Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Three-dimensional thermal modeling of Li-ion battery cell and 50 V Li-ion T

battery pack cooled by mini-channel cold plate
⁎
Yubai Lia, Zhifu Zhoub, Wei-Tao Wuc,
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
b
State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China

H I GH L IG H T S

• Cold plate cooling of prismatic Li-ion battery under 5C discharging is modeled.

• Temperature patterns on Li-ion battery with cold plate cooling are discussed.
• Thermal responses of Li-ion battery under external shorting are simulated.
• 3D thermal modeling of 50 V Li-ion battery pack with 14 20 Ah cells is performed.
• Multi-scale multi-domain modeling is demonstrated for large Li-ion battery pack.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this work, three-dimensional (3D) thermal modeling of a single Li-ion battery cell and a 50 V Li-ion battery
Li-ion battery cell pack composed of 14 prismatic batteries is performed. Equivalent circuit model is used for subscale electro-
Battery pack cooling chemical modeling. The heat generated by electrical resistance and electrochemistry reactions is then solved in
Thermal modeling the cell domain which resolves the heat transfer in battery and battery pack. The modeling provides highly
Cold plate
resolved temporal 3D insight into thermal and battery dynamics under fast discharging and abusive condition. It
External shorting condition
is found that with low coolant velocity, the cell temperature easily exceeds 40 °C, and temperature non-uni-
formity exceeds the limit value of 5 °C under 5C discharging condition; and under external shorting condition,
temperature rises fast and reaches the 80 °C point quickly which can further trigger thermal runaway. On the
other hand, with adequate coolant flow rate, the cell temperature and temperature gradients are effectively
limited to tolerable level under both 5C discharging and external shorting conditions. Thus, coolant rate needs to
be carefully designed to prevent high temperature and localized high temperature spot in Li-ion battery. The
modeling method used in this study can be applied to general Li-ion battery and Li-ion battery pack designing.

1. Introduction of deleterious aging mechanisms under elevated temperature, pre-

Li-ion battery powered EV and HEV pose one of the most promising
solution for clean transportation and petroleum reliability reduction.
Energy density for Li-ion battery is much higher than the NiMH for
HEV, and a lot of today’s research effort has been spent on even higher
energy Li-ion battery [1–3]. For adoption of high energy density Li-ion
battery in EV and HEV, proper cooling of the Li-ion battery pack is
needed to prevent high temperature and temperature non-uniformity in
battery pack [4–7]. High temperature causes rapid degradation of Li-
ion battery, while highly localized hot spot causes localized deteriora-
tion in large format Li-ion battery and battery pack. Besides the concern
venting abusive high temperature is also important for Li-ion battery.
Li-ion battery cell temperature over 80 °C can possibly initiate its
thermal runaway [8]. In Li-ion battery thermal runaway, a series of
exothermic reactions happen in sequence and can result in battery fire
[8]. Combustion of one Li-ion battery cell is dangerous for triggering
fire of other batteries in the catastrophic Li-ion battery pack fire. Thus,
good design of the Li-ion battery and battery pack cooling is essential
for maintaining Li-ion battery life and safety. Different cooling systems
are proposed for cooling the Li-ion battery and Li-ion battery packs
including most prevalent air cooling [9–11] and mini-channel cold
plate with liquid coolant [12–14]. For realistic EV Li-ion battery

