"উপহার নয়, bkash'ই কাম্য"

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Key features of ATM vs TCP/IP
ATM is connection-oriented while IP is connectionless. The establishment of a connection
between two endpoints in ATM defines the route all cells related to that connection must
travel. Each data cell traversing the route carries an address specific to the link it is
currently on, and this address is not globally unique. Therefore, should the route become
broken, a new connection must be established before data transfer can resume. On the
other hand, Each IP packet carries a full destination address and there is no concept of a
connection at the IP level. As a consequence, there is no reason that consecutive IP
datagrams need traverse a network by the same route, providing they arrive at the
required destination.

If consecutive IP datagrams travel different routes, they may arrive at their destination in a
different order from the order in which they were transmitted. Therefore, IP cannot
guarantee order, and higher layers may need to reorder packets as they arrive. Conversely,
as cells on a given connection travel by the same path, there is no reason for them to
arrive out of order, and thus ATM guarantees that cells, if they arrive, will arrive in order.

ATM assumes links are highly reliable and have very low rates of cell loss and cell
corruption, while IP makes no such assumption. In both ATM and IP, provision for error
recovery and retransmission are the responsibility of higher layers.

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Service vs Protocol
Service is a function that is provided by one program or machine for another,

Protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to transmit or exchange data across a network.
Service is the function performed.
Protocol is the rules and conventions used in requesting and providing that service.
Services send and receive data via protocols. A service manipulates data; a protocol moves it
around.

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 Q/A-2: Suppose all the stations of a network are using shared bandwidth of 35 bps to
transmit the frames. The average frame size is 5 bits. What would be the throughput if all the
stations together produce 15 frames per second in a pure aloha network and in a slotted aloha
network? Find the frame rate in both systems in order to achieve the maximum throughput?

Ans-
Frame transmission time = frame size / Bit rate = 5 bit / 0.035 kbps = 142.86 ms
If the system produces 15 frames per second, this is 0.015 frame per millisecond. The
load is G = 0.015*142.86 = 2.1429.

[The throughput for pure ALOHA is S = G * e^ (-2G) ]

In this case S = G * e^ (−2 G) = 0.03 (3 percent).
This means that the throughput is 15 × 0.03 = 0.45 frames. Only 0.45 frames out of 15
will probably survive.

[ The throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G * e^(-G) ]

In this case S = G * e^ (−G) = 0.25 (25 percent).
This means that the throughput is 15 × 0.25 = 3.75 frames. Only 3.75 frames out of 15
will probably survive.
So, the slotted ALOHA gives the maximum throughput case, percentagewise.

Q/A-3:
In wireless LANs (local area networks), the exposed terminal problem is a transmission problem that arises
when a transmitting station is prevented from sending frames due to interference with another transmitting
station. This occurs when a station is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other stations
that communicate with the AP.
Suppose that there are four stations labelled STA, STB, STC, and STD, where STB and STC are transmitters
while STA and STD are receivers at some slot of time. The stations are in a configuration such that the two
receivers STA and STD are out of radio range of each other, but the two transmitters STB and STC are in radio
range of each other. This is shown in the following figure −

The diagram shows that a transmission is

going on from STB to STA. STC falsely
concludes that the above transmission will
cause interference and so stops its
transmission attempts to STD. However, the
interference would not have occurred since
the transmission from STC to STD is out of
range of STB. This prevention of
transmission is called exposed terminal
problem.

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See more for hidden and exposed TP-
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/multiple-access-with-collision-avoidance-maca/
 https://er.yuvayana.org/hidden-terminal-and-exposed-terminal-problem-and-its-solution/
 https://medium.com/@oshadaamila.15/solving-the-hidden-terminal-problem-using-rts-cts-
mechanism-a5c5d335c59b
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhuXdaRoLzA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oz4WTWRfGs
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=unuco32j3OE

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IP: In order to communicate, we need our data to be
encapsulated as Internet Protocol (IP) packets. These
IP packets travel across number of hosts in a network
through routing to reach the destination. However, IP
does not support error detection and error recovery,
and is incapable of detecting loss of packets.

TCP: TCP stands for "Transmission Control

Protocol". It provides end to end transmission of data,
i.e., from source to destination. It is a very complex
protocol as it supports recovery of lost packets.

https://youtu.be/2QGgEk20RXM

Application Protocol
Third layer in internet architecture is the application layer which has different protocols on which the
internet services are built. Some of the examples of internet services include email (SMTP facilitates
email feature), file transfer (FTP facilitates file transfer feature), etc.

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The disadvantages of the TCP/IP model are
 It is not generic in nature. So, it fails to represent any protocol stack other than the TCP/IP suite.
 It does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols.
 It does not distinguish between the data link and the physical layers, which has very different
functionalities. The data link layer should concern with the transmission of frames. On the other
hand, the physical layer should lay down the physical characteristics of transmission. A proper
model should segregate the two layers.
 Replacing protocol is not easy.

ATM: It is efficient for call relay and it transmits all information including multiple service types
such as data, video or voice which is conveyed in small fixed size packets called cells. Cells are
transmitted asynchronously and the network is connection oriented. Each cell is 53 bytes long –
5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Making an ATM cell requires first sending a message to set
up a connection.
Subsequently all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both constant rate
traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple types of traffic with end-to-end quality
of service. ATM is independent of transmission medium, they maybe sent on a wire or fiber by
themselves or they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems. ATM
networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. It’s design helps in the
implementation of high performance multimedia networking.
https://sites.google.com/site/computernetworkprojectcovid19/home/physical-layer/atm

Aloha is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium to
transmit data. In aloha, any station can transmit data to a channel at any time. It does not require any
carrier sensing.

Pure Aloha: Pure aloha is used when data is available for sending over a channel at stations. In pure
Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the channel is idle or not,
the chances of collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost.
When a station transmits the data frame to a
channel without checking whether the
channel is free or not, there will be a
possibility of the collision of data frames.
Station expects the acknowledgement from
the receiver, and if the acknowledgement of
the frame is received at the specified time,
then it will be OK; otherwise, the station
assumes that the frame is destroyed. Then
station waits for a random amount of time,
and after that, it retransmits the frame until
all the data are successfully transmitted to
the receiver.

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Slotted Aloha: There is a high possibility of frame hitting in pure aloha, so slotted aloha is designed to
overcome it. Unlike pure aloha, slotted aloha does not allow the transmission of data whenever the station
wants to send it.

In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into

a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station
wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the
frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot,
and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each
slot. If the station is failed to send the data, it has
to wait until the next slot.

However, there is still a possibility of a collision

because suppose if two stations try to send a frame
at the beginning of the time slot.

The maximum throughput in pure aloha and slotted aloha is about 18% and 37%. In pure aloha, the
vulnerable time is = 2 x Tt. Whereas, in slotted aloha, the vulnerable time is = Tt. From the above
discussion, it can be said that slotted aloha is somewhat better than pure aloha. It is because there is
less possibility of collision in slotted aloha.

Hidden Terminal Problem: The hidden terminal problem occurs when a terminal is visible from a
wireless access point (APs), but not from other nodes communicating with AP. This situation leads the
difficulties in medium access control sub-layer over wireless networking. In a formal way hidden terminals
are nodes in a wireless network that are out of range of other node or a collection of nodes.
Consider the scenario of wireless networking with three wireless devices (e.g. mobile phones) as shown
below.
As in the diagram Access Point B lies within the ranges of both
node A and node C. Node A can directly communicate with
Access Point B but not with node C, similarly, node C can
directly communicate with Access Point B but not with node A.
So it is said that the node A is hidden from node C.
When node A and node C simultaneously send data to node B
it will lead to a collision.
Since node A and C are hidden from each other, both of them
will sense the medium free before sending the data, and will
not detect any collision while sending data. As a result, B will
receive corrupted data. This is known as the hidden terminal
problem
Solutions:
1) Increasing the transmission power (range) of the terminals.
2) Remove obstacles,
3) Move nodes,
4) Protocol enhancements
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RTS/CTS mechanism to resolve the hidden terminal problem
RTS/CTS is the mechanism used by the 802.11 wireless networking protocol to resolve the hidden terminal
problem. It uses two frames known as RTS and CTS to check medium for collision avoidance.
RTS — Ready to Send; CTS — Clear to Send
When a node wants to send data it will first send the RTS signal. If the Access Point is ready to receive the
data (if it is not communicating with any other node) it will send back the CTS signal. It is a little bit
confusing to understand, but you will get a clear understanding from the following diagram.

