• CN Tanenbaum book:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dUAOZjlW-
aY2ETnpIJSXHEKVjhceDyjL/view?usp=sharing

• CN Forouzan book:
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dUAOZjlW-
aY2ETnpIJSXHEKVjhceDyjL/view?usp=sharing

• Class note lecture by kafee sir:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dUAOZjlW-
aY2ETnpIJSXHEKVjhceDyjL/view?usp=sharing

COMPUTER NETWORK
MID PREVIOUS SOLVE

Tasnim Samin
C191267
 DMMI Sir, Topic (not sure!)
1. Network objective
2. Network architecture (peer to peer or client server )
3. Topology,
4. Type LAN, MAN, WAN
5. Type user (intranet , extranet, internet)
6. Ip address
7. Clasfull/ Classless ip
8. Subnet musk
9. CIDR
10. Model
11. Switch

Kafee sir Topic

1. Overview of the Internet,
2. Some History of the Internet,
3. Use of CN
4. Layer (Physical to application 7 layer)
5. Model (OSI, TCP, WSN , ATM)
6. Multiple Access
7. Data link layer
8. Aloha , Throughput analysis of Pure Aloha, slotted Aloha.
9. Bridge
10. CSMA
11. CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA
12. Discussion on loop free network
13. collision avoidance network.
14. Hidden node and exposed node
15. RTS CTS
16. problem of wireless network.
17. Bluetooth
18. IP (classful, classless)
19. Subnet
20. Datagram and virtual circuit
21. VLSM
 Autumn-2018
Instructions to the Candidate: Answer any 3(three) of the following questions
1.
a) Define computer networks. What are the uses of computer networks?
List the advantages of client server network over peer-to-peer network.
What is protocol? Why we need a standard protocol? 5

Computer networks:
Computer Network A large number of separate but interconnected computers. A
collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a single technology. Two
computers are interconnected if they are able to exchange information. A collection
of computers interconnected by a single technology.
Uses of Computer Networks:

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues

Business Applications of Networks

 Communication medium :

• sVoIP (IP Telephony)

• Video Conferencing
• Desktop sharingE-
• Commerce

Home Network Applications

• Access to remote information

• Person-to-person communication
o Peer To Peer Networks (P2P)
o Social Networks
o Wiki
• E-Commerce
• Interactive entertainment
• Ubiquitous computing
• Power-Line networks
• RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification)

Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing.

Mobile Network Users

• Handled Computers, PDAs

• Mobile Phones
 Smart phones
 3G , 4G
 GPS
• M-commerce (mobile-commerce)
• Sensor Networks
• Vanets (Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks)
• Wearable computers

Social Issues

• Store personal information

• Anonymous messages
• Electronic junk mail (spam)
• Viruses
• Phishing
• impersonating people
• CAPTCHAs

the advantages of client server network over peer-to-peer network

The advantages of a client-server network are greater security of the network, more control e.g.
network traffic passing through the network, being able to see what each computer is doing and
limiting certain actions and preventing things such as viruses spreading, also the amount of data
storage available to each host.

• Generally more secure than peer-to-peer networks

• One client computer crashing does not effect the other computers
• Easier to recover files as backups can be controlled centrally by the network
administrator
• Files and resources are easier to share and control from server
 • Improved levels of security as files are centralised
• It’s easier to administrate the whole network using a server
• Faster performance as each computer is only fulfilling one role
• Security is potentially cheaper and easier when done centrally
• Individual users do not have to worry about backups or security
• Larger networks can be created

Protocol:

In networking, a protocol is a set of rules for formatting and processing data. Network protocols are
like a common language for computers. The computers within a network may use vastly different
software and hardware; however, the use of protocols enables them to communicate with each other
regardless.

Standard Protocol:

Standardized protocols are like a common language that computers can use, similar to how two
people from different parts of the world may not understand each other's native languages, but they
can communicate using a shared third language. If one computer uses the Internet Protocol (IP) and a
second computer does as well, they will be able to communicate — just as the United Nations relies
on its 6 official languages to communicate amongst representatives from all over the globe. But if one
computer uses IP and the other does not know this protocol, they will be unable to communicate. On
the Internet, there are different protocols for different types of processes. Protocols are often
discussed in terms of which OSI model layer they belong to.

b) What is network topology? Write one advantage and one disadvantage of

each topology. 5
https://www.comparitech.com/net-admin/network-topologies-advantages-
disadvantages/
2.

a) What is OSI model? Briefly write the functions of the different layers of OSI
model.
• https://www.javatpoint.com/osi-
model#:~:text=The%20main%20functionality%20of%20the,and%20procedural%2
0network%20interface%20specifications.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vv4y_uOneC0

Write the name of the respective devices functions in different layers.

b) Draw diagram and discuss how ATM works?

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1wZK78CqAoorvWNRXsFRe2B0Fd0
3FKITP
 • Driven by the integration of services and performance requirements of both
telephony and data networking: “broadband integrated service vision” (B-
ISON).

