Ultrasonic Testing - Short Notes

NDT TRAINING – WORLDWIDE
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
Ultrasonic Testing
1. Acoustic Waves
When a molecule is displaced from its position of equilibrium within a material, it exerts a force on adjoining
molecules and transmits its motion or energy to them before returning to its steady state position. In this manner,
acoustic waves (including ultrasound) are transmitted away from the original source. The transmission of acoustic
waves is similar to the action that occurs when a stone is dropped into water and the ripples spread out in all
directions. Although the wave (and its associated energy) travels away from the source point, there is no net
transport of water. The wave peaks and troughs correspond to maximum upward and downward displacements of
the water molecules from the steady water level.
The simplest ultrasound wave is a continuous wave in which the molecules are continuously displaced back-and-
forth in a repetitive way. Each repetition of the molecule displacement is 1 cycle. The frequency of the continuous
wave ultrasound wave is the number of cycles a molecule goes through in 1 s and is measured in cycles per second
(cps), or hertz (1 Hz is equal to 1 cps).
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2. Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency
Velocity is the distance travelled by the ultrasound in a unit of time and it is measured in meters per second (m/s) or
inches per second (in./s). Wavelength is the distance between two molecules that are experiencing the same
displacement in consecutive cycles.
The mathematical relationship of these characteristics is defined.
V
λ=
ƒ
where :
V = velocity
ƒ = frequency
λ = wavelength
The velocity of ultrasonic waves depends on the density and the elastic constants of the test object material. It is
usually independent of frequency (except for some special cases such as lamb waves which will be discussed later).
As illustrated in Equation any change in frequency results in a corresponding change in wavelength – as the
frequency increases, the wavelength decreases, and conversely, as frequency decreases wavelength increases.
Like ordinary, audible sound waves, ultrasonic waves can bend around obstacles that are small compared to the
wavelength of the ultrasound. Therefore, frequency selection is of prime importance because even under favourable
conditions, discontinuities must have at least one dimension that is greater than or equal to 1/2 λ in order to be
detected. The best frequency to use for a specific inspection is a compromise between the smaller discontinuity size
that can be detected with smaller wavelengths and the greater depth of penetration obtained with lower frequencies.
Frequencies that are commonly used for inspecting various product forms are listed i.
Test frequency for various product forms
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3. Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing is a versatile volumetric examination that is capable of usefully examining a wide range of
thicknesses in many materials. For example, steel forgings up to 2 m (6 ft) in diameter and 6 - 7 m (18-20 ft) long are
regularly tested both radially and axially, as are much smaller sections such as thin wall tubing or sheet metal 1-2
mm (0.04 – 0.08 in.) thick. For most ultrasonic testing applications, only one side of the object needs to be accessible
and for many applications, small, portable units are available. Ultrasonic testing is not hazardous to personnel, so
the only safety precautions necessary are those practiced with any electrical equipment. A particularly useful feature
of the method is its ability to measure quite accurately the depth location of discontinuities from the test surface.
A limitation of the method is that it is not always reliable for detection of surface and near surface discontinuities.
Very small parts, and those with irregular shapes or rough surfaces, small radii, large grain size, or in-homogeneities
may be difficult or impossible to test. Precise lateral (side-to-side) location and accurate sizing of discontinuities is
often not possible. Identification of the type of discontinuity found is usually very subjective, requires extensive
experience and is frequently debatable. Often, other methods such as electromagnetic testing, radiographic testing,
liquid penetrant testing, or magnetic particle testing are often used in conjunction with ultrasonic testing to overcome
these limitations.
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4. Type of Waves (Modes)
Ultrasound can propagate in different vibrational modes, which differ in the direction(s) of particle displacement
relative to the direction of wave propagation. Longitudinal, shear, surface (Rayleigh) and plate (lamb) waves are
frequently used ultrasonic wave modes.
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves (also called L-waves, compressional-waves, or p-waves) have a molecular (particle) motion or
displacement that is parallel to the direction of wave propagation. A snapshot of the material would show regions
of lower and higher density alternating in the propagation direction as molecules pull and push the molecule in front
of them. This wave is similar to the wave obtained with a long coil spring when one end is moved sharply back-
and-forth along the axis of the spring. These waves are the easiest to generate and detect, and are the only type that
can be propagated in liquids, gases and solids. In most ultrasonic testing applications, the ultrasound energy
originates as longitudinal waves, which are converted to other modes if needed for the particular test application.
Shear Waves
Shear waves (transverse waves) have a molecule displacement that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
[Both horizontal and vertical shear waves (SH and SV) are recognized, but they are beyond the scope of this guide.]
When molecules in a plane perpendicular to the wave propagation move sideways, this sliding motion is transferred
to the next plane of molecules through a shear force. This wave penetrates appreciable distances only in solids (it
may penetrate a short distance in highly viscous liquids). Shear wave velocity is approximately half of the velocity
for a longitudinal wave in the same material. As a result, shear waves have about half the wavelength and twice the
sensitivity of longitudinal waves having the same frequency.
Surface Waves
Surface (Rayleigh) waves have an elliptical wave motion and propagate along the surface of the test material. They
are generally considered to have a depth of penetration into the material of approximately one wavelength.
Therefore, they are useful for detecting surface and near surface discontinuities, but not for deeper discontinuities.
Surface waves are very sensitive to surface discontinuities, surface contaminants (for example, grease, paint or scale)
and uneven distribution of the couplant.
Lamb Waves
Lamb waves (plate waves) can propagate in plate like objects if the frequency, material thickness and beam entry
angle are properly related to each other. They differ from surface waves and shear waves in that the entire part
vibrates as the wave propagates parallel to the surface. Unlike surface waves, they are not readily absorbed by
couplants. However, they are not widely used because there is no regular relationship between discontinuity size
and response – each application requires development.
5. Reflection, Refraction, Scattering, and Attenuation

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Reflection
Ultrasonic waves, when they encounter a discrete change in materials, as at the boundary of two dis-similar
materials, are usually partially reflected. If the incident waves are perpendicular to the material interface, the
reflected waves are redirected back toward the source from which they came. The degree to which the sound energy
is reflected is dependent upon the difference in acoustic properties, i.e., acoustic impedances, between the adjacent
materials.
Acoustic impedance is the product of a wave’s velocity of propagation and the density of the material through which
the wave is passing.
Z=pxV
where
Z = acoustic impedance,
p = density, and
V = applicable wave velocity.
Table 2 lists the acoustic impedances of several common materials.
The degree to which a perpendicular wave is reflected from an acoustic interface is given by the energy reflection
coefficient. The ratio of the reflected acoustic energy to that which is incident upon the interface is given by Equation.
(Z2 – Z1)2
R=
(Z2 + Z1)2
where
R = coefficient of energy reflection for normal incidence,
Z = respective material acoustic impedances,
Z1 = incident wave material,
Z2 = transmitted wave material, and
T = coefficient of energy transmission.
Note : T + R = 1
In the case of water-to-steel, approximately 88% of the incident longitudinal wave energy is reflected back into the
water, leaving 12% to be transmitted into the steel.1 These percentages are arrived at using Equation 5 with Zst = 45
and Zw = 1.5. Thus, R = (45 – 1.5)2 = (43.5 / 46.5)2 = 0.875, or 88%, and T = 1 – R = 1 – 0.88 = 0.12, or 12%.
Refraction
When a sound wave encounters an interface at an angle other than perpendicular (oblique incidence), reflections
occur at angles equal to the incident angle (as measured from the normal or perpendicular axis). If the sound energy
is partially transmitted beyond the interface, the transmitted wave may be 1) refracted (bent), depending on the
relative acoustic velocities of the respective media, and / or 2) partially converted to a mode of propagation different
from that of the incident wave. Figure 1(a) shows normal reflection and partial transmission, while Figure 1(b) shows
oblique reflection and the partition of waves into reflected and transmitted wave modes.
Referring to Figure 1(b), Snell’s law may be stated as:
For example, at a water-plastic glass interface, the refracted shear wave angle is related to the incident angle by :
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sin β = (1430 / 1483) sin α = (0.964) sin α
Attenuation
Sound waves decrease in intensity as they travel away from their source, due to geometrical spreading, scattering
and absorption. In fine-grained, homogeneous and isotropic elastic materials, the strength of the sound field is
affected mainly by the nature of the radiating source and its attendant directivity pattern. Tight patterns (small beam
angles) travel farther than widely diverging patterns.
When ultrasonic waves pass through common polycrystalline elastic engineering materials (that are generally
homogeneous but contain evenly distributed scatterers, e.g., gas pores, segregated inclusions and grain boundaries),
the waves are partially reflected at each discontinuity and the energy is said to be scattered into many different
directions. Thus, the acoustic wave that starts out as a coherent plane wave front becomes partially redirected as it
passes through the material.
The relative impact of the presence of scattering sources depends upon their size in comparison to the wavelength
of the ultrasonic wave. Scatterers much smaller than a wavelength are of little consequence. As the scatterer size
approaches that of a wavelength, scattering within the material becomes increasingly troublesome. The effects on
such signal attenuation can be partially compensated by using longer wavelength (lower frequency) sound sources,
usually at the cost of decreased sensitivity to discontinuities and resolution.
6. Ultrasonic Testing Equipment
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7. Ultrasonic Testing Equipment – Features
Special Equipment Features
The basic electronic pulser / receiver display units are augmented with special features intended to assist operators
in easing the burden of maintaining a high level of alertness during routine inspections, particularly of regular shapes
during original manufacture, as well as obtaining some type of permanent record of the results of the inspection.
A-scan information represents the material condition through which the sound beam is passing. The fundamental
A-scan display, although highly informative regarding material homogeneity, does not yield information regarding
the spatial distribution of ultrasonic wave reflectors until it is connected with scanning mechanisms that can supply
the physical location of the transducer in conjunction with the reflector data obtained with the A-scan unit.
When cross-sectional information is recorded using a rectilinear B-scan system, it is the time of arrival of a pulse
(vertical direction) plotted as a function of the transducer position (horizontal direction) that is displayed. Circular
objects are often displayed using a curvilinear coordinate system which displays time of pulse arrival in the radial
direction (measured from the transducer) and with transducer location following the surface contour of the test
object.
When plan views of objects are needed, the C-scan system is used and is particularly effective for flat materials
including honeycomb panels, rolled products, and adhesively bonded or laminated composites. The C-scan is
developed using a raster scan patter (X versus Y) over the test part surface. The presence of questionable conditions
is detected by gating signals falling within the thickness of the part (or monitoring loss of transmission) as a function
of location. C-scan systems use either storage oscilloscopes or other recording devices, coupled to automatic
scanning systems which represent a plan, i.e., map, view of the part, similar to the view produced in radiography.
Figure 8 shows examples of these display options.
8. Approaches to Ultrasonic Testing
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Most ultrasonic inspection is done using the pulse-echo technique wherein an acoustic pulse, reflected from a local
change in acoustic impedance, is detected by the original sending sound source. Received signals indicate the
presence of discontinuities (internal or external) and their distances from the pulse-echo transducer, which are
directly proportional to the time of echo-pulse arrival. For this situation, access to only one side of the test item is
needed, which is a tremendous advantage over through-transmission in many applications. For maximum detection
reliability, the sound wave should encounter a reflector at normal incidence to its major surface.
If the receiving transducer is separated from the sending transducer, the configuration is called a pitch-cath. The
interpretation of discontinuity location is determined using triangulation techniques. When the receiver is
positioned along the propagation axis and across from the transmitter, the technique is called the through-
transmission approach to ultrasonic testing. Figure 1 shows these three modes of pulse-echo testing with typical
inspection applications.
In the through-transmission technique, the sound beam travels through the test item and is received on the side
opposite from the transmitter. Two transducers, a transmitter and a receiver, are necessary. The time represented
on the screen is indicative of a single traverse through the material, with coupling and alignment being critical to the
technique’s successful application.
In some two-transducer pitch-catch techniques, both transducers are located on the same side of the material. The
time between pulses corresponds to a single traverse of the sound from the transmitter to the reflector and then to
the receiver. One approach uses a “tandem” pitch-catch arrangement, usually for the central region of thick
materials. In this technique, the transmitter sends an angle beam to the mid-wall area of the material (often a double
V weld root) and deflections from vertical planar surfaces are received by one or more transducers located behind
the transmitter. Another pitch-catch technique, found in immersion testing, uses a focused receiver and a broad-
beam transmitter, arranged in the shape of a triangle (delta technique). This technique relies on reradiated sound
waves (mode conversion of shear energy to longitudinal energy) from internal reflectors, with background noise
reduction through use of the focused receiver.
9. Reference Reflectors
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There are several reflector types commonly used as a basis for establshing system performance and sensitivity.
Included among them are spheres and flat-bottom holes (FBH), notches, side-drilled holes (SDH), and other special
purpose or designs. Table 1 summarizes these reflectors characteristics and uses.
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NDT TRAINING – WORLDWIDE

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

2. Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency

The mathematical relationship of these characteristics is defined.

Test frequency for various product forms

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

3. Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

5. Reflection, Refraction, Scattering, and Attenuation

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

Table 2 lists the acoustic impedances of several common materials.

Referring to Figure 1(b), Snell’s law may be stated as:

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

sin β = (1430 / 1483) sin α = (0.964) sin α

6. Ultrasonic Testing Equipment

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

Special Equipment Features

8. Approaches to Ultrasonic Testing

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

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