Node B is not in the Node A’s range so it

doesn’t receive the first RTS, but since it is
in the range of Access Point, it receives the
CTS. When a node receives a CTS signal
from an Access Point without a RTS signal, it
will understand that CTS signal is for a
hidden terminal, so it will not transfer the
data.
This way we can solve the hidden terminal
problem.

Exposed terminal problem: page-5

Q/A- 2.c: https://www.javatpoint.com/csma-ca-vs-csma-cd

Q/A- 4.a: https://www.ecstuff4u.com/2019/03/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-bridge.html
Q/A- 4.b: https://www.guru99.com/difference-tcp-ip-vs-osi-model.html
Q/A- 4.c: https://www.avast.com/c-ip-address-public-vs-private
A public IP address is an IP address that can be accessed directly over the internet and is
assigned to your network router by your internet service provider (ISP). Your personal device also has
a private IP that remains hidden when you connect to the internet through your router’s public IP.
Using a public IP address to connect to the internet is like using a P.O. box for your snail mail, rather
than giving out your home address. It’s a little bit safer, but a lot more visible.

A private IP address is the address your network router assigns to your device. Each device
within the same network is assigned a unique private IP address (sometimes called a private network
address) — this is how devices on the same internal network talk to each other.
Private IP addresses let devices connected to the same network communicate with one another
without connecting to the entire internet. By making it more difficult for an external host or user to
establish a connection, private IPs help bolster security within a specific network, like in your home or
office. This is why you can print documents via wireless connection to your printer at home, but your
neighbor can’t send their files to your printer accidentally.

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Q/A- 1.a: page-7
Factors that affect the performance of networks
Network performance is about response time - how fast a message can be sent or how quickly a
document can be retrieved. The performance of a network can be affected by various factors:
I. The number of devices on the network
II. The bandwidth of the transmission medium- Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data
that the medium can transfer over a given period of time. Each transmission medium has a
different bandwidth
III. The type of network traffic
IV. Network latency- Latency is the kinds of delays typically incurred in processing of network
data. A low latency network connection is one that generally experiences small delay times,
while a high latency connection generally suffers from long delays.
V. The number of transmission errors
VI. Throughput- Throughput is the rate at which a computer or network sends or receives data.

Q/A- 1.b:
 https://www.guru99.com/difference-tcp-ip-vs-osi-model.html
 Page-2,3,8
 https://sites.google.com/site/computernetworkprojectcovid19/home/physical-layer/atm

Q/A- 2.a: page-8,9
Q/A- 2.b: https://www.javatpoint.com/csma-ca-vs-csma-cd

Q/A- 4.a: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-datagram-switching-virtual-circuit/

Q/A- 4.b: https://www.ecstuff4u.com/2019/03/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-bridge.html

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Q/A- 1.a, b: same as pre
Q/A- 2.a, b: same as pre
Q/A- 2.c:
https://www.educba.com/token-ring-vs-ethernet/

Q/A- 4.a:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/data_link_layer_introduction.htm
https://www.bhattadevuniversity.ac.in/docs/studyMaterial/Data%20Link%20Layer.pdf

Q/A- 4.b:
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/packet-switching-and-delays-in-computer-network/

Q/A- 4.c:
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-hub-switch-and-router/

Some other important topics—

I. https://www.guru99.com/difference-ipv4-vs-ipv6.html
II. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VLLM_3fu1Tc
III. https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLxCzCOWd7aiGFBD2-2joCpWOLUrDLvVV_
IV. ….see more

Salam

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