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: weitaowwtw@njust.edu.cn (W.-T. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.11.009
Received 18 July 2018; Received in revised form 9 October 2018; Accepted 3 November 2018
Available online 03 November 2018
1359-4311/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al.
thermal management systems, the Nissan Leaf applies air cooling while
Tesla and GM Volt applies cold plate. Phase change cooling has also
been proposed recently for cooling the Li-ion battery. Specific methods
include heat pipes [15], boiling heat transfer of refrigerant [16] or PCM
materials such as paraffin waxes [17,18].
For better insights of Li-ion battery thermal behaviors and for better
designing the Li-ion battery cooling, thermal modeling of Li-ion battery
and Li-ion battery pack is needed. The number of prototyping and ex-
periments can be reduced by the help of Li-ion battery and Li-ion bat-
tery pack thermal modeling under different EV and HEV related con-
ditions. Especially for the thermal abuse conditions, numerical
simulation is helpful for understanding those conditions with an effi-
cient and low cost manner. Tremendous effort over decades has been
spent by researchers on developing thermal modeling method of Li-ion
battery. Several primary approaches are ECM model, NTGK model and
the physics based model. Those models have been integrated to dif-
ferent numerical modeling platforms for 2D or 3D Li-ion battery
thermal modeling Li-ion battery and realistic modeling applications in
various Li-ion battery and Li-ion battery packs.
In ECM model, the behavior of battery is mimicked by an electrical
circuit. In an early work from Liaw et al. [19], a simple ECM approach
was proposed to model the Li-ion battery. I-V curves under different C
rates discharging were predicted by ECM model and matched well with
experimental data. Chen and Rincόn-Mora [20] established an ECM
model capable for predicting battery runtime and I-V performance. For
their ECM model, the circuit consists of three resistors and two capa-
citors. The corresponding open circuit voltage, resistances, and capa-
citances are assumed to be function of state of charge (SOC). And their
model effectively captures the dynamic response of battery. In a recent
work of Hu et al. [21], a comparative study of twelve ECM models was
performed. Comprehensive evaluation for the ECM models regarding
model complexity, model accuracy, and model robustness was made in
their work. ECM model can be applied to perform Li-ion battery
thermal analysis [22]. NTGK model developed Newman and Tiede-
mann [23], Gu [24], and Kim [25] is a semi empirical based model
useful for highly efficient modeling of batteries. It assumes the volu-
metric current transfer rate to be a function of the potential difference
between positive and negative electrodes. Two parameters are used in
this empirical function, and they are assumed to follow polynomial
form with depth of discharge as variable. For a certain battery cell, the
polarization curves can be measured through experimentation. Then
the two parameters can be determined by curve fitting the experimental
data. NTGK model has been used a lot for the 3D thermal modeling of
Li-ion batteries, especially thermal modeling of prismatic Li-ion battery
cells [26–29]. The physics based Li-ion battery model is based on the
famous Newman 1 + 1D Li-ion battery model [30–33]. This model
considers the physical processes like the Li-ion releasing from solid
active particle to electrolyte, Li-ion insertion into solid active particle,
electrochemical reaction on the surface of solid active particle, as well
as Li-ion transport in electrolyte solution with concentrated solution
transport theory. The 1 + 1D Li-ion battery model has been used for
many early fundamental thermal modeling studies for Li-ion batteries
[34–40]. Recently, this 1 + 1D physics based Li-ion battery model has
been successfully integrated this into different modeling platforms, in-
cluding COMSOL Multiphysics [41,42], ANSYS Fluent [43–45], and
other numerical platforms [46–48].
The 2D and 3D thermal modeling has been applied to investigate the
Li-ion battery cooling systems and some of the recent works are re-
viewed. Yang et al. [49] assessed the effects of the aligned and stag-
gered cell arrangements as well as the longitudinal and transverse gap
distances for air cooling of 18,650 LiFePO4 battery pack. 2D conjugate
thermal modeling was performed and rigorous model validation was
made with comparison to experimental results. Huang et al. [50] in-
vestigated the impacts of electrical imbalance caused by temperature
distribution in an 18,650 battery pack cooled by air through 2D thermal
electrochemical coupled simulation with COMSOL Multiphysics.
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Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840
Running management of MATLAB was realized in their work to dis-
tribute the current in the battery pack. Zhao et al. [51] studied the air
cooling thermal management of cylindrical power battery module
composed of 18,650, 26,650, and 42,110 LiFePO4 cylinder cells for
alleviating temperature non-uniformity. With 2D conjugate heat
transfer modeling via ANSYS Fluent, the effects of ventilation types and
velocities, and gap spacing were studied. A power battery cooled by
mini-channel cold plate was modeled by Huo et al. [52]. The effects of
channel number, flow direction, and inlet velocity on maximum battery
cell temperature were explored with 3D conjugate thermal modeling
via ANSYS Fluent. The modeling work was then extended to investigate
a small Li-ion battery pack with 5 pouch cells cooled by mini-channel
cold plate [53].
For large Li-ion battery pack cooled by cold plate, several 3D
thermal modeling works have been performed by researchers. In a re-
cent work, large scale Li-ion battery pack modeling of Li-ion battery
pack composed of 18,650 cells was conducted by Basu et al. [54]. Ef-
fects of discharging rates and coolant rates on pack temperature were
studied in their work. In their design, the flow channels were placed at
the side, and aluminum fins were attached to the series of Li-ion battery
cells. Another decent trial of large scale thermal modeling of Li-ion
battery pack was performed by Rao et al. [55]. Aluminum cooling block
was placed on the side of the 18,650 battery cells, while the straight
parallel liquid flow channels went through the aluminum plate. Various
contact surface effects on the temperature distribution in the battery
pack were thoroughly studied in this work. In general, 3D thermal
modeling is helpful for better understanding thermal behaviors in Li-ion
battery pack. But such modeling work for realistic scale Li-ion battery
pack is limited.
Although 3D thermal modeling has been applied to model Li-ion
battery and Li-ion battery pack cooled by mini-channel cold plate,
several knowledge gaps still exist in open literature. First, as reviewed,
the study of mini-channel cold plate cooling of battery under fast heat
releasing condition or abusive thermal condition is still very limited.
The current study investigates Li-ion battery thermal responses under
fast discharging and external shorting conditions. Second, although
mini-channel cold plate cooling of Li-ion battery in EVs is widely ap-
plied, the temperature pattern on Li-ion battery resulted from interac-
tion of fast heat release and cold plate cooling is seldom analyzed. In
this study, specific analysis and explanation about the temperature
pattern are made with temperature contours predicted by 3D thermal
modeling. Third, the large scale numerical simulation for Li-ion battery
pack is limited, especially for Li-ion battery pack cooled by cold plate.
Li-ion batteries applied in EV and HEVs are usually packed in Li-ion
battery module with tens of single battery. Thus, in this study, a 50 V
battery pack composed of 14 Li-ion battery cells and 42 mini-channels
are specifically simulated to mimic realistic cooling solution of auto-
motive Li-ion battery pack. This part of modeling work aims to provide
a demonstration of 3D thermal modeling in automotive battery pack
thermal design.
2. Modeling method
2.1. Modeling domain and multi-scale modeling schematic
The prismatic Li-ion battery modeled in the present work is set up
corresponding to ePLB C020 Li-ion polymer battery [56] with Li[Ni-
CoMn]O2 as cathode material. The nominal voltage and nominal ca-
pacity of this high energy Li-ion cell are 3.65 V and 20 Ah. In this study,
a single ePLB C020 cell cooled by mini-channel cold plate is first con-
sidered. The geometry and mesh of a single battery cell with cold plate
is shown in Fig. 1. Specific parameters of the cell characteristics and the
mini-channel geometry are listed in Table 1 [56]. Five domains are
considered in the modeling, which are cell domain, negative tab do-
main, positive tab domain, cold plate domain, and the coolant domain.
To show the flow channel, the cold plate domain is hidden in Fig. 1.
Y. Li et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840

