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Pragmatics in Linguistics

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 Pragmatics in Linguistics

Mohammed Jasim Betti

Department of English, College of Education for Humanities,

University of Thi-Qar

1. Definition

In linguistics and related fields, pragmatics is the study of how context

contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses phenomena including
implicature, speech acts, relevance and conversation. Theories of
pragmatics go hand-in-hand with theories of semantics, which studies
aspects of meaning which are grammatically or lexically encoded. The
ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called
pragmatic competence (Betti, 2021n: 2).

Pragmatics emerged as its own subfield in the 1950s after the

pioneering work of J.L. Austin and Paul Grice (Mey, 1993: 22;
Shaozhong, 2009: 56; Daejin et al. , 2002: 342; Betti, 2013: 6).

2. Types

Pragmatics was a reaction to structuralist linguistics as outlined by

Ferdinand de Saussure. In many cases, it expanded upon his idea that
language has an analyzable structure, composed of parts that can be
defined in relation to others. Pragmatics first engaged only in synchronic
study, as opposed to examining the historical development of language
Betti, and Igaab, 2015: 26): However, it rejected the notion that all
meaning comes from signs existing purely in the abstract space of langue.
Meanwhile, historical pragmatics has also come into being. The field did
not gain linguists' attention until the 1970s, when two different schools
1
emerged: the Anglo-American pragmatic thought and the European
continental pragmatic thought (also called the perspective view)
Coppock, (2019: 37; Betti and Igaab, 2018: 34).

3. Areas of interest

The areas of interest in pragmatics include the following:

A. The study of the speaker's meaning focusing not on the phonetic or
grammatical form of an utterance but on what the speaker's intentions and
beliefs are (Al-Seady, 2002a: 12; and Betti, 2002a: 13).

B. The study of the meaning in context and the influence that a given
context can have on the message. It requires knowledge of the speaker's
identities, and the place and time of the utterance (Betti, 2020d: 14 ).

C. The study of implicatures: the things that are communicated even

though they are not explicitly expressed (Jucker, 2012: 48; Betti, and
Mahdi, 2021: 53;

D. The study of relative distance, both social and physical, between

speakers in order to understand what determines the choice of what is
said and what is not said (Betti, 2020d: 13).

E. The study of what is not meant, as opposed to the intended meaning:

what is unsaid and unintended, or unintentional (Leigh, 2018: 23; and
Betti, 1990: 93).

F. Information structure, the study of how utterances are marked in order

to efficiently manage the common ground of referred entities between
speaker and hearer.

G. Formal Pragmatics, the study of those aspects of meaning and use for
which context of use is an important factor by using the methods and
goals of formal semantics.

4. Ambiguity

The sentence "You have a green light" is ambiguous. Without knowing

the context, the identity of the speaker or the speaker's intent, it is
difficult to infer the meaning with certainty. For example, it could mean:

 the space that belongs to you has green ambient lighting;

2
  you are driving through a green traffic signal;
 you no longer have to wait to continue driving;
 you are permitted to proceed in a non-driving context;
 your body is cast in a greenish glow;
 you possess a light source which radiates green; or
 you possess a light with a green surface.

Another example of an ambiguous sentence is, “I went to the bank.” This

is an example of lexical ambiguity, as the word bank can either be in
reference to a place where money is kept, or the edge of a river. To
understand what the speaker is truly saying, it is a matter of context,
which is why it is pragmatically ambiguous as well (Almor, and Amit,
2007: 85; Betti, 1990: 92; and Igaab, and Al-Manhalawey, 2010c: 43).

Similarly, the sentence "Sherlock saw the man with binoculars" could
mean that Sherlock observed the man by using binoculars, or it could
mean that Sherlock observed a man who was holding binoculars
(syntactic ambiguity). The meaning of the sentence depends on an
understanding of the context and the speaker's intent (Betti, 1998: 3,
Betti, and Mahdi, 2020: 98; and Igaab, 2015: 83).

As defined in linguistics, a sentence is an abstract entity: a string of

words divorced from non-linguistic context, as opposed to an utterance,
which is a concrete example of a speech act in a specific context (Betti,
2021o: 5). The more closely conscious subjects stick to common words,
idioms, phrasings, and topics, the more easily others can surmise their
meaning; the further they stray from common expressions and topics, the
wider the variations in interpretations (Betti, 2020b: 18; and Betti, and
AlFartoosy, 2019: 102). That suggests that sentences do not have intrinsic
meaning, that there is no meaning associated with a sentence or word, and
that either can represent an idea only symbolically. The cat sat on the mat
is a sentence in English. If someone were to say to someone else, "The

3
cat sat on the mat," the act is itself an utterance. That implies that a
sentence, term, expression or word cannot symbolically represent a single
true meaning; such meaning is underspecified (which cat sat on which
mat?) and potentially ambiguous (Betti, 2021b: 8). By contrast, the
meaning of an utterance can be inferred through knowledge of both its
linguistic and non-linguistic contexts (which may or may not be sufficient
to resolve ambiguity). In mathematics, with Berry's paradox, there arises
a similar systematic ambiguity with the word "definable" (Vonk,1992: 2;;
and Silverstein 1976: 34; Al-Seady, 1995:11; and Betti, 2021e: 91):

5. Referential uses of language

The referential uses of language are how signs are used to refer to certain
items. A sign is the link or relationship between a signified and the
signifier as defined by de Saussure and Huguenin. The signified is some
entity or concept in the world. The signifier represents the signified. An
example would be (Betti, 2021m: 3).

Signified: the concept cat

Signifier: the word "cat"

The relationship between the two gives the sign meaning. The
relationship can be explained further by considering what we mean by
"meaning." In pragmatics, there are two different types of meaning to
consider: semantic-referential meaning and indexical meaning. (Vonk,
1992: 333; Silverstein 1976: 34; Betti, 2021f: 70; and Al-Sheikh, 2006a:
88).

Semantic-referential meaning refers to the aspect of meaning, which

describes events in the world that are independent of the circumstance
they are uttered in. An example would be propositions such as (Betti, and
Igaab , 2019: 242).

"Santa Claus eats cookies."

In this case, the proposition is describing that Santa Claus eats cookies.
The meaning of the proposition does not rely on whether or not Santa

4
Claus is eating cookies at the time of its utterance. Santa Claus could be
eating cookies at any time and the meaning of the proposition would
remain the same (Betti, 2021d: 12; and Al-Seady, 1998a: 18). The
meaning is simply describing something that is the case in the world. In
contrast, the proposition, "Santa Claus is eating a cookie right now,"
describes events that are happening at the time the proposition is uttered
(Betti, 2002d: 94).

Semantic-referential meaning is also present in meta-semantical

statements such as (Betti, 2007: 12):

Tiger: carnivorous, a mammal

If someone were to say that a tiger is a carnivorous animal in one context

and a mammal in another, the definition of tiger would still be the same.
The meaning of the sign tiger is describing some animal in the world,
which does not change in either circumstance (Betti , 2006: 72; and
Igaab, 2010b: 163).

Indexical meaning, on the other hand, is dependent on the context of the

utterance and has rules of use. By rules of use, it is meant that indexicals
can tell you when they are used, but not what they actually mean (Betti
and Al-Jubouri, 2009: 3):

Example: "I"

Whom "I" refers to depends on the context and the person uttering it.

As mentioned, these meanings are brought about through the relationship

between the signified and the signifier. One way to define the relationship
is by placing signs in two categories: referential indexical signs, also
called "shifters," and pure indexical signs (Igaab, 2015a: 140).

Referential indexical signs are signs where the meaning shifts

depending on the context hence the nickname "shifters." 'I' would be
considered a referential indexical sign (Betti, 2021k: 7).

. The referential aspect of its meaning would be '1st person singular'

while the indexical aspect would be the person who is speaking (refer
above for definitions of semantic-referential and indexical meaning)
(Betti, 2021a: 78; and Al-Seady, 2002b: 76).

5
Another example would be:

"This"

Referential: singular count

Indexical: Close by

A pure indexical sign does not contribute to the meaning of the

propositions at all. It is an example of a "non-referential use of language."
(Betti, 2021g: 49).

A second way to define the signified and signifier relationship is C.S.

Peirce's Peircean Trichotomy. The