• Telephone networks support a single quality of service and are expensive to

boot.

• Internet supports no quality of service but is flexible and cheap.

• ATM networks were meant to support a range of service qualities at a

reasonable cost- intended to subsume both the telephone network and the
Internet.

1. Physical layer
• Physical layer is a point-to-point transfer mechanism at the top of hardware (it may
be wire also).
• Physical layer adds its own information to each cell which is transmitted for link
management.
Physical layer performs four functions:
i) Physical layer converts bits into cells.
ii) It transmits and receives the bits on physical medium.
Iii) Tracks the cell boundaries.
iv) Packaging of cell into frames.

ATM layer is common to all services which can have the packet transfer capabilities.
2. ATM layer
• ATM layer provides the routing information to the data cells.
• ATM interfaces with the AAL and the Physical layer.
• Functions of ATM layer are under the network management, signaling and OAM
protocol.
3. ATM Adaptation Layer
• AAL provides the flexibility of a single communication process to carry the multiple
types of traffic such as data, voice, video and multimedia.
• AAL is divided into two major parts.
• Upper part of the AAL is called as the convergence sublayer. Its task is to provide
the interface to the application. The lower part of the AAL is called as the
segmentation and reassembly (SAR) sublayer. It can add headers and trailers to the
data units given to it by the convergence sublayer to form cell payloads.

3.
a) Write the advantages and disadvantages of static channel allocation and
dynamic channel allocation.
Static Channel Allocation
Advantages
Static channel allocation scheme is particularly suitable for situations where there are a small number
of fixed users having a steady flow of uniform network traffic. The allocation technique is simple and
so the additional overhead of a complex algorithm need not be incurred. Besides, there is no
interference between the users since each user is assigned a fixed channel which is not shared with
others.

Disadvantages
Most real-life network situations have a variable number of users, usually large in number with bursty
traffic. If the value of N is very large, the bandwidth available for each user will be very less. This will
reduce the throughput if the user needs to send a large volume of data once in a while.
It is very unlikely that all the users will be communicating all the time. However, since all of them are
allocated fixed bandwidths, the bandwidth allocated to non-communicating users lies wasted.
If the number of users is more than N, then some of them will be denied service, even if there are
unused frequencies.
Dynamic Channel Allocation

Advantages
Dynamic channel allocation schemes allots channels as needed. This results in optimum utilization of
network resources. There are less chances of denial of services and call blocking in case of voice
transmission. These schemes adjust bandwidth allotment according to traffic volume, and so are
particularly suitable for bursty traffic.

Disadvantages
Dynamic channel allocation schemes increases the computational as well as storage load on the
system.

b) Differentiate between pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA. Which one is

better? Why?
Which one is better? Why?
Slotted Aloha is an improvement over Pure Aloha, as it reduces the number of
collisions and doubles the capacity of Pure Aloha.
The Slotted ALOHA is somewhat better than the Pure ALOHA. As the probability
of collision is less in Slotted ALOHA as compared to Pure ALOHA because the
station waits for the next time slot to begin which let the frame in a previous time
slot to pass and avoids the collision between the frames.
The maximum throughput of Slotted ALOHA is 1 / 0.368 e = , which occurs at 1 G
; this is doubled of that of Pure ALOHA. As we can see, the efficiency of Pure
ALOHA can be improved by the introduced time slot structure. However, time
synchronization is required to align stations to the slot structure.

c) Explain the working principal of CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA. What are

the rules must follow in setting persistent in CSMA?
CSMA/CA is as follows −
• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or
busy.
• If the channel is not clear, the node starts to wait for a random amount of time before
checking to see if it is clear. This waiting period of time is known as the "back off
factor" which is counted down by a back off counter.
• If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of time
and then sends the frame.
• It sets a timer after sending the frame.
 • The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives the
acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
• Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.

CSMA/CD is as follows −
• The transmitting station examines if the channel is idle or busy when a frame is ready.
• If the channel is congested, the station will wait till it becomes available.
• If the channel is empty, the station begins transmitting and watches the channel for
collisions
• The station initiates the collision resolution procedure if a collision is detected.
4.
a) Design a network for your organization. (Provide the types of network,
topology, architecture, devices, media, figure, IP/Subnetmask etc. to
support your answer.)

b) What is subnet mask? Write the default subnet mask of all classes. What
are the different valid subnet masks uses in classless IP?
A subnet mask is used to divide an IP address into two parts. One part identifies
the host (computer), the other part identifies the network to which it belongs. To
better understand how IP addresses and subnet masks work, look at an IP address
and see how it's organized.
The default subnet mask of all classes:
A subnet mask is a four-octet number used to identify the network ID portion of a
32-bit IP address. A subnet mask is required on all class-based networks, even on
networks that are not subnetted.
 c) What is classless IP address? What are the benefits of classless IP? If
your organization likes to connect 25 computers which classless IP
address do you suggest? Why?
Classless Addressing is one of the IP(Internet Protocol) address classifications. IP
addresses are unique and universal. It means that no two hosts will have the same IP
address simultaneously in the entire world. The most common use of the classless
addressing system Or Classless interdomain routing (CIDR) for actually addressing is to
combine two or more class C networks to create a /23 or /22 Supernet.

