the performance by both the contractor and the employer of their respective
obligations under the contract, and (c) are specified in the Appendix (Scope of Works and Supply by
the Employer).
If requested by the contractor, the employer shall use its best endeavors to assist the contractor in
obtaining in a timely and expeditious manner all permits/approvals/licenses necessary for the execution
of the contract from all government authorities or public service undertakings that such authorities or
undertakings require the contractor or subcontractors or the personnel of the contractor or
subcontractors, as the case may be, to obtain.
Employer’s Responsibilities in Pre-commissioning, Commissioning and Guarantee Tests.

Unless otherwise specified in the contract or agreed upon by the employer and the contractor, the
employer shall provide sufficient, properly qualified operating and maintenance personnel; shall supply
and make available all raw materials, utilities, lubricants, chemicals, catalysts, other materials and
facilities; and shall perform all work and services of whatsoever nature, including those required by the
contractor to properly carry out pre-commissioning, commissioning and guarantee tests, all in
accordance with the provisions of the Appendix to the Contract Agreement titled Scope of Works and
Supply by the Employer, at or before the time specified in the program furnished by the contractor
under GC Sub-Clause 18.2 hereof and in the manner thereupon specified or as otherwise agreed upon
by the Employer and the Contractor.
Other Employer’s Responsibilities. The employer shall be responsible for the continued operation
of the facilities after completion, in accordance with GC Sub-Clause 24.8, and shall be responsible for
facilitating the Guarantee Test(s) for the Facilities, in accordance with GC Sub-Clause 25.2. All costs
and expenses involved in the performance of the obligations under this GC Clause 10 shall be the
responsibility of the employer, save those to be incurred by the contractor with respect to the
performance of Guarantee Tests, in accordance with GC Sub-Clause 25.2. In the event that the
employer shall be in breach of any of his obligations under this Clause, the additional cost incurred by
297
the contractor in consequence thereof shall be determined by the project manager and added to the
contract price.
Employer’s and Contractor’s Staffing and Performance Program. The employer shall appoint a
project manager within 14 days of the Effective Date (GC 17.1). The contractor shall appoint a
contractor’s representative within 14 days of the Effective Date (GC 17.2). Within 21 days of the
effective date, the contractor shall supply to the employer and the project manager a chart of the
proposed organisation to be established by the contractor (GC 18.1). Within 28 days of the Effective
Date, the contractor shall submit to the project manager a detailed program of performance of the
contract showing the sequence in which it proposes to design, manufacture, transport, assemble, install
and pre-commission the facilities as well as the date by which the contractor reasonably requires that
employer shall have fulfilled its obligation under the contract (GC 18.2).
Progress Report, List of Subcontractors and Document for Approval and Review. The
contractor shall supply a progress report of all the activities to the project manager every month. In so
far as no subcontractors are listed against any item in the Appendix titled “List of Major Items of Plant
and Installation Services and List of Approved Sub-contractors”, the contractor shall prepare a list of
subcontractors for such items for inclusion in list (GC 19.1). The contractor shall furnish to the project
manger the documents listed in the Appendix titled “list of Document for Approval or Review”, for its
approval or review as specified (GC 20.3.1). Within 14 days after receipt of any document requiring
the project manger’s approval, the project manager shall either return one copy thereof to the contractor
with its approval or notify the contract of its disapproval and the reasons thereof (GC 20.3.2).
Employer’s and Contractor’s Responsibility in Equipment Transport and Formalities. For any
Employer-Supplied Plant, the employer shall at its risk and expense, transport each such item to the
place or near the site for making it available to the contractor at the time specified in the Program (GC
21.2). The contractor shall be responsible for obtaining, if necessary approval from the authorities for
transportation of the material and the contractor’s equipment to site (GC 21.3). The contractor shall,
at its expense, handle all imported materials and contractor’s equipment for import and shall handle
any formalities for customer clearance for the plant and equipment provided that if applicable laws or
regulations require any application or act to be made by or in the name of the employer, the employer
shall take all necessary steps to comply with such laws or regulations (GC 21.4). The contractor shall
be responsible for the true and proper setting-out of the facilities in relation to bench-marks, reference
marks and lines provided to it in writing by or on behalf of the Employer (GC 22.1.1).
Contractor’s Responsibilities in Labors Requirements, Tests and Inspection. The contractor