Fig. 1. Geometry and mesh of single Li-ion battery cell with mini-channel cold plate.

Table 1 conductivity from experimental measurement is very meaningful. The

Parameters of the cell characteristics and the mini-channel assumed electrical and thermal properties assumed in this study are
geometry. listed in Table 2. The point of the Li-ion battery pack modeling in this
Quantity Value study is to demonstrate how the modeling method could help Li-ion
battery pack design under vehicle related battery operating conditions
Cell length 217 mm indeed.
Cell width 129 mm
Li-ion battery modeling is hard due to its multi-scale nature. For
Cell thickness 7.2 mm
Nominal voltage 3.65 V predicting the temperature considering thermal management method,
Nominal capacity 20 Ah the battery scale transport equations need to be solved. On the other
Energy density 370 Wh/L hand, for the Li-ion intercalation and transport, the anode-separator-
Cold blade thickness 5 mm
cathode layers are the length scale of interest. Thus adoption of multi-
Coolant channel thickness 3 mm
Coolant channel width 4 mm
scale multi-domain modeling is necessary for performing 3D thermal
Coolant channel gap width 16 mm modeling of Li-ion battery and Li-ion battery pack. In the battery scale,
the equation governs the current flux is expressed as:
∇ ·(σ+∇φ+) = −j (1)
High quality structured mesh is generated for the modeling. After
modeling the single battery cell, a battery pack of 14 such prismatic
∇ ·(σ−∇φ−) = j (2)
battery cells connected in series is modeled. The nominal voltage of the
battery pack is 51 V, which mimic the recent trends of 50 V prismatic Li- where σ+ and σ− are the effective electric conductivities, while φ+ and φ−
ion battery pack applied in EVs and HEVs. For the Li-ion battery pack are phase potentials for the positive and negative electrode. The dif-
modeling, aluminum cold plate is paced between each single cell. ferent scale of equations are bridged by volumetric transfer current
Coolant comes from inlet streams and distributes in all the mini cooling density j . The volumetric current density can be calculated in the
channels, cools the batteries and gathers at the outlet stream. Such cold subscale electrochemical submodel. The battery scale model and the
plate and coolant distribution strategy is similar to the thermal man- subscale model interacts with each other and predicts the current flux.
agement used in Chevrolet Volt. The coolant channel design in Volt is At the same time, the source term for heat transfer equation is gener-
more profound with more batteries in each module. Those more com- ated and temperature equation is then resolved. A distribution of the φ+
plex flow channel designs are not used in this study due to limited and φ− in the single Li-ion battery cell during 0.5C discharging rate is
computational resource. More rigorous calibration the thermal prop- shown in Fig. 2. The phase potential field drives the flow of current
erties, like the thermal conductivity and heat capacity can be made. density. In Fig. 2, large potential gradient can be observed near the tab.
There are many components with quite different thermal conductivity The tabs in prismatic Li-ion battery are used to collect current flow
in battery cell, thus Li-ion battery is quite composite material with even generated all over cell domain. As all the current generated in the
liquid electrolyte inside it. Thus rigorous determination of thermal battery cell goes via tab, the current density near the tab is high. This

Table 2
Thermal properties used in simulation.
Material ρ (kg m−3) c (J kg−1 K−1) k (W m−1 K−1) µ (Pa s) σ+ (S/m) σ- (S/m)

Battery 2092 678 10 (if not specified) – 1.19 × 106 9.83 × 105
Aluminum 2719 871 202.4 – – –
Water 998.2 4182 0.6 1.03 × 10−3 – –

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Fig. 2. Distributions of φ+ and φ− under 0.5C discharging.

high current density can cause higher temperature on cell to be near the d (SOC ) I (t )
=
tab under most prevalent constant convective air cooling condition dt 3600Qref (6)
[29]. However, this study will point under the liquid cooling condition,
which provides high heat removal rate, the temperature distribution on In these equations, the VOCV , Vtran, s , Vtran, l , Rseries are expressed as
Li-ion battery cell will be governed by both heat generation and functions of SOC. The experimental data of the I-V performance for
cooling. ePLB C020 cell with different discharging rates is used to fit the para-
Equivalent circuit based, NTGK, or physics based models as in- meters. The fitted parameters in the functions of SOC are listed in the
troduced can be used as subdomain electrochemical model. Although equations:
the physics based submodel has a lot of advantages, several important VOCV = 3.5 + 0.35SOC − 0.0178SOC 2 + 0.3201SOC − 1.031SOC 3
parameters, for example, the foil thickness are imbedded in Fluent
− 1.031 exp( −80SOC ) (7)
which cannot be accessed. Thus through using the physics based sub-
model, the battery performance for today’s Li-ion battery with ultra- Rseries = 0.07446 + 0.5 exp(−24.37SOC ) (8)
thin foil and high energy density is hard to be matched by parameters
adjustment. And ECM model is used in this study. ECM based model is a Rtran, s = 0.002 + 0.3208 exp(−29.14SOC ) (9)
very effective and efficient modeling method for Li-ion battery mod-
eling. It is worthwhile to mention that the ECM model does not have an Ctran, s = 703.6 − 752.9 exp(13.51SOC ) (10)
Arrhenius form in it, thus the temperature distribution does not a
Rtran, l = 0.002 + 6.604 exp(155.2SOC ) (11)
feedback mechanism of the Li-ion battery performance and the simu-
lation performed in this study is not thermal-electrochemical coupled. It Ctran, l = 4475 − 6056 exp(27.12SOC ) (12)
is the reason that under certain discharging condition with different
cooling conditions, only single I-V curve is given in this study. But the With those parameters, the modeling predicted I-V curves match
ECM has advantages of the easiness for parameters adjustment to match well the experimental polarization curves under different discharging
experimental data and highly efficient numerical solving speed. Fast rates as shown in Fig. 3. After solving the ECM, the volumetric transfer
numerical speed is favored for the case of very large scale Li-ion battery current density is computed as following:
pack modeling performed in this study.
Qtotal
j=I
Qref VCV (13)
2.2. Equivalent circuit model and conjugate heat transfer modeling
The electrochemical volumetric heat source term can be decom-
In the subscale equivalent circuit model, the battery electrical I-V posed into irreversible and reversible heat source term. The irreversible
performance is described by an electrical circuit. The voltage evolution source term is expressed as j [VOCV − (φ+ − φ−)] and the reversible
dU
then is solved from the electric circuit equations: source term is expressed as − jT dT . Then the ohmic heating in the
battery is added also. So the thermal source term is expressed as [57]:
V (t ) = VOCV − Vtran, s − Vtran, L − Rseries I (t ) (3)
dU ⎤
q ̇ = j ⎡VOCV − (φ+ − φ−) − T + σ+∇φ+·∇φ+ + σ−∇φ−·∇φ−
dVtran, s 1 1 ⎣ dT ⎦ (14)
=− Vtran, s − I (t )
dt Rtran, s Ctran, s Ctran, s (4) For modeling the Li-ion battery cooled by the mini-channel cold
plate, conjugate heat transfer problem evolves. For the cell and tab
dVtran, l 1 1
=− Vtran, l − I (t ) domains, conduction equation with heat source term governs the heat
dt Rtran, l Ctran, l Ctran, l (5) transfer:

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Y. Li et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840

Table 3
Mesh and time step dependency tests.
Testing condition Δt = 1.0 s Δt = 2.0 s 1.41 million 1.08 million
mesh mesh

Deviation with reference 0.141% 0.460% 0.072% 0.145%

condition

study with 5C discharging condition, which results in about 360 time

steps for total discharging process. Similar time step arrangement is
used for other cases. The mesh density and time step dependency tests
have been made. For modeling case of 5C discharging and 0.01 m/s
coolant rate, modeling results are also performed with mesh densities of
1.41 million and 1.74 million, and time steps of 1.0 s and 0.5 s. The
maximum temperature on battery cell is used for comparison in the
mesh and time dependency testing. In the time step testing, the re-
ference result refers to modeling predictions with 0.5 s time step. In the
Fig. 3. ECM model parameters adjustment and comparison with experimental
data under various discharging rates.
mesh density testing, the reference results refers to modeling predic-
tions with 1.74 million mesh. The mesh density and time step effects on
modeling results compared with reference results are summarized in
∂T
ρcp = kcell ∇T + q̇ Table 3. It is found the time step of 2.0 s, and mesh density of
∂t (15)
1.08 million are already reasonable for simulations in the current work.
In the aluminum cooling plate, conduction equation without heat
source term applies. And for the coolant flow, mass conservation, N.S.
3. Results and discussion
equations, as well as convection diffusion equation for temperature are
applied. The initial cell temperature and the coolant inlet temperature
3.1. Single battery cell under fast discharging condition
are both assumed to be 20 °C. While the coolant inlet velocity is im-
portant variable to explore in this study thus is specified in each case
Thermal response of single Li-ion battery cell under fast discharging
simulation. With coolant velocity of 0.01 m/s, the temperature evolu-
condition is first investigated and a C rate of 5 is applied. The coolant
tions upon SOC during C/2, 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C discharging conditions
velocity of 0.1 m/s, 0.05 m/s, 0.02 m/s and 0.01 m/s are assigned in the
are shown in Fig. 4. Unlike the convective heat transfer boundary
5C discharging process. Fig. 5 shows the maximum temperature evo-
condition usually posed for investigating the temperature behavior of
lutions on Li-ion battery cell. Temperature rises during the discharging
Li-ion battery cell, the conjugate heat transfer problem is solved in this
and stably rises for most of time and aggressively increases near the end
work. The heat generation in the Li-ion battery is conducted to adjacent
of Li-ion battery discharge. Under constant C rate discharging, the
the aluminum plate, and the coolant flow goes through the aluminum
ohmic heat source is constant. For the electrochemistry performance of
plate and convectively cools the plate. Apparently, for high C rate
Li-ion battery, there is a stable operable region in middle of the dis-
discharging, significant more irreversible and ohmic heat is generated
charging, as shown in Fig. 3. At this region, the I-V polarization is al-
in the cell and induces higher temperature under identical cooling
most linear, thus the temperature gradually rises due to gradually rising
condition. Again, the point of the current work is to demonstrate the
of irreversible heat from electrochemical reaction. At the end of dis-
mathematical modeling framework’s applicability and capability on
charging, the Li-ion in the graphite particles is depleted and the battery
thermal design of Li-ion battery and large scale Li-ion battery pack.
voltage dramatically drops. This sudden drop of voltage causes higher
The 3D thermal modeling is performed with ANSYS Fluent. The
irreversible heat from electrochemical reaction and aggressive rising of
mesh for simulation is created with ANSYS ICEM, and the different
temperature. It can be found from Fig. 5 that under adequate cooling
modeling domains are assigned to blocks during meshing process. For
condition, the cell temperature can be below 30 °C under even 5C dis-
the single battery cell cooled with cold plate, a mesh of 1.08 million is
charging condition which benefits the Li-ion cell’s life-of-time
used for all simulations. A time step of 2.0 s is used for the modeling

Fig. 4. Maximum temperature on cell evolutions under different discharging Fig. 5. Maximum temperature on cell evolutions under 5C discharging and
rates with coolant velocity of 0.01 m/s. various coolant velocities.

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Y. Li et al.
Fig. 6. Temperature contours under 5C discharging at 660 s with coolant velocity of (a) 0.1 m/s (b) 0.01 m/s.
Fig. 7. Dynamic voltage and temperature responses under 30 s 5C discharging
and 30 s resting cycle with coolant velocity of 0.01 m/s.
performance. On the other hand, under inadequate cooling condition of
0.01 m/s coolant rate, the cell temperature goes beyond 40 °C which
can cause much faster and solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer for-
mation and jeopardize the long term Li-ion battery cell performance.
Thus, even with cold plate and liquid coolant, which is identified as a
strong cooling method, the flow rate needs to be designed carefully to
adequately cool the battery under high C rate discharging condition.
Under constant convective heat transfer coefficient condition, the
highest temperature on prismatic Li-ion battery cell appears near the
tab region (usually seen for air cooling of battery). The difference of
forced air cooling and liquid cold plate cooling on temperature contour
comes from the following reason. For the forced air cooling, the air
temperature around a single battery is relatively uniform. Thus, the
temperature contour for battery under air cooling is majorly governed
by heat releasement distribution. On the other hand, for the mini-
channel cold plate, the coolant temperature rises fast from inlet to
outlet direction. And the thermal path is short considering cold plate
cooling. Thus, the coolant temperature can also depict the temperature
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Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840
Fig. 8. Maximum temperature on cell evolutions under 5C discharging with
various assumed Li-ion cell thermal conductivities.
contour. In Fig. 6, the temperature contours on cell under coolant ve-
locity of 0.1 m/s and 0.01 m/s are shown. For coolant rate of 0.1 m/s,
the highest cell temperature on cell is near the coolant outlet. The cell is
effectively cooled and the temperature profile is depicted by coolant
temperature as a result. For the coolant rate of 0.01 m/s, the highest
temperature is on the corner near the tab as well as downstream of
coolant. Under this condition, the cell temperature contour is governed
by a combination effect of heat generation and coolant temperature.
With 0.1 m/s coolant velocity, the maximum temperature difference on
cell is within 5 °C, which under 0.01 m/s coolant velocity, the max-
imum temperature difference is higher than 10 °C. Temperature non-
uniformity can cause non-uniform degradation on Li-ion battery,
especially for large format Li-ion battery. The location experiences high
temperature will degrade faster than other region, for the worst case,
become a non-effective zone for aged Li-ion battery cell. Thus, adequate
cooling is also meaningful for controlling the temperature non-uni-
formity on cell, especially under high C rate condition. Another
Y. Li et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840

Fig. 9. Temperature contours under 5C discharging at 660 s under coolant velocity of 0.05 m/s with assumed Li-ion cell thermal conductivity of (a) 5.0 W m−1 K−1
and (b) 1.0 W m−1 K−1.

modeling case study is performed to demonstrate the modeling under

Fig. 10. I-V curve under external shorting condition with external resistance of
0.01 O.
Fig. 11. Temperature evolutions under external shorting condition with dif-
ferent coolant velocities.
dynamic load condition. The fully charged battery is first discharged at
1C for 12 min, and then is subjected to 5C discharging for 30 s and
resting for 30 s cycle. The voltage and temperature responses are shown
in Fig. 7. It demonstrates that the current modeling is applicable to
predict transient temperature responses under dynamic load. The
modeling work here indicates the necessity of 3D thermal modeling on
Li-ion battery thermal design. Without proper modeling, the tempera-
ture distribution in the Li-ion battery cell with cold plate is hard to be
determined before initiating experiments or running experiment under
certain conditions.
The thermal conductivity of Li-ion battery cell has important im-
pacts on the temperature distribution in the cell. For a Li-ion battery
with cooling system enrolled, the thermal properties of liquid coolant
and aluminum cold plate are rigorously known values. On the other
hand, the thermal conductivity of the Li-ion battery is not obvious as Li-
ion battery is composed with many different materials. Due to the
nature of composite material (including copper foil, aluminum foil,
anode and cathode active materials, electrolyte etc.), the thermal con-
ductivity of Li-ion battery is hard to determine. Thus, other thermal
properties are not specifically investigated as those values are fixed and
are ready to be used in fundamental modeling study or future en-
gineering design. And exploring the Li-ion battery cell thermal con-
ductivity’s effect on temperature distribution in cell makes engineering
sense for better understanding of battery thermal behavior. Li-ion
thermal conductivities of 5.0, 2.0 and 1.0 W m−1 K−1 are considered
under 5C discharging rate and coolant velocity of 0.05 m/s besides the
previous assumption of 10.0 W m−1 K−1 thermal conductivity. Only 1
order of magnitude variation of thermal conductivity is considered, as
for realistic Li-ion battery the thermal conductivity is reported to fall
into the range of 1–10 W m−1 K−1. Thus those values are investigated
in this study to follow engineering need which has most relevant in-
terest for the current study. In Fig. 8, the maximum temperature on cell
evolution under 5C discharging is reported. By assuming the thermal
conductivity of Li-ion battery cell to be 10.0 W m−1 K−1 in the previous
simulation, the maximum temperature on cell is controlled to be under
30 °C with coolant velocity of 0.05 m/s. When reducing the thermal
conductivity of the cell, the temperature on cell can exceed 30 °C. In
addition, the different assumed thermal conductivities can result in
different temperature contour patterns on Li-ion battery top surface.

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Fig. 12. Temperature contours under external shorting condition at 270 s with coolant velocity of (a) 0.1 m/s and (b) 0.01 /s.

Fig. 13. Illustration of geometry and mesh for the 50 V Li-ion battery pack cooled by cold plate.

Those temperature contours are on the side without cold plate. The
thermal conductivity of battery cell can determine the thermal re-
sistance from this temperature to temperature of cold plate. When the
thermal conductivity is high, the thermal resistance between the cold
plate and cell top surface is small. Thus the coolant temperature gov-
erns more temperature distribution on battery cell. On the other hand,
when the thermal conductivity is low, the thermal resistance between
the cold plate and cell top surface is large. Thus the temperature dis-
tribution on the top surface is more depicted by heat release distribu-
tion. Fig. 9 shows the temperature contours on cell with 5.0 and
1.0 W m−1 K−1 thermal conductivity. With 5.0 W m−1 K−1 thermal
conductivity, the hottest region is still near the coolant outlet region.
When the thermal conductivity is assumed to be 1.0 W m−1 K−1, the
temperature pattern goes back to hottest region near the tab region.
Due to the large thermal resistance with this low cell thermal con-
ductivity, the temperature on cell is depicted by thermal releasing rate
in the battery cell thus high temperature is seen near the tabs. It is
found that accurately determining the thermal conductivity of Li-ion
battery cell is important for modeling prediction of Li-ion battery cell
temperature and temperature distribution. So for better and quantita-
tively accurate thermal simulation of Li-ion battery cell, calibrating the
Li-ion battery thermal conductivity is meaningful.

836
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Flow path lines of the coolant flow.
Fig. 15. I-V curve of the battery pack under 5C discharging condition.
3.2. Single battery cell under external shorting condition
Although the thermal behavior of Li-ion battery has been modeled a
lot, 3D thermal modeling of Li-ion battery under abusive operating
condition is still at early stage [44,45,58]. The thermal behaviors of
single Li-ion battery cell cooled by cold plate under external shorting
conditions are investigated in this work, and the shorting resistance is
assumed to be 0.01 O. As shown in Fig. 10, this high energy 20 Ah Li-
ion battery cell discharges in 270 s under external shorting condition.
The voltage loss is large due to the extremely high current density
under external shorting condition. The temperature evolution on cell
under external shorting condition is shown in Fig. 11. With coolant
velocity of 0.1 m/s and 0.2 m/s, the maximum temperature on cell does
not exceed 80 °C even under external shorting condition. Temperature
over 80 °C is possible to initiate hazardous thermal runaway. Thermal
837
Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840
Fig. 16. Maximum temperature on all the cells of 50 V batter pack under 5C
discharging with different coolant velocities.
runaway includes a chain of exothermic chemical reactions. The in-
itiating of one exothermic chemical reaction can release heat, exacer-
bate temperature rise and trigger more exothermic reactions at higher
temperatures. Eventually, thermal runaway will cause Li-ion battery
fire. Thus preventing Li-ion battery temperature to reach 80 °C is im-
portant. However, as indicated in Fig. 11, with coolant velocity of
0.02 m/s and 0.01 m/s, the 80 °C risky temperature limit is reached
within 200 s. It is found under external shorting condition, the Li-ion
battery releases great amount of heat. With insufficient cooling, cell
temperature aggressively rises and reaches risky temperature which can
cause thermal runaway and catastrophic battery failure.
Fig. 12 shows the temperature distribution with coolant velocity of
0.1 m/s and 0.01 m/s under external shorting condition. For 0.1 m/s
coolant velocity, the hot spot on large-format Li-ion battery cell is at the
corner near the end of coolant channel. For 0.01 m/s coolant velocity,
the hot spot is near the upper left corner which is the downstream side
near the tab region. The results seen here is similar with the tempera-
ture distribution and hot spot location under high C rate discharging.
Thus, it can be concluded that for Li-ion battery under high C rate and
external shorting condition cooled by mini-channel coolant plate, two
distinct temperature distribution patterns can be seen. The simple
temperature distribution with high temperature near the tab region of
prismatic Li-ion battery cell could not reflect the real situation when
mini-channel cold plate is adopted for battery cooling. 3D thermal
modeling is essential for temperature distribution prediction and de-
sign. Compared with external shorting, Li-ion battery internal shorting
is more dangerous for hazardous battery fire and receives significant
attention in recent years. The reasoning is like following. Although the
external shorting and internal shorting conditions are both abusive
shorting conditions, their mechanisms and impacts are quite different.
For the internal shorting, it is equal to add a very small electrical re-
sistance at a small volume inside the battery cell. The current all goes
around the internal shorting place and heat is generated in a very small
volume. Thus, the temperature rise is even much more aggressive for
internal shorting and hot spot is near the shorting place. Work on nu-
merical modeling of Li-ion battery internal shorting is beyond the scope
of current study but ongoing effort is spent on internal shorting thermal
modeling.
3.3. A 50 V battery pack under fast discharging and external shorting
condition
After exploring the single Li-ion battery cooled by mini-channel cold
plate, a 50 V Li-ion battery pack consisted of 14 prismatic Li-ion battery
cells connected in series cooled by mini-channel cold plates are sub-
jected to 3D thermal modeling. The geometry and mesh of the 50 V Li-
Y. Li et al.
Fig. 17. Temperature contours of the 50 V battery pack under 5C discharging with coolant velocity of (a) 0.01 m/s (b) 0.005 m/s.
Fig. 18. Pack voltage and maximum temperature of 50 V batter pack under
external shorting conditions with coolant velocity of 0.02 m/s.
ion battery pack are shown in Fig. 13. A 5.2 million structured mesh is
used in 3D thermal modeling of this Li-ion battery pack. As shown in
Fig. 13, each of the Li-ion battery cell has positive and negative tabs,
and these tabs are electrically connected with busbars. Behind each of
the Li-ion battery cell, a mini-channel cold plate is placed. The coolant
Fig. 19. Temperature contour evolutions of the 50 V battery pack under 0.1 O external shorting condition with coolant velocity of 0.02 m/s at (a) 50 s (b) 100 s (c)
150 s (d) 200 s.
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Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840
flow comes from the coolant inlet mainstream, distributes and goes
through mini-channels in coolant plates, and gathers to the coolant
outlet mainstream. The flow path can be observed in Fig. 14 for illus-
tration of the coolant flow directions. This coolant streaming design is
similar to the realistic cooling plates system in Chevy Volt module,
which aims at distributing the coolant evenly into each mini-channel in
cold plates. Uneven distribution of liquid coolant can induce a general
heat transfer issue in cooling, coolant maldistribution, which can cause
unwanted localized high temperature [59].
The I-V performance of the Li-ion battery pack under 5C (100 A)
discharging is plotted in Fig. 15. For the 3D thermal modeling, coolant
velocity of 0.1 m/s and 0.05 m/s at the mainstream inlet are considered
(0.01 m/s and 0.005 m/s velocity of coolant at outlet mainstream inlet
is also supplied to regulate flow). It is worthwhile to clarify that the
inlet velocity for battery pack is assigned for the mainstream as de-
picted in Fig. 13 and has different definition with the velocity in Section
3.2. In Section 3.2, the coolant velocity is for each coolant mini-channel
inlet. In Fig. 16, the maximum temperatures on battery pack with time
is shown. By supplying coolant flow at velocity of 0.1 m/s, the max-
imum temperature on the 50 V Li-ion battery is controlled to be below
40 °C even under 5C high rate discharging. If the coolant flow rate is
reduced to 0.05 m/s, the maximum temperature will exceed 40 °C at the
low SOC. As introduced before, this high temperature can cause dele-
terious Li-ion battery cell degradation. Fig. 17 shows the temperature
Y. Li et al.
distributions in the 50 V Li-ion battery pack under 5C rate discharging
at low SOC. It can be found that regardless of the coolant flow rate, the
temperature is non-uniform in the through cells direction, as first sev-
eral Li-ion battery cells at up coolant stream is of higher temperature
than the other cells. Because the first Li-ion battery cell is cooled only
by coolant plate behind it, while all other cells are cooled by coolant
plates on both sides of the cell, the first battery cell’s temperature is
higher under the applied high rate discharging condition. This higher
temperature conducts and propagates to the downstream direction and
causes the upstream cells to be of higher temperature than the down-
stream cells. Another temperature non-uniformity exists on each of the
cell. Under 0.1 m/s coolant velocity, higher temperature emerges near
the lower right corner where coolant temperature is high. Under
0.05 m/s coolant velocity, the hot spot shifts up to the right corner as
the temperature distribution under this condition is governed by both
coolant temperature and heat generation. With 0.1 m/s and 0.05 m/s
coolant velocities, the maximum temperature difference in this 50 V Li-
ion battery pack is found to be 6 °C and 10 °C under 5C discharging
condition. Meanwhile, a large scale battery pack with 6 °C maximum
temperature difference under 5C discharging condition indicates ade-
quate cooling system design for 50 V Li-ion battery pack. Further low-
ering the cell temperature and temperature non-uniformity in battery
pack can be achieved by further increasing liquid coolant supply.
The voltage and temperature responses of this 50 V Li-ion battery
pack under external shorting condition are also studied and reported in
Fig. 18. The battery pack aggressively discharges under external
shorting by 0.15 and 0.1 O resistances and experiences fast temperature
rising. Especially for the 0.1 O shorting condition, the 50 V Li-ion bat-
tery pack is totally discharged within 220 s and the temperature of
battery pack exceeds the 80 °C limit even with the coolant velocity of
0.2 m/s. The temperature contour evolutions of the 50 V Li-ion battery
pack under 0.1 O shorting condition are shown in Fig. 19. It is found the
external shorting condition can cause sudden rise of temperature in Li-
ion battery packs. This temperature rise enrolls high temperature in
multi Li-ion battery cells and is dangerous indeed for posing the 280 Ah
Li-ion battery pack under risk of thermal runaway and battery pack fire.
For battery pack thermal responses, the difference between external
shorting and internal shorting is more significant indeed. The external
shorting is equal to apply a very high current density to the battery
pack, and the heat releasement is still distributed into each of battery
cell. On the other hand, for internal shorting, it may happen in one of
the Li-ion battery cell in battery pack. The heat released in a very small
volume can cause the temperature to aggressively increase. For battery
pack, it is more dangerous than one battery as extremely high tem-
perature on one battery cell can propagate to nearby batteries and
trigger thermal runaway for other Li-ion battery cells. Modeling the
temperature propagations for Li-ion battery pack under internal
shorting condition is important, but is beyond the scope of current
work. The 3D thermal modeling study helps to understand the thermal
behaviors of 50 V Li-ion battery pack under abusive operating condi-
tions. While experiments to investigate Li-ion battery pack under ex-
ternal shorting condition are expensive and dangerous. This part of
study provides a demonstration that the multi-scale multi-domain Li-
ion battery modeling method is applicable to quantitatively predict
temperature non-uniformity in Li-ion battery packs, even for large scale
Li-ion battery packs. Issues like flow channel design, flow field cali-
bration, and coolant flow maldistribution can be explored by such
modeling.
4. Conclusions
With a multi-scale multi-domain Li-ion battery modeling frame-
work, 3D thermal modeling of a realistic based 20 Ah prismatic Li-ion
battery cooled by cold plate is performed. Under high C rate dischar-
ging condition, effects of inlet coolant velocity are explored. With
adequate coolant velocity, the maximum cell temperature and cell
839
Applied Thermal Engineering 147 (2019) 829–840
temperature gradient are limited below 30 °C and 5 °C, which prevents
Li-ion battery aging caused by high temperature operation. While with
inadequate cooling, the cell temperature goes beyond 40 °C as great
amount of heat releases under 5C discharging process. Under external
shorting condition, effect of inlet coolant velocity plays an even more
important role. With 0.1 m/s coolant velocity, the cell temperature is
limited below 60 °C, which is safe domain of Li-ion battery operation.
With 0.01 m/s or 0.02 m/s coolant, the Li-ion battery temperature ex-
ceeds 80 °C easily within 200 s which poses high risk of thermal run-
away and battery fire as consequences. In addition, under both high C
rate discharging and external discharging conditions, two distinct
temperature patterns are found with the mini-channel flow field con-
sidered. Unlike the well understood temperature pattern of high tem-
perature zones near the tab region, with sufficient mini-channel coolant
supply, the cell temperature distribution is depicted by coolant tem-
perature with low temperature upstream and high temperature down-
stream. On the other hand, with insufficient coolant supply, the high
temperature pattern is governed by combination of heat generation and
coolant temperature effects. The modeling is found to be effective in
predicting Li-ion battery thermal behaviors under both high rate con-
dition and abusive condition, which is critical for Li-ion battery life and
safety.
For large battery pack, the heat generated by Li-ion cells accumu-
lates inside the module and causes temperature rises. A 50 V Li-ion
battery pack consisted of 14 prismatic Li-ion battery cell cooled by cold
plate is modeled in this work. With mini-channels go into center of Li-
ion battery module and liquid coolant of sufficient velocity, the pre-
dicted maximum cell temperature and maximum temperature differ-
ence in pack are controlled to be below 40 °C and 6 °C under 5C high
rate discharging condition. The 3D thermal modeling of 50 V Li-ion
battery pack in this work has two-fold meanings. First, cold plate with
liquid coolant going into center of battery module through mini-chan-
nels is found to be a very effective cooling method which controls both
temperature rise and temperature gradient for Li-ion battery pack.
Second, the 3D thermal modeling with multi-scale and multi-domain Li-
ion battery modeling framework is demonstrated to be a powerful
method to quantitatively predict thermal behaviors of Li-ion battery
pack and to aid the design of Li-ion battery pack cooling systems.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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