For example, the class C networks 192.168.32.0 and 192.168.33.0 could be combined to
create 192.168.32.0/23. Know more about classless addressing, IP addressing, classful
addressing, and a lot more in detail.

The benefits of classless IP:

If your organization likes to connect 25 computers which classless IP address
do you suggest? Why?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhVATrk0OhU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7BEDtZ7G4g
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) introducing the concept of classless addressing. You
see, with classful addressing, the size of networks is fixed. Each address range has a default
subnet mask. Classless addressing, however, decouples IP address ranges from a default
subnet mask, allowing for variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).

Using classless addressing and VLSM, addresses can be allocated much more efficiently. This
is because network admins get to pick network masks, and in turn, blocks of IP addresses that
are the right size for any purpose.

How does classless addressing work?

At a high level, classless addressing works by allowing IP addresses to be assigned arbitrary
network masks without respect to “class.” That means /8 (255.0.0.0), /16 (255.255.0.0), and
/24 (255.255.255.0) network masks can be assigned to any address that would have
traditionally been in the Class A, B, or C range. Additionally, that means that we’re no longer
tied down to /8, /16, and /24 as our only options, and that’s where classless addressing gets
very interesting.

Going back to our example organization, if we need 500 IP addresses, using a subnet
calculator (we built one!) tells us a /23 block is much more efficient than a Class B allocation.
/23 gives us 510 usable host addresses. That means by switching to classless addressing,
we’ve avoided wasting over 65,000 addresses. Similarly, if we need just the two hosts, a /30
saves 250 addresses..
 Spring-2018
1.
(a) Depict the architecture of Internet.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/Architecture-of-the-Internet

(b) Network that can carry any type of traffic for example voice, video, and data
simultaneously is called triple play). Why TCP/IP could not solve the problem and
how ATM came up with solutions? 04
The access community desires to guarantee quality of service (QoS) connections regardless of
the contents of any records circulate it incorporates. Transporting those facts unbiased of the
contents allows new services to be brought with out remodeling the community. with a purpose
to provide triple play services, Asynchronous transfer Mode (ATM) can be the favored access
community since it gives reliable connections between cease points with a guaranteed QoS. It
makes use of a unmarried connection mechanism for all offerings. each “digital cord” from a
provider issuer to a home network is carried out as an ATM digital wires, which are created
dynamically as ATM switched virtual circuits. each wired and wi-fi offerings are supported
over this unified connection model.
(c) Differentiate between service and protocol. 02

Differentiate between service and protocol

• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it. Defines what
operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users, says nothing at all about how these
operations are implemented.

•
A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the frames, packets, or
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer. Entities use protocols in order to
implement their service definitions.A protocol relates to the implementation of the service and as such
is not visible to the user of the services.

Read more:
Relationship between service and protocol
A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it.The service defines what
operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these
operations are implemented.A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the
packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.In other words, services relate to
the interfaces between layers, as illustrated below. In contrast, protocols relate to the packets sent between
peer entities on different machines.

2.

(a) Analyze the throughput of pure aloha and slotted aloha with necessary diagram. 04

https://www.ques10.com/p/18467/compare-slotted-aloha-and-pure-aloha/

Pure aloha
If one-half a frame is generated during one frame transmission time (one frame during two
frame transmission times), then 18.4 percent of these frames reach their destination
successfully. We expect G = 1/2 to produce the maximum through put because the vulnerable
time is 2 times the frame transmission time. Therefore, if a station generates only one frame in
this vulnerable time (and no other stations generate a frame during this time), the frame will
reach its destination successfully.
Slotted aloha
If one frame is generated during one frame transmission time, then 36.8 percent of these frames
reach their destination successfully. We expect G = 1 to produce maximum throughput because
the vulnerable time is equal to the frame transmission time. Therefore, if a station generates
only one frame in this vulnerable time (and no other station generates a frame during this time),
the frame will reach its destination successfully.

(b) What are hidden terminal problem and exposed terminal problem? What are the
possible solutions of these problems? Describe with necessary figures. 04
PG:278

(c) How the performance of CSMA/CD is improved than that of CSMA, explain. 02
CSMA is a method that detects the condition of a shared channel in order to prevent or
recover data packets from collisions. It is also used to manage the flow of data packets over
the network, ensuring that packets are not lost and data integrity is preserved.

When two or more data packets are sent on a shared channel at the same time in CSMA,
there is a probability of collision. Because of the collision, the receiver receives no
information about the sender’s data packets. And the lost data must be transmitted so that
the receiver may receive it. As a result, before delivering data packets through a network,
we must detect the channel. It is separated into two sections: CSMA CA (Collision
Avoidance) and CSMA CD (Collision Detection).