shall comply with various labor related requirements as described in GC Clause 22.2. The contractor
shall at its own expense carry out at the place of manufacture and/or on the site all such tests and/or
inspections of the plant and any part of the facilities as are specified in the contract (GC 23.1). GC 25
describes the procedure for Commissioning, Operational Acceptance/Partial Acceptance, Delayed Pre-
commissioning and Guarantee Test.
Risk Distribution. Ownership of the plant to be imported into the country where the site is located
shall be transferred to the employer upon loading on to the mode of transport to be used to convey the
plant from the country of origin to that country. Ownership of the plant procured in the country where
the site is located shall be transferred to the employer when the plant is brought on to the site.
Ownership of the contractor’s equipment used by the contractor in connection with the contract shall
remain with the contractor. Ownership of any plant in excess of the requirement for the facilities shall
revert to the contractor upon completion of the facilities. The contractor shall be responsible for the
care and custody of the facilities until the date of completion of the facilities and shall make good at its
own cost any loss or damage that may occur to the facilities from any cause whatsoever during this
period. The contractor shall not be liable for any loss or damage to the facilities by reasons of: (i) if
they relate to the country where the site is located, nuclear reaction, nuclear radiation, radioactive
contamination, pressure wave caused by aircraft or other aerial objects, (ii) any use or occupation by
the employer or any third party authorised by the employer of any part of the facilities, (iii) any use of
or reliance upon any design, data or specification provided or designated by or on behalf of the
employer. The contractor shall indemnify and hold harmless the employer and its employees and
officers from and against any and all suits, actions, or administration proceeding, claims, demands,
losses, damages, costs in respect to death or injury of any person or loss of or damage to any property
298
other than the facilities, arising in connection with supply and installation of the facilities and by reasons
of negligence of the contractor, sub-contractor or their employees and officers. The employer shall
indemnify and hold harmless the contractor and its employees, officers and sub-contractors from any
liability for loss of or damage to property of the employer, other than the facilities not yet taken over,
that is caused by fire, explosion or any other perils in excess of the amount recoverable from insurance,
provided such fire, explosions or other perils were not caused by any act or failure of the contractor.
The contractor shall take Cargo Insurance During Transport, Installation All Risk Insurance, Third Party
Liability Insurance, Automobile Liability Insurance, Worker’s Compensation, Employer’s Liability and
Other insurances, as agreed. The employer is also required to take some insurances. These should be
defined in (Appendix 3) of the contract. The contractor is not responsible for any physical conditions
or artificial obstructions that could not have been reasonably foreseen prior to the date of contract. If
the employer instructs the contractor to take action to overcome such physical condition or artificial
obstruction, a reasonable additional cost and expense incurred by the contractor in following these
instructions of the Employer shall be paid to the contractor and the time for completion shall also be
extended if the physical condition impedes on the performance of the contract.
If after the 28 days prior to the date of bid submission in the country where the site is located, any law,
regulation, ordinance, order or by-law having force of law is enacted, promulgated abrogated or
changed that subsequently affects the costs and expenses of the contractor and/or the Time for
Completion, the contract price shall be reasonably adjusted to the extent that the contractor has thereby
been affected in the performance of any obligations under contract.
Change in Contract Elements. The employer shall have the right to propose, and subsequently
require, that the project manager order the contractor from time to time to make any change,
modification, addition or deletion to, in or from the Facilities (GC 39.1.1). The contractor may from
time-to-time propose to the employer with a copy to project manager, any change that the contractor
considers necessary or desirable to improve the quality, efficiency or safety of facilities. The employer
may at its discretion approve or reject any change proposed by the contractor (GC 39.1.2). The
procedure on how to proceed with and execute changes is specified in the SBD in the following sub-
clauses. (i) Changes originating from employer (GC 39.2), (ii) Changes originating from
contractor (GC 39.3). Time for completion shall be extended for any of the following reasons by such
period as shall be fair and reasonable in all the circumstances and as shall fairly reflect the delay or
impediment sustained by the contractor: (i) any change in the facilities as provided in GC 39, (ii) any
occurrence of Force Majeure (GC 37), unforeseen conditions (GC 35) other occurrence of any of the
matters specified or referred to in GC 32.2 (a-c), (iii) any suspension order given by the employer (GC
41) or reduction in the rate of progress (GC 41.2) or any changes in laws and regulations (GC 36), (iv)
any default or breach of the contract by the employer, or any activity, act or omission of the employer,
or the project manager, or any other contractors employed by the employer, (v) any delay on the part
of a sub-contractor, provided such delay is due to a cause for which the contractor itself would have
been entitled to an extension of time under this sub-clause, or delays attributable to the employer or
caused by customs, (vi) any other matter specifically mentioned in the Contract.
Claim by Contractor. The contractor shall submit a notice to the project manager, describing the
event or circumstances giving rise to the claim. The notice shall be NOT LATER THAN 28 days after the
contractor became aware or shall have become aware of the event (GC 45.1). If the contractor fails to
give notice of a claim within 28 days, the Time for Completion shall not be extended, the contractor
shall not be entitled to additional payment and the employer shall be discharged from all liabilities.
Clause 45.1 describes the process if such notice is received in 28 days.
Arbitration. Any dispute not settled amicably and in respect of which the DB’s decision has not become
final and binding, shall be finally settled by arbitration. Unless otherwise agreed by both parties,
arbitration shall be conducted as follows: (i) for contracts with foreign contractor: - international
arbitration with proceedings administered by the International Arbitration Institution (to be specified in
PC) in accordance with rules of arbitration of the appointed institution. Place of arbitration shall be the
city where the headquarters of the appointed arbitration institution is located or such other place
selected in accordance with the applicable arbitration rules, (ii) for contracts with domestic contractors,
arbitration with proceedings conducted in accordance with the laws of the employer’s country.
299
F8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 The World Bank, June 28th, 2016. Bank Policy, Procurement in IPF and Other Operational
Procurement Matters;
 The World Bank, June 28th, 2016. Bank Directive, Procurement in IPF and Other Operational
Procurement Matters;
 The World Bank, July 2016. The World Bank Procurement Regulations are applied to Goods,
Works, Non-Consulting Services and Consulting Services;
 The World Bank, Presentation. 2016 Procurement Framework, Standard Procurement
Documents (www.worldbank.org);
 The World Bank, July 2016. Standard Procurement Document - Request for Bids Plant Design,
Supply, and Installation (Without Prequalification);
 United States Department of Agriculture, June 2001. Design Guide for Rural Substations;
 Edited by John D. McDonald, CRC Press 2006. Electric Power Substation Engineering, Second
Edition.
300

Contemporary Design of Low Cost Substations in Developing Countries

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P. TONKING, Convenor AU J.A. VISQUERT, Secretary UK

DR. M. OSBORNE, Editor UK A. AMOD ZA

Executive Summary Figure A – Population without access to electricity, 2016 (millions)

2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................... 23

3. ASSET MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUBSTATION DESIGN ............................ 43

Life Cycle Cost Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 51

4. SUBSTATION DESIGN PROCESS ................................................................................................ 57

5. EQUIPMENT SELECTION ............................................................................................................... 75

5.4 INSULATION COORDINATION ..................................................................................................................................... 82

6. SITE SELECTION, ACCESS AND CONSTRUCTABILITY .......................................................... 103

7. OPERABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY ..................................................................................... 123

Substation Operability – Operational Flexibility ......................................................................................... 139

8. SAFETY SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................ 147

9. PROJECT DELIVERY CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................. 167

Project Execution Plan ......................................................................................................................................... 173

10. COSTING CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................. 185

12. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF SUBSTATION PRACTITIONERS ................................ 211

12.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................................. 211

13. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 221

DEFINITIONS, ABREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ....................................................... 225

LINKS AND REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 237

TECHNICAL SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ................................................. 243

DETAILED DESIGN PROCESS....................................................................................... 271

OPERATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND PROTOCOLS ................................................ 275

E5.2 IEC 62439-3 High-availability Seamless Redundancy HSR ............................................................................ 284

GUIDANCE ON THE PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTATIONS USING THE WORLD

FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1-1 – Rate of electrification between 2000 and 2030 ........................................................................................... 17

App D Figure 1– Detailed Substation Design Process Sheet 1 ......................................................................................... 272

App F Figure 1 – World Bank prequalification process..................................................................................................... 290

App A Table 1 – 1 Definition of general terms used in this TB ......................................................................................... 225

App C Table 1 – Technical Survey Template Questionnaire ............................................................................................. 247

App E Table 1 – Comparison of Communications Protocols .............................................................................................. 285

App F Table 1 – Comparison of Transformer Costs ............................................................................................................ 294

Figure 1-1 – Rate of electrification between 2000 and 2030

1.3 WORKGROUP B3.43 TECHNICAL BROCHURE

1.4 DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF TECHNICAL BROCHURE

1.5 APPRECIATION OF SUPPORTERS

2. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONSIDERATIONS

Figure 2-1– “Simplified” view of substation engineering disciplines

The purpose of this chapter is threefold:

2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY DEFINITION

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO INFLUENCES ON DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Considerations and Constraints

Conclusion to Influences on Design Philosophy

2.3 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING DESIGN PROCESS

Example of Standard Design for a Substation

138 kV DESIGN STANDARD CRITERIA

Figure 2-4 – Example: Preliminary Physical Substation Layout

Custom or Bespoke Designs

Conclusion to the Design Process

2.4 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING PROJECT EXECUTION METHODS

Project Delivery System

Project Financing as Related to Developing Regions

Engineering Delivery System

Conclusion to Project Execution Methods

2.5 PHILOSOPHY REGARDING TYPE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

2.6 DEPENDENCIES AND INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER RELATED PHILOSOPHIES

Related Inputs to and Outputs of Substation Design

Concluding Remarks on Interactions and Dependencies

2.7 SUBSTATION DESIGN PHILOSOPHY CONCLUSION

3. ASSET MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR