Calculus1eng w3

Limit of a Function
SECTION 2.2 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION ◆

Limits and Derivatives
Limit of a Function
s investigate the behavior of the function f defined by f 共x兲苷 x 2 x
of xLet’s
nearinvestigate the behavior
2. The following of the
table function
gives values of f 共x兲byfor values of x clo
f defined
2
f (x) =
equal to 2.x − x + 2 for values of x near 2. The following table gives values
of f (x) for values of x close to 2, but not equal to 2.
x f 共x兲 x f 共x兲
1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000

1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000
1.95 3.852500 2.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025
1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001
MAT 1001 Calculus I 1 / 77
Limit of a Function
y
From the table and the graph of f (a
parabola) shown in Figure we see that
when x is close to 2 (on either side of ƒ
y=≈- x+2
2), f (x) is close to 4. approaches 4
We express this by saying “the limit 4.
2
of the function f (x) = x − x + 2
as x approaches 2 is equal to 4.” The
notation for this is
lim (x2 − x + 2) = 4. 0 x
x→2 2
As x approaches 2,
FIGURE 1

Limit of a Function
In general, we use the following notation.

Definition 1
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L” if we can make

the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking
x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of) but not equal to a.

Limit of a Function
An alternative notation for
lim f (x) = L
x→a
is
f (x) → L as x → a
which is usually read “f (x) approaches L as x approaches a.”
Notice the phrase “but x 6= a” in the definition of limit.

This means that in finding the limit of f (x) as x approaches a, we never
consider x = a.
In fact, f (x) need not even be defined when x = a. The only thing that
matters is how f is defined near a.

Limit of a Function
0 a x
Figure 1:
(a)
Limit of a Function
0 a x
Figure 2:
(b)
Limit of a Function
0 a x
Figure 3:
(c)
Limit of a Function
Figures show the graphs of three functions. Note that in Figure 3, f (a) is
not defined and in Figure 2, f (a) 6= L. But in each case, regardless of
what happens at a, lim f (x) = L
x→a

Limit of a Function calculator (and remembering that, if x 僆
radian measure is x), we construct the f
Example 2 decimal places. From the table and the
sin x lim
Find lim . xl0
x→0 x
This guess is in fact correct, as will be
argument.
Solution.
sin x
x
x
Again the function f (x) = sin x/x is not
1.0 0.84147098
defined when x = 0. Using a calculator 0.5 0.95885108
(and remembering that, if x ∈ R, sin x 0.4 0.97354586
means the sine of the angle whose radian 0.3 0.98506736
0.2 0.99334665
measure is x), we construct the following 0.1 0.99833417
table of values correct to eight decimal 0.05 0.99958339
places. 0.01 0.99998333
0.005 0.99999583
0.001 0.99999983

Limit of a Function
Solution (cont.)
y
(- 1,0.841471) (1,0.841471)
From the table and the graph in

Figure we guess that
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
This guess is in fact correct, we

will prove later using a geometric
argument.
x
-1 1

Limit of a Function
Solution (cont.)
y
(- 1,0.841471) (1,0.841471)
From the table and the graph in

Figure we guess that
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
This guess is in fact correct, we

will prove later using a geometric
argument.
x
-1 1

Limit of a Function
Example 3
π
Find lim sin .
x→0 x
Solution.
Once again the function f (x) = sin( πx ) is undefined at 0. Evaluating the
function for some small x values of, we get
f (1) = sin π = 0 f ( 12 ) = sin 2π = 0
f ( 13 ) = sin 3π = 0 f ( 14 ) = sin 4π = 0 (1)
f (0.1) = sin 10π = 0 f (0.01) = sin 100π = 0

Similarly, f (0.001) = f (0.0001) = 0.

Limit of a Function
Solution (cont.)
On the basis of this information we might be tempted to guess that
π
lim sin =0
x→0 x
but this time our guess is wrong.
Note that although f (1/n) = sin nπ = 0 for any integer n, it is also true
that f (x) = 1 for infinitely many values of x that approach 0.
[In fact, sin(π/x) = 1 when
π π
= + 2nπ
x 2
and, solving for x, we get x = 2/(4n + 1).]

Limit of a Function
Solution (cont.)
SECTION 2.2 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION ◆ 105
The graph of f is given in Figure.
y
y=sin(π/x)
1
_1
1 x
_1
7
The broken lines indicate that the values of sin(π/x) oscillate between 1
The
and −1broken lines often
infinitely indicate
asthat the values of0.sin共兾x兲 oscillate between 1 and 1
x approaches
infinitely often as x approaches 0. (Use a graphing device to graph f and zoom in
toward the origin several times. What do you observe?)
Since the values of f 共x兲 do not approach a fixed number as x approaches 0,
Limit of a Function
Solution (cont.)
Since the values of f (x) do not approach a fixed number as x approaches
0,
π
lim sin
x→0 x
does not exist.

Limit of a Function
Example 4
The Heavisidea function H is defined by,
(
0, t < 0
H(t) =
1, t ≥ 0
106 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
Its graph is shown in Figure.
y EXAMPLE 6 The Heav
0 t
[This function is nam
a
FIGURE
This function is named and can be used to de
8 electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside
after the
(1850–1925) and can be used to describe an electric current that is graph is shown
switched on in Fig
at time t = 0. As t approaches 0
right, H共t兲 approache
MAT 1001 Calculus I approaches 0. Theref
15 / 77
Limit of a Function
106 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
y EXAMPLE 6 T
0 t
[This functio
As t approaches FIGURE
and can
8 left, H(t) approaches 0. As t approaches
0 from the 0
be u
from the right, H(t) approaches 1. There is no single number graph is sho
that H(t)
approaches as t approaches 0. Therefore, lim H(t) does not exist.As t appr
t→0
right, H共t兲 a
approaches 0

Limit of a Function One-Sided Limits
One-Sided Limits
We noticed in previous example that H(t) approaches 0 as t approaches 0

from the left and H(t) approaches 1 as t approaches 0 from the right. We
indicate this situation symbolically by writing
lim H(t) = 0 and lim H(t) = 1

t→0− t→0+
The symbol “t → 0− ” indicates that we consider only values of t that are

less than 0.
Likewise,“t → 0+ ” indicates that we consider only values of t that are
greater than 0.

Definition 5
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a [or the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a from the left] is equal to L if we can make the
values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to
a and x less than a.

Notice that Definition 5 differs from Definition 1 only in that we require x

to be less than a.
Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get “the right-hand
limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L” and we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
Thus, the symbol “x → a+ ” means that we consider only x > a.
These definitions are illustrated in Figure 4.

2 differs from Limit of a Function 1 only in that we require xOne-Sided
Definition to beLimits
e require that x be greater y than a, we get “the right-hand y
hes a is equal to L” and we write
lim f 共x兲苷 L
x l a
L
ƒ L
” means that we consider only x a. These definitions are
0 x a x 0 a
y
FIGURE 9 (a) lim ƒ=L
x a_
L ƒ
L
a x 0 a x x
(b) lim ƒ=L

Figure 4:
x a+

By comparing Definition 1 with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see

that the following is true.
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if and only if
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L
x→a+ x→a−

Limit of a Function
followingOne-Sided
is true.Limits
Example 6 3 lim f 共x兲苷 L if and

xla
The graph of a function is shown in Figure. Use it to state the values (if
they exist) of the following:
y a) lim
EXAMPLE g(x)graph of a functi
7 The
x→2−
4 values
b) (if
limthey
g(x)exist) of the follow
x→2+
3 (a) c)lim t共x兲 (b) lim t共x
y=© xl2lim
g(x) xl2
x→2
(d) d)limlim

t共x兲
g(x) (e) lim t共x
x lx→5
5 − xl5
1
e) lim g(x)
SOLUTIONx→5
From
+ the graph we see t
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
f) the
from limleft,
g(x)but they approach
x→5
FIGURE 10 (a) lim t共x兲苷

xl2
MAT 1001 Calculus I

(c) Since the left and right 22limit
/ 77
Limit of a Function One-Sided Limits 3 lim f 共x
xla
Solution.
y EXAMPLE 7 The
4 values (if they e
3 (a) lim t共x兲
y=© xl2
(d) lim t共x兲

xl5
1
SOLUTION From th
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
from the left, bu
From the graph we see that the values of g(x) approach 3 as x
approaches 2 fromFIGURE 10 but they approach 1 as x approaches 2
the left,
from the right. Therefore
(c) Since the le
a) lim g(x) = 3 and b) lim g(x) = 1.
x→2− x→2+ limx l 2 t共x兲 does
The graph al
Solution (cont.) 3 lim f 共x

xla
c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude that lim g(x)
x→2
does not exist.
y EXAMPLE 7 The
4 values (if they e
3 (a) lim t共x兲
y=© xl2
(d) lim t共x兲

xl5
1
SOLUTION From th
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
from the left, bu
The graph also shows that

FIGURE 10
d) lim g(x) = 2 and e) lim g(x) = 2.
x→5− x→5+
(c) Since the le
MAT 1001 Calculus I
limx l 2 t共x兲24does
/ 77
Solution (cont.)
f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so, we have
lim g(x) = 2.
x→2
Despite this fact, notice that g(5) 6= 2.

Limit of a Function One-Sided Limits x l 5
Example 7 (f) This time the left and

1
Find lim if it exists.
x→0 x2
Despite this fact, notice th
Solution.
As x becomes close to 0, x2 also becomes close to 0, and 1/x2 becomes 1
very large. EXAMPLE 8 Find lim 2 if
xl0 x
SOLUTION As x becomes clo

1
x very large. (See the table
x2
tion f 共x兲苷 1兾x 2 shown in
1 1 large by taking x close en
0.5 4 number, so lim x l 0 共1兾x 2 兲
0.2 25
0.1 100
0.05 400
0.01 10,000
0.001 1,000,000

Solution (cont.)
y
In fact, it appears from the graph

of the function f (x) = 1/x2
shown in Figure that the values
of f (x) can be made arbitrarily
large by taking x close enough to
0. Thus, the values of f (x) do not
1
approach a number, so lim 2
x→0 x
( 1. , 1. ) does not exist.

Solution (cont.)
y
In fact, it appears from the graph

of the function f (x) = 1/x2
shown in Figure that the values
of f (x) can be made arbitrarily
large by taking x close enough to
0. Thus, the values of f (x) do not
1
approach a number, so lim 2
x→0 x
( 1. , 1. ) does not exist.

Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

Limit Laws
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f (x) and lim g(x)

x→a x→a
exist. Then
1 lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
2 lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
3 lim [c.f (x)] = c. lim f (x)
x→a x→a
4 lim [f (x).g(x)] = lim f (x). lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
lim f (x)
f (x) x→a
5 If lim g(x) 6= 0, then lim =
x→a x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

Limit Laws (cont.)

6 lim [f (x)]n = [ lim f (x)]n , where n is a positive integer.
x→a x→a
7 lim c = c
x→a
8 lim x = a
x→a
9 lim xn = an , where n is a positive integer
x→a
√ √
10 lim n x = n a, where n is a positive integer.
x→a
(If n is even, we assume that lim f (x) > 0)

x→a

Example 8
Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.
lim (2x2 − 3x + 4)
x→5
Solution.
lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) = lim (2x2 ) − lim (3x) + lim 4 (by Laws 2, 1)

x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5
= 2 lim x2 − 3 lim x + lim 4 (by 3)
x→5 x→5 x→5
2
= 2(5 ) − 3(5) + 4 (by 9, 8, and 7)
= 39

However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution, as the

following examples show.
Example 9
x2 − 1
Find lim .
x→1 x − 1
Solution.
Let f (x) = (x2 − 1)/(x − 1). We can’t find the limit by substituting x = 1
because f (1) isn’t defined. Nor can we apply the Quotient Law because
the limit of the denominator is 0. Instead, we need to do some preliminary
algebra.

Solution (cont.)
We factor the numerator as a difference of squares:
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x−1 x−1
The numerator and denominator have a common factor of x − 1. When we
take the limit as approaches 1, we have x 6= 1 and so x − 1 6= 0. Therefore,
we can cancel the common factor and compute the limit as follows:
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
lim = lim
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1
= lim (x + 1)
x→1
=1+1=2

Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws gent to the parabo
3
y=ƒ
Example 10 EXAMPLE 4 Find li
2 xl
Find lim g(x) where
x→1
1
(
x+1 if x 6= 1
g(x) =
0 π if x = 1 x
1 2 3
SOLUTION Here t is
y
approaches 1 does
for x 苷 1, we hav
3
y=©
2
Note that the va
1
x 苷 1 (see Figure
0 1 2 3 x
EXAMPLE 5 Evalua
MAT 1001 FIGURE 2 Calculus I 33 / 77
Solution.
Here g is defined at x = 1 and g(1) = π, but the value of a limit as x
approaches 1 does not depend on the value of the function at 1. Since
g(x) = x + 1 for x 6= 1, we have
lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 2.

x→1 x→1

Example 11
(3 + h)2 − 9
Evaluate lim .
h→0 h
Solution.
(3 + h)2 − 9
If we define F (h) = we can’t compute lim F (h) by letting
h h→0
h = 0 since F (0) is undefined. But if we simplify F (h) algebraically, we
find that
(h2 + 6h + 9) − 9 h2 + 6h
F (h) = = =6+h
h h
(Recall that we consider only h 6= 0 when letting h approach 0.) Thus
(3 + h)2 − 9
lim = lim (6 + h) = 6
h→0 h h→0

Example 12
√
t2 + 9 − 3
Find lim .
t→0 t2
Solution.
We can’t apply the Quotient Law immediately, since the limit of the
denominator is 0.
√ √ √
t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim .√
t→0 t2 t→0 t2 t2 + 9 + 3
(t2 + 9) − 9 t2
= lim √ = lim √
t→0 t2 ( t2 + 9 + 3) t→0 t2 ( t2 + 9 + 3)
1 1
= lim √ =q
t→0 t2 + 9 + 3 lim(t2 + 9) + 3
t→0
1 1
= =
3+3 6
Some limits are best calculated by first finding the left- and right-hand
limits. The following theorem says that a two-sided limit exists if and only
if both of the one-sided limits exist and are equal.
Theorem 13
lim f (x) = L if and only if
x→a
lim f (x) = L = lim f (x)

x→a+ x→a−
When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also
hold for one-sided limits.

Example 14
Show that lim |x| = 0.
x→0
Solution.
Recall that
x, x≥0
|x| =
−x, x < 0
Since |x| = x for 0 < x, we have
lim |x| = lim x = 0

x→0+ x→0+

When comput
one-sided limits.
Solution (cont.)
For x < 0 we have |x| = −x and so EXAMPLE 7 Show
lim |x| = lim (−x) = 0 SOLUTION Recall th

x→0− x→0−
Therefore, by Theorem
lim
▲ The result x→0 |x| = 0.
of Example 7 looks
plausible from Figure 3. ⱍ ⱍ
Since x 苷 x fo
y
y=|x|
For x 0 we ha
0 x Therefore, by Th
MAT 1001 FIGURE 3 Calculus I 39 / 77

Example 15
|x|
Prove that lim does not exist.
x→0 x
Solution.
|x| x
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
x→0+ x x→0 x
+ x→0+
|x| −x
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
x→0− x x→0 − x x→0−
Since the right- and left-hand limits are different, it follows from Theorem
that limit does not exist.

ht- and left-hand limits are different, it follows from The
x does not exist. The graph of the function f 共x兲苷 x 兾x
Solution (cont.) ⱍ ⱍ
supports the limits that we found.
y
|x|
y= x 1
0 x
_1
The graph of the function f (x) = |x|/x is shown in Figure and supports
Thethegreatest
one-sided limits that we
integer found.
function is defined by 冀x冁苷 the
larg
han or equal to x. (For instance, 冀4冁苷 4, 冀4.8冁苷 4, 冀冁苷
Theorem 16
If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f
and g both exist as x approaches a, then
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).

x→a x→a

Theorem 17 (The Squeeze Theorem)

If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a
then
lim g(x) = L.
x→a

The Squeeze Theorem, which is sometimes called the Sandwich then

Theorem
or the Pinching Theorem, is illustrated by Figure.
y
h The Squeez
Theorem, is ill
g
L
h共x兲 near a, and
limit L at a.
f
EXAMPLE 10 Sh
0 a x
SOLUTION First n
It says that if g(x)FIGURE 6 between f (x) and h(x) near a, and if f
is squeezed
and h have the same limit L at a, then g is forced to have the same limit
L at a.
MAT 1001 Calculus I because lim

44 /x77l
Example 18
1
lim x2 sin =?
x→0 x
Solution.
First note that we cannot use
1 1
lim x2 sin = lim x2 · lim sin
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x
1
because lim sin does not exist.
x→0 x

SECTION 2.3 CALCULATING LIMITS USING THE LIMIT LAWS ◆ 117

Solution (cont.)
y
y=≈
1
y=≈ sin x
similar limit.
le 2
0 x
s
imit that Exists
y=_≈
FIGURE 7
We know that
However, since
lim x 2 苷 0
1 lim x 2 苷 0 and
x l0
≤1
x l0
−1 ≤ sin
x 苷 x 2 in the Squeeze Theorem, we
Taking f 共x兲苷 x 2, t共x兲苷 x 2 sin共1兾x兲, and h共x兲
obtain
we have, as illustrated by Figure
1
lim x 2 sin 苷0
x l0 x 1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2 .
x
es ● ● ● ● ●
MAT 1001
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Calculus I
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
46 / 77
Solution (cont.)
We know that lim x2 = 0 and lim (−x2 ) = 0 Taking
x→0 x→0
1
f (x) = −x2 , g(x) = x2 sin and h(x) = x2
x
in the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain
1
lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x

Continuity
Continuity
We noticed that the limit of a function as x approaches a can often be

found simply by calculating the value of the function at a.
Functions with this property are called continuous at a.
We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds

closely with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language.

Continuity
Definition 19
A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
We say that f is discontinuous at a, or f has a discontinuity at a, if f is

not continuous at a.
Notice that Definition implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at

a:
1 f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )
2 lim f (x) exists
x→a
3 lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a

Continuity
The definition says that f is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x

approaches a.
Thus, a continuous function f has the property that a small change in x
produces only a small change in f (x).
In fact, the change in f (x) can be kept as small as we please by keeping
the change in x sufficiently small.

Continuity
at a. Notice that
▲ As illustrated in Figure 1, if f is con- 1. f 共a兲 is defi
tinuous, then the points 共x, f 共x兲兲 on the
Geometrically, you can think
graph of of a function
f approach the that
point is共a,continuous
f 共a兲兲 lim f 共x兲
at2.every ex
x la
number in an intervalonasthea graph.
function whose graph has
So there is no gap in the no break in it. The
graph can be drawn without
curve. removing your pen from the paper.3. lim f 共x兲苷
x la
y y=ƒ The definition
ƒ
a. Thus, a contin
approaches f(a)
only a small cha
f(a). please by keepin
Physical phen
velocity of a veh
continuities do o
tion 2.2, where th
0 a x not exist.]
As x approaches a, Geometrically
interval as a func
FIGURE 1 out removing yo
Continuity
Example 20
Figure shows the graph
120of a ■
function f . At
CHAPTER whichAND
2 LIMITS numbers is f
DERIVATIVES
discontinuous? Why?
y EXAMPLE 1 Figur
tinuous? Why?
SOLUTION It looks
break there. The
The graph als
different. Here,
0 1 2 3 4 5 x right limits are d
What about a
and right limits
FIGURE 2

Continuity
Solution.
It looks as if there is a discontinuity when a = 1 because the graph has a
120 reason
break there. The official ■ CHAPTER
that f is 2discontinuous
LIMITS ANDatDERIVATIVES
1 is that f (1) is
not defined.
y EXAMPLE 1
tinuous? W
SOLUTION It
break there
The gra
different. H
0 1 2 3 4 5 x right limits
What ab
and right li
FIGURE 2
Continuity
Solution (cont.)
The graph also has a break when a = 3, but the reason for the
discontinuity is different. ■ fCHAPTER
120 Here, (3) is defined, but AND
2 LIMITS lim f DERIVATIVES
(x) does not exist
x→3
(because the left and right limits are different). So f is discontinuous at 3.
y EXAMPLE 1
tinuous? W
SOLUTION It
break there
The gra
different. H
0 1 2 3 4 5 x right limits
What ab
and right li
MAT 1001
FIGURE 2 Calculus I 54 / 77
Continuity
Solution (cont.)
What about a = 5? Here, f (5) is defined and lim f (x) exists (because
x→5
the left and right limits are the same). But
120
lim f (x) 6= f (5)
■x→5 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
So f is discontinuous at 5.
y EXAMPLE 1 Figur
tinuous? Why?
SOLUTION It looks
break there. The
The graph als
different. Here,
0 1 2 3 4 5 x right limits are d
What about a
and right limits
MAT 1001
FIGURE 2 Calculus I 55 / 77
Continuity
Example 21
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
x2 −x−2
(a) f (x) = x−2
(
1
x2
, x 6= 0
(b) g(x) =
1, x=0
( 2
x −x−2
x−2 , x 6= 2
(c) h(x) =
1, x=2
(d) k(x) = [[x]]

Continuity
Solution.
x2 − x − 2
(a) f (x) =
x−2
Notice that f (2) is not defined at 2, so f is discontinuous at 2.

 1 , x 6= 0
(b) f (x) = x2
1, x=0
Here f (0) = 1 is defined but
1
lim f (x) = lim
x→0 x→0 x2
does not exist. So f is discontinuous at 0.

Continuity
Solution (cont.)
 2
x − x − 2
, x 6= 2
(c) f (x) = x−2
1, x=2

Here f (2) = 1 is defined and
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2
exists. But
lim f (x) 6= f (2)
x→2
so f is not continuous at 2.
(d) The greatest integer function f (x) = [|x|] has discontinuities at all of
the integers because lim [|x|] does not exist if n is an integer.
x→n

Continuity single
single
number
number
2. [The
2. [Th
fu
(b) is
(b)called
is called
an infinite
an infin
Solution (cont.) discontinuities
discontinuitiesbecause
beca
y y y y
1 1 1 1
0 01 12 2 x x 0 0 x x
(
x2 − x − 2 1/x2 , if x 6= 0
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
(a) ƒ=
(a) ƒ=
≈-x-2
x-2x-2
≈-x-2
x−2
(b) ƒ= 冦 1 冦 1if x=0
(b) ƒ=
ifif x≠0
1,1/≈ 1/≈ x if
= x≠0
if x=0
0
FIGURE
FIGURE
3MAT 1001
3 Calculus I 59 / 77
ction
unction 苷 x苷x 1is1continuous.]
t共x兲t共x兲 is continuous.]
Continuity TheThediscontinuity
discontinuity
in part
in par
discontinuity.
continuity. TheThe discontinuities
discontinuities
in part
in part
(d) (d)
areare
called
called
jump
jump
eethe
function
function
Solution “jumps”
“jumps”
(cont.) from
from
oneone
value
value
to another.
to another.
y y y y
1 1 1 1
0 0 1 12 2 x x 0 0 1 1 2 23 3 x x
(
x2 −x−2
if x 6= 2 x−2 ,
≈-x-2
(c) f≈-x-2
(x) = (d) f (x) = [|x|]
if if
x≠2 x≠2
(c) ƒ=
(c) ƒ= x-2 x-21, if x = 2 (d) (d)
ƒ=[ ƒ=[
x] x]
1 1 if x=2
if x=2

Continuity Kinds of Discontinuity
Kinds of Discontinuity
Figures shows the graphs of the functions in previous example. In each

case the graph can’t be drawn without lifting the pen from the paper
because a hole or break or jump occurs in the graph.
The kind of discontinuity illustrated in parts (a) and (c) is called

removable because we could remove the discontinuity by redefining f at
just the single number 2. [The function g(x) = x + 1 is continuous.]
The discontinuity in part (b) is called an infinite discontinuity.
The discontinuities in part (d) are called jump discontinuities because

the function “jumps” from one value to another.

Continuity Continuity from right/left
Continuity from right/left
Definition 22
A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+
and f is continuous from the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a−
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every

number in the interval.

Definition 23
If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we
understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the
right or continuous from the left.
Theorem 24
If f and g are continuous at a, and c is a constant, then the following
functions are also continuous at a:
1 f +g
2 f −g
3 c·f
4 f ·g
f
5 , g(a) 6= 0
g

Theorem 25
(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
R = (−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is
continuous on its domain.
As an illustration of this theorem, observe that the volume of a sphere
varies continuously with its radius because the formulaV (r) = 34 πr3 shows
that V is a polynomial function of r.
Likewise, if a ball is thrown vertically into the air with a velocity of 50
f t/s, then the height of the ball in feet after t seconds is given by the
formula h = 50t − 16t2 . Again this is a polynomial function, so the height
is a continuous function of the elapsed time.

Example 26
x3 + 2x2 − 1
Find lim .
x→−2 5 − 3x
Solution.
x3 + 2x2 − 1
The function f (x) = is rational, so by Theorem it is
5 − 3x
continuous on its domain, which is {x ∈ R|x 6= 35 }. Therefore
x3 + 2x2 − 1
lim = lim f (x) = f (−2)
x→−2 5 − 3x x→−2
(−2)3 + 2(−2)2 − 1 1
= =− .
5 − 3(−2) 11

The inverse function of any continuous function is also continuous. (The

graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x.
So if the graph of f has no break in it, neither does the graph of f −1 .)
Thus, the inverse trigonometric functions are continuous.
Theorem 27
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their
domains:
• polynomials
• rational functions
• trigonometric functions
• inverse trigonometric functions
• exponential functions
• logarithmic functions
• root functions

Example 28
ln x + tan−1 x
Where is the function f (x) = continuous?
x2 − 1
Solution.
We know from Theorem 27 that the function y = ln x is continuous for
x > 0 and y = tan−1 x is continuous on R. Thus by part 1 of Theorem 24,
y = ln x + tan−1 x is continuous on (0, ∞). The denominator, y = x2 − 1,
is a polynomial, so it is continuous everywhere. Therefore, by part 5 of
Theorem 24, f is continuous at all positive numbers x except where
x2 − 1 = 0. So f is continuous on the intervals (0, 1) and (1, ∞).

Example 29
sin x
Evaluate lim .
x→π 2 + cos x
Solution.
Theorem tells us that y = sin x is continuous. The function in the
denominator, y = 2 + cos x, is the sum of two continuous functions and is
therefore continuous. Notice that this function is never 0 because
cos x ≥ −1 for all x and so 2 + cos x > 0 everywhere. Thus, the ratio
sin x
f (x) =
2 + cos x
is continuous everywhere. Hence, by definition of a continuous function,
sin x sin π 0
lim = lim f (x) = f (π) = = = 0.
x→π 2 + cos x x→π 2 + cos π 2−1

Theorem 30
If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then,
x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).

x→a
In other words,
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

Example 31
√
1− x
Find lim arcsin .
x→1 1−x
Solution.
Because arcsin is a continuous function, we can apply theorem:
√ √
1− x 1− x
lim arcsin = arcsin lim
x→1 1−x x→1 1 − x
√
1− x
= arcsin lim √ √
x→1 (1 − x)(1 + x)

1
= arcsin lim √
x→1 1 + x
1 π
= arcsin =
2 6

Theorem 32
If g is continuous at a, f is continuous at g(a) then the composite
function f ◦ g given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.

Example 33
Where are the following functions continuous?
(a) h(x) = sin x2

(b) F (x) = ln 1 + cos(x)
Solution.
(a) We have h(x) = f (g(x)), where g(x) = x2 and f (x) = sin x. Now g
is continuous on R since it is a polynomial, and f is also continuous
everywhere. Thus, h = f ◦ g is continuous on R.

Continuity
that is, f ⴰ t is
Continuity from right/left
Solution (cont.)
(b) We know from Theorem that f (x) = ln x is continuous andEXAMPLE 9 Wh
g(x) = 1 + cos x (because both y = 1 and y = cos x are (a) h共x兲苷 sin
continuous).
Therefore, by Theorem, F (x) = f (g(x)) is continuous wherever it is
SOLUTION
defined. Now ln(1 + cos x) is defined when 1 + cos x > 0. So it is
undefined when cos x = −1 and this happens when x = ±π, (a) ±3π,
We have. . .. h共
Thus, F has discontinuities when x is an odd multiple of π and is
continuous on the intervals between these values.
2
Now t is contin
_10 10 where. Thus, h
(b) We know f
is continuous (
Theorem 9, F共x
is defined when
_6
pens when x 苷
MAT 1001 FIGURE 7 Calculus I tiple of 73and
/ 77 i
Theorem 34 (The Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N be any
number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a
number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

SECTION
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY◆
2.4 CONTINUITY ◆127
y y y y
f(b) f(b) f(b) f(b)
N N
y=ƒ
y=ƒ
N N
f(a) f(a) y=ƒ

y=ƒ f(a) f(a)
0 0a a c b c xb x 0 0a c¡a c¡ c™ c™ c£ c£
b xb x
(a) (a) (b) (b)

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes
on every intermediate value between the function values f (a) and f (b).
If weIf think
Note wethat
think
ofthe
aofcontinuous
a continuous
value N canfunction
befunction
takenas on
aasfunction
a function
once whose
[first whose
graph
graph] orgraph
has has
more no hole
thanno hole
or
ak,
break,
thenthen
it is iteasy
is easy
to believe
to believe
that that
the Intermediate
the IntermediateValueValue
Theorem
Theorem
is true.
is true.
In geo-
In g
once [second graph].
tric
metric
termsterms
it says
it says
that that
if any
if any
horizontal
horizontal y 苷 yN苷isNgiven
line line is given
between y 苷 yf 共a兲
between 苷 fand
共a兲
苷 yf 共b兲
苷 fas共b兲inasFigure
in Figure
9, then
9, then
the graph
the graph
of f of
can’t
f can’t
jumpjump
overover
the line.
the line.
It must
It must
intersect
inters
苷 yN苷somewhere.
N somewhere.
One use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is in locating roots of

equations as in the following example.
Example 35
Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 between
1 and 2.
Solution.
Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2. We are looking for a solution of the given
equation, that is, a number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0.
Therefore, we take a = 1, b = 2 and N = 0.

Solution (cont.)
f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0
and
f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0
Thus, f (1) < 0 < f (2); that is, N = 0 is a number between f (1) and
f (2). Now f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so the Intermediate
Value Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that
f (c) = 0.

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Limit of a Function

SECTION 2.2 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION ◆

1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000

MAT 1001 Calculus I 2 / 77

In general, we use the following notation.

and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L” if we can make

MAT 1001 Calculus I 3 / 77

An alternative notation for

Notice the phrase “but x 6= a” in the definition of limit.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 4 / 77

MAT 1001 Calculus I 8 / 77

MAT 1001 Calculus I 9 / 77

From the table and the graph in

This guess is in fact correct, we

MAT 1001 Calculus I 10 / 77

From the table and the graph in

This guess is in fact correct, we

MAT 1001 Calculus I 10 / 77

f (1) = sin π = 0 f ( 12 ) = sin 2π = 0

f ( 13 ) = sin 3π = 0 f ( 14 ) = sin 4π = 0 (1)

f (0.1) = sin 10π = 0 f (0.01) = sin 100π = 0

MAT 1001 Calculus I 11 / 77

MAT 1001 Calculus I 12 / 77

MAT 1001 Calculus I 14 / 77

106 ■ CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

MAT 1001 Calculus I 16 / 77

We noticed in previous example that H(t) approaches 0 as t approaches 0

lim H(t) = 0 and lim H(t) = 1

The symbol “t → 0− ” indicates that we consider only values of t that are

MAT 1001 Calculus I 17 / 77

MAT 1001 Calculus I 18 / 77

Notice that Definition 5 differs from Definition 1 only in that we require x

Thus, the symbol “x → a+ ” means that we consider only x > a.

These definitions are illustrated in Figure 4.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 19 / 77

(b) lim ƒ=L

MAT 1001 Calculus I 20 / 77

By comparing Definition 1 with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see

MAT 1001 Calculus I 21 / 77

Example 6 3 lim f 共x兲 苷 L if and

FIGURE 10 (a) lim t共x兲 苷

MAT 1001 Calculus I

(d) lim t共x兲

Solution (cont.) 3 lim f 共x

(d) lim t共x兲

The graph also shows that

Despite this fact, notice that g(5) 6= 2.

MAT 1001 Calculus I 25 / 77

Example 7 (f) This time the left and

SOLUTION As x becomes clo

MAT 1001 Calculus I 26 / 77

In fact, it appears from the graph

MAT 1001 Calculus I 27 / 77

In fact, it appears from the graph

MAT 1001 Calculus I 27 / 77

Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

lim f (x) and lim g(x)

MAT 1001 Calculus I 28 / 77

Limit Laws (cont.)

(If n is even, we assume that lim f (x) > 0)

MAT 1001 Calculus I 29 / 77

lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) = lim (2x2 ) − lim (3x) + lim 4 (by Laws 2, 1)

Example 6 3 lim f 共x兲苷 L if and

FIGURE 10 (a) lim t共x兲苷