To identify a collision at the media access control (MAC) layer, the Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/ Collision Detection protocol is employed. When a collision is detected, the CSMA
CD instantly stops the transmission by issuing a signal, ensuring that the sender does not
lose time delivering the data packet.
Improvement:
1.It is used to identify collisions on a shared channel in a relatively short period of time.
2. For collision detection, CSMA CD outperforms CSMA.
3. To avoid waste transmission, CSMA CD is employed.
4. It is used when it is essential to consume or share the same amount of bandwidth at
each station.
5. It has a lower CSMA CD overhead than the CSMA CA.
Thus, CSMA CD is improved then CSMA
3.
(a) Briefly describe the environment and design issues of network layer.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/design-issues-in-network-layer/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hgk7-DvBkf4
(b) Design 4 subnets from the following classful network address: 172.16.0.0. For each
subnet find the followings:
i. Network address
ii. Broadcast address
iii. Subnet mask
iv. First and last usable IP addresses
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdSAaSHfK3M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTzrn_M77mo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkgfyLf1raY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MJmtjj0qCQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KILaAaNWd8o

Use four /18 subnets. Each gives you 16,384 hosts, exactly one forth of the
65,534 of a /16.

Network Address Usable Host Range Broadcast Address:

172.16.0.0 172.16.0.1 - 172.16.63.254 172.16.63.255

172.16.64.0 172.16.64.1 - 172.16.127.254 172.16.127.255

172.16.128.0 172.16.128.1 - 172.16.191.254 172.16.191.255

172.16.192.0 1 72.16.192.1 - 172.16.255.254 172.16.255.255

 (c) What is IPv6 and why is it needed?
An internet Protocol version 6 address (IPv6 deal with) is a numeric label this is used to
become aware of and locate a network interface of a laptop or a network node
participating in a computer network the usage of IPv6. IP addresses are covered inside
the packet header to indicate the source and the destination of each packet.
4.
(a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using bridged network? Describe the
looping problem with solution of bridged networks.
The advantages and disadvantages of using bridged network:
Pros or Advantages of bridge networking:
• It reduces network traffic with minor segmentation
• It reduces collisions
• Bridge connects similar network types with different cabling
• Bridge increase the number of attached workstation and network segments
• It extends the physical network
• Bridges also can reduce network traffic on a segment by subdividing network
communications
• It connects different architecture
• Bridges network can extend a network by acting as a repeater
• It helps in an extension of physical network
• It creates separate collision domains. Hence it can increases available bandwidth to
individual nodes as fewer nodes share a collision domain
• Some bridges connect network having different architectures and media types
Cons or Disadvantages of bridge networking:
• It does not filter broadcasts
• It is slower compare to repeaters due to the filtering process
• It is more expensive compared to repeaters
• Complex network topology, it can pose a problem for transparent bridge
• A bridge is more expensive than repeaters or hubs'
• Does not limit the scope of broadcast
• Does not scale to extremely large network
• Buffering and processing introduces delays
Describe the looping problem with solution of bridged networks.

http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-dcn/843-loop-problem-in-
transparent-bridges.html

(b) Write down the critics of TCP/IP and ISO-OSI reference model?
(c) What is public IP and private IP?
Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols:
Bad Timing
This figure shows the amount of activity surrounding a new subject. When the subject is first
discovered, there is a burst of research activity in the form of discussions, papers, and meetings.
After a while this activity subsides, corporations discover the subject, and the billion-dollar
wave of investment hits.

Bad Technology
The second reason that OSI never caught on is that both the model and the protocols are
flawed. The choice of seven layers was more political than technical, and two of the layers
(session andpresentation) are nearly empty, whereas
two other ones (data link and network) are overfull.
Bad Implementations
the enormous complexity of the model and the protocols, it will come as no surprise that the
initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and slow. Everyone who tried them got burned.
It did not take long for people to associate ‘‘OSI’’ with ‘‘poor quality.’’ Although the products
improved in the course of time, the image stuck.
Bad Politics
On account of the initial implementation, many people, especially in academia, thought of
TCP/IP as part of UNIX, and UNIX in the 1980s in academia was not unlike parenthood (then
incorrectly called motherhood) and apple pie. OSI, on the other hand, was widely thought to
be the creature of the European telecommunication ministries, the European Community, and
later the U.S. Government. This belief was only partly true, but the very idea of a bunch of
government bureaucrats trying to shove a technically inferior standard down the throats of
the poor researchers and programmers down in the trenches actually developing computer
networks did not aid OSI’s cause.
Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model

• Service, interface, and protocol not distinguished

• Not a general model
• Host-to-network “layer” not really a layer
• No mention of physical and data link layers
• Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to replace
 Autumn-2017

(a) Define computer network, what are the uses of computer network the consequences of
computer network? 3
(b) Briefly describe some important design principles of the Internet. 3
(c) What are the factors that must consider for the performance of computer network? 2
Factors Affecting the Performance of Computer Networks:
1. Latency
Latency is the kinds of delays typically incurred in processing of network data. A low latency
network connection is one that generally experiences small delay times, while a high latency
connection generally suffers from long delays.
2. Packet loss
Packet loss is the failure of one or more transmitted packets to arrive at their destination. It can
be prevented by prioritizing the type of packets that are to be sent. Generally, there is not much
the average computer user can do to avoid packet loss issues.
3. Retransmission
Protocols which provide reliable communication on such networks use a combination of
sending acknowledgments, retransmission of missing or damaged packets and checksums to
make sure the reliability.

4. Throughput
Throughput is the rate at which a computer or network sends or receives data. It is a good
measure of the channel capacity of a communications link, and connections to the internet are
usually rated in terms of how many bits they pass per second (bit/s). When the number of
buffers that the redirector reserves for network performance is increased it increases network
throughput.
5. Queuing delay
The queuing delay is the time a work waits in a queue awaiting it can be executed. It is a key
component of network delay. This is the delay stuck between the point of entrance of a packet
in the transmit line up to the real point of transmission of the message.
(d) Depict the network architectures of wireless local area network (WLAN) and wireless
sensor network (WSN). 2
Wireless local area network (WLAN):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBc7MyE9RTQ

Wireless sensor network (WSN)

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1wZK78CqAoorvWNRXsFRe2B0Fd03FKITP
A WSN is a network consisting of numerous sensor nodes with sensing, wireless
communications and computing capabilities. These sensor nodes are scattered in an unattended
environment (i.e. sensing field) to sense the physical world. The sensed data can be collected by
a few sink nodes which have accesses to infrastructured networks like the Internet. Finally, an
end user can remotely fetch the sensed data by accessing infrastructured networks. Fig. 1 shows
the operation sketch map of WSNs. In Fig. 1, two kinds of network topologies are shown. The
sensor nodes either form a flat network topology where sensor nodes also act as routers and
trasfer data to a sink through multi-hop routing, or a hierarchical network topology where more
powerful fixed or mobile relays are used to collect and route the sensor data to a sink.
2.

a) Compare and contrast the three network models: OSI, TCP/IP, and ATM
https://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/comparison-osi-tcp-model

b) Define protocol. What are the functions of a protocol? Why we need a standard to
select a protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network.
These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access
method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

Functions of protocols:
 Addressing
 Data Packet Format
 Segmentation (Splitting long messages into small pieces)
 Embedding control information
 Detecting Errors
 Controlling data flow
 Controlling connection
Why we need a standard to select a protocol:
• Protocols and standards make networks work together. Protocols make it possible for the
various components of a network to communicate with each other, and standards make it
possible for different manufacturers' network components to work together.
• Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate with each other, regardless of
any differences in their internal processes, structure or design. Network protocols are the
reason you can easily communicate with people all over the world, and thus play a
critical role in modern digital communications.

c) What are the responsibilities of data link layer of OSI network model? Discuss the
importance of medium access control sub-layer.
The data link layer (Layer 2) converts the raw transmission facility provided by the physical layer
to a reliable and error-free link.
The main functions of the data link layer are as follows −
• It breaks up the stream of bits into data frames having sizes from a few hundred to
a few thousand bytes.
• It ensures distribution of the frames to the different systems. For this, it adds a
header to the frame containing the address of the sender and the receiver.
• In case of reliable connection, this layer ensures that the receiver sends an
acknowledgement frame. In absence of acknowledgement frames, frame
retransmission is done. It also has mechanisms to identify duplicate frames.
• The data link layer ensures flow control of transmission so that a fast sender does
not drown a slow receiver.
• In the case of broadcast networks, this layer also controls access to the shared
channel.
https://www.includehelp.com/computer-networks/functions-of-data-link-layer-in-the-osi-model.aspx

Importance of Medium Access Control techniques are designed with the following goals :
Initialization: The technique enables network stations, upon power- up, to enter the state required
for operation.
Fairness: The technique should treat each station fairly in terms of the time it is made to wait until
it gains entry to the network, access time and the time it is allowed to spend for transmission.
Priority: In managing access and communications time, the technique should be able to give
priority to some stations over other stations to facilitate different type of services needed.
Limitations to one station: The techniques should allow transmission by one station at a time.
Receipt: The technique should ensure that message packets are actually received (no lost packets)
and delivered only once (no duplicate packets), and are received in the proper order.
Error Limitation: The method should be capable of encompassing an appropriate error detection
scheme.
Recovery: If two packets collide (are present on the network at the same time), or if notice of a
collision appears, the method should be able to recover, i.e. be able to halt all the transmissions
and select one station to retransmit.
Reconfigurability: The technique should enable a network to accommodate the addition or
deletion of a station with no more than a noise transient from which the network station can
recover.
Compatibility: The technique should accommodate equipment from all vendors who build to its
specification. Reliability: The technique should enable a network to confine operating inspite of
a failure of one or several stations.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/7338732/

3.
a) Briefly discuss advantages and disadvantages of different types of framing method.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/framing-in-data-link-layer/
 b) Write short note on: Error Control and Flow Control, CRC

https://techdifferences.com/difference-between-flow-control-and-error-control.html

Definition of Flow Control

The flow control is a design issue at data link layer and transport layer. A sender sends the data
frames faster then the receiver can accept. The reason can be that a sender is running on a
powerful machine. In this case, even the data is received without any error; the receiver is
unable to receive the frame at this speed and loose some frames.

Definition of Error Control

Error Control is the issue that occurs at data link layer and transport level as well. Error Control
is a mechanism for detecting and correcting the error occurred in frames that are delivered from
sender to the receiver. The error occurred in the frame may be a single bit error or burst error.
Single bit error is the error that occurs only in the one-bit data unit of the frame, where 1 is
changed to 0 or 0 is changed to 1.

In burst error is the case when more than one bit in the frame is changed; it also refers to the
packet level error. In burst error, the error like packet loss, duplication of the frame, loss of
acknowledgment packet, etc. can also occu

Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)

In Cyclic Redundancy Code the data undergoes a binary division whatever the remainder is
obtained is attached with the data and send to the receiver. The receiver then divides the
obtained data with the same divisor as with which the sender divided the data. If the remainder
obtained is zero then the data is accepted. Else the data is rejected, and the sender needs to
retransmit the data again.
 c) What are the different techniques of error detection? Discuss Hamming code
technique of error correction with suitable example.
The different techniques of error detection
https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-error-detection
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52bVzapVlko&t=4s

Hamming code technique of error correction with suitable example.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TP2lo3DaTm4
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/error-correcting-codes-hamming-codes

4.

a) What are public IP address and private IP address? Why network address
translation (NAT) is necessary? 3
Public IP address and Private IP address:
A public IP address identifies you to the wider internet so that all the information you're
searching for can find you.
A private IP address is used within a private network to connect securely to other devices within
that same network.
Each device within the same network has a unique private IP address.
 b) Given 198.0.0.0/29 find out the number of subnet, number of host in each subnet,
and their broadcast address.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdSAaSHfK3M
GIVEN ip = 198.0.0.0/29

It will from Class C as the default range

1.Subnet mask: 29

11111111 11111111 11111111 11111000

255 255 255 248
=255.255.255.248

2.Network address:

255 255 255 0

198 0 0 0
11111111 00000000 11111111 00000000
10101100 00000000 00000000 00000000
11000110 00000000 00000000 00000000 (logical &)
198 0 0 0

=198.0.0.0/29

3.Block size= 256-248=8

4. Number of subnet= 2x =25= 32 { x= number of 1 in octat }

5. Valid host = 2y-2 = 23-2=6 (y= number of 0 in octat}

8. Broadcast id = 0+8=198.0.0.7

7. subnetting:

Subnet ID First Address Last Address Broadcast ID Subnet mask

198.0.0.0 198.0.0.1 198.0.0.6 198.0.0.7 255.255.255.248
c) Design a network for your organization. (Provide the types of network, topology,
architecture, devices, media, figure etc. to support your answer.
 Spring-2017
(a) What is heterogenity? Briefly describe about the convergence of communication
technology. 4
A heterogeneous network is a network connecting computers and other devices with different
operating systems and/or protocols. For example, local area networks (LANs) that connect
Microsoft Windows and Linux based personal computers with Apple Macintosh computers are
heterogeneous.
Convergence in communication technologies means that different kinds of communication
technologies are coming closer to each other. During the past few decades of rapid
technological advancements the boarders between telecommunications, the Internet and mass
media are receding. The convergence of communication technologies means one terminal de-
vice, for example a mobile telephone or a digital television can be used for various different
services.
In order to survive in the digital era most of the mass media sources find ways to get involved
with the new technology, Internet. Due to the high demand for the new media called Internet,
other sources of media such as newspapers and other TV channels started taking advantage of
this source and- began to make their homepages on Internet sites. The difference between the
Internet and other media sources is that Internet provides Information technology, such as
digital recording system, voices, images and broadcasting media etc. all in one medium.
The peculiarity of the emerging information society also is that both information and
communication technologies such as telephone, computer, cable television and other media
technologies are all merging together to form one entity working for the effective
communication of information compressing time and space to almost nil. Digitisation,
convergence of technologies, and networking (all the specialties of post modern technologies)
lead to a transformation in the nature and expectations of mass media.
These technological advancements made mass media more interactive. For example SMS
voting became popular in the present times and increased audience interactivity in the case of
both print (such as newspaper) and broadcasting media (such as television and radio). The
convergence of media technologies and the digital forms of access and delivery offer even more
ways for the audiences to engage with the media.

(b) Compare and contrast among the three network models ATM, ISO-OSI and
TCP/IP
 (c) Briefly describe (any two):
i. Wi-Fi
ii. Bluetooth
iii. WBAN
iv. WSN
Wi-Fi:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-are-ieee-802-11-networks
Bluetooth:
WBAN:
A Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) connects independent nodes (e.g. sensors and
actuators) that are situated in the clothes, on the body or under the skin of a person. The
network typically expands over the whole human body and the nodes are connected through a
wireless communication channel. According to the implementation, these nodes are placed in a
star or multihop topology.
A WBAN offers many promising new applications in the area of remote health monitoring,
home/health care, medicine, multimedia, sports and many other, all of which make advantage of
the unconstrained freedom of movement a WBAN offers. In the medical field, for example, a
patient can be equipped with a wireless body area network consisting of sensors that constantly
measure specific biological functions, such as temperature, blood pressure, heart rate,
electrocardiogram (ECG), respiration, etc. The advantage is that the patient doesn’t have to stay
in bed, but can move freely across the room and even leave the hospital for a while

WSN
2.
(a) Consider the following networks as wireless LANs.

i. What kind of problems the network may suffer?

ii. Is there any protocol to overcome the problems? Which protocol?
 (b) Write down the working principle with flow chart of CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA.
How throughput is improved in slotted ALOHA over pure ALOHA?
This relation between G which represents the total offered traffic on the channel and S which
represents the throughput of the Pure ALOHA system is plotted in Fig. 3. It shows that initially
at low traffic load throughput increases with increasing offered traffic up to a maximum of 1 / 2
0.184e = occurring at a value of 0.5.G = A further increase of traffic leads to a higher collision
probability due to more intense contention, causing a reduction of throughput.
we can see, the efficiency of Pure ALOHA can be improved by the introduced time slot
structure. However, time synchronization is required to align stations to the slot structure.

3.
(a) Which network suffers from greater delay among datagram and virtual circuit
networks? Justify your answer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-S-NThI_79o

Datagram Protocol Characteristics

• No delay while waiting for connection to be established (no connection, so no handshake)
• No guarantee that the packet (datagram) will be delivered (no ACK)
• May handle network failure more gracefully than connection-oriented packet switching
protocols
• Undesirable overhead from having to carry two potentially large addresses in every packet
header
• Since there's no connection, datagram routers/switches have no way to anticipate or control
switching load - this can result in "dropped" packets

Virtual Circuit Protocol Characteristics

 • Sometimes called "reliable", because prior to data transmission+ Existence of path is
confirmed + Destination host has approved the connection
• However, data can't be transmitted until a "Connection Accepted" packet is received back
from the destination host+ So there's a minimum of 1 RTT of delay for a new connection
+ Bad for short transactions
• If a switch or link fails, all virtual circuits using that resource are lost
+ User is usually alerted to the failure, but...
+ Each virtual circuit must be reestablished

(b) A classless address is given as 167.199.170.82/27. Find the following information

i. Number of address
ii. First address
iii. Last address
iv. Broadcast address

GIVEN ip = 167.199.170.82/27

It will from Class A as the default range

1.Subnet mask: 27

11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000

255 255 255 224
= 255.255.255.224

2.Network address:

255 255 255 224

167 199 170 82
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
10100111 1100 0111 10101010 01010010
10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000 (logical &)
123 55 150 64

=167.199.170.64
Total= 256-224=32
Subnet= 23=8
5
Host=2 -2=32-2=30

3. subnetting:

Subnet ID First Address Last Address Broadcast ID Subnet mask

167.199.170.64 167.199.170.65 167.199.170.92 167.199.170.93 255.255.255.224
 (c) Distinguish between Classful and Classless Addressing.

4.
(a) Write short notes on the followings(any 4)

i. Switch, ii. Router, iii. Repeater, iv. NAT, v. CIDR, vi. ARP
Switch –
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The
switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct
port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but broadcast
domain remains the same.
Repeater –
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which
the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the
signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
Routers –
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router
is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and
have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the
data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
Network Address Translation (NAT) –
is a process in which one or more local IP address is translated into one or more Global IP
address and vice versa in order to provide Internet access to the local hosts. Also, it does the
translation of port numbers i.e. masks the port number of the host with another port number, in
the packet that will be routed to the destination. It then makes the corresponding entries of IP
address and port number in the NAT table. NAT generally operates on a router or firewall.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) –
Address Resolution Protocol is a communication protocol used for discovering physical address
associated with given network address. Typically, ARP is a network layer to data link layer
mapping process, which is used to discover MAC address for given Internet Protocol Address.
In order to send the data to destination, having IP address is necessary but not sufficient; we
also need the physical address of the destination machine. ARP is used to get the physical
address (MAC address) of destination machine.
CIDR –
stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing. It is an IP address assigning method that improves
the efficiency of address distribution. It is also known as supernetting that replaces the older
system based on classes A, B, and C networks. By using a single CIDR IP address many unique
IP addresses can be designated. CIDR IP address is the same as the normal IP address except
that it ends with a slash followed by a number.
172.200.0.0/16 It is called IP network prefix.
(b) write now the comparison between iPv4 and IPv6. What is your opinion about the 4
prospect of IPv6.
Opinion about the prospect of IPv6:

Pv6 addresses are potentially capable of acting as an identifier for each connected device on THE

planet, which would allow marketers to refine their targeting. With IPv4, addresses typically

describe a group of devices that share a network. For example, a laptop, tablet, mobile phone, and

connected TV that belong to a family might be assigned a single IPv4 address. If there are multiple

people within that household, marketers are limited in how well they can target a particular

individual across devices. With IPv6, the nearly infinite number of addresses theoretically makes it

possible to assign a unique address to each device. Marketers could then associate an address with

an individual as opposed to a household, thus making it easier to target that person whether they’re

on their phone or laptop. Not only could this help increase conversion rates and customer

experiences, but it could also make analytics more accurate.

(c) Why it is not sufficient to communicate using physical address globally except
logical? 2
A physical address is an address that shows the location of memory while a logical address
shows the address of the CPU, i.e. the central processor unit generates the Address. One device
can have only one physical address. They are constant, so they cannot be changed. The logical
address does not exist physically in the memory whereas physical address is a location in the
memory that can be accessed physically. Identical logical addresses are generated by Compile-
time and Load time address binding methods whereas they differs from each other in run-time
address binding method
 Autumn-2016

Answer any 3 questions from the following

1.

(a) Define computer network. What are the basic elements of a network? Explain the
factors those affect the quality of network communication.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/elements-of-computer-network/

(b) Describe different types of network topologies. What type of topology is commonly
preferred in a local area network and why?
Different types of network topologies:
https://www.guru99.com/type-of-network-topology.html
What type of topology is commonly preferred in a local area network and why:
Star topologies are most commonly-used because you can manage the entire network from one
location: the central switch. As a consequence, if a node that isn't the central node goes down
then the network will remain up. Within this framework, each node is independently connected
to a central hub via a physical cable—thus creating a star-like shape. All data must travel
through the central node before it reaches its destination.
(c) Define and make a comparison between client server network and peer to peer
network.
2.
(a) Why subnet mask is necessary? Write the default subnet mask of all classes.
 (b) You have found the following address in a network: 123.55.150.10/17. Find the
following information:

i. Network address
ii. Broadcast address
iii. Subnet mask
iv. First and last usable address in the network
GIVEN ip = 123.55.150.10/17
It will from Class A as the default range
1.Subnet mask: 17

11111111 11111111 10000000 00000000

255 255 128 0
=255.255.128.0

2.Network address:

255 255 128 0

123 55 150 10
11111111 00000000 10000000 00000000
01111011 00110111 10010110 00001010
01111011 00110111 10010110 00000000 (logical &)
123 55 150 0

=123.55.150.0
6. subnetting:

Subnet ID First Address Last Address Broadcast ID Subnet mask

123.55.150.0 123.55.128.1 123.55.255.254 123.55.255.255 255.255.128.0
 (b) What is CIDR? Discuss the benefit of classless IP addressing.3.
CIDR:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqsXzkXfwRw
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-is-cidr-and-how-it-works
The benefit of classless IP addressing
(a) Briefly discuss the different layers of OSI model. Depict how TCP/IP reference model
differs from OSI reference model?
 (b) Give names of protocols associated with each layer of the TCP/IP reference model.
Network Access Layer:

o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
IP Protocol:

IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

ARP Protocol:

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to
find the physical address from the IP address.

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a mechanism used by the hosts or
routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
Transport Layer
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.

User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the
transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore,
it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.

Application Layer

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known
as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-
mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another
e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of
a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the
files from one computer to another computer
 (c) Describe ATM reference model with diagram.

4.
(a) Why the copper wires are twisted into pairs in STP or UTP cables? Why fiber optic cable is
a better choice than a twisted pair cable?
A twisted-pair cabling system is a cable consisting of one or several pairs of copper wires.
These wires are twisted together and around each other and are insulated with a dielectric
polymeric compound. Twisting helps minimize electromagnetic radiation and resists external
interference.
Fiber optic cables have a much more bandwidth than copper twisted pair cables. Since there
is no electricity used, there is no electrical interference and related noise. Fiber optic cables
are much more secure for data transfer, since it is very difficult to tap fiber optic cables.

(b) Considering the layering approach explain data encapsulation process in the OSI model.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-data-encapsulation-de-encapsulation-works/

(c) What is a collision domain? A switch divides the collision domain in a network explain.
Collision Domain –
A Collision Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a message to the network,
all other devices which are included in its collision domain have to pay attention to it, no
matter if it was destined for them or not. This causes a problem because, in a situation where
two devices send out their messages simultaneously, a collision will occur leading them to wait
and re-transmit their respective messages, one at a time. Remember, it happens only in the
case of a half-duplex mode.
A switch divides the collision domain in a network:
Usually switches are used to segment (divide) a big Collision domain to many small collision domains.
Each port of an Ethernet Switch is operating in a separate Collision domain.

In other words, Collision cannot happen between two devices which are connected to different ports
of Collisions are often in a hub environment, because each port on a hub is in the same collision
domain. By contrast, each port on a bridge, a switch or a router is in a separate collision domain
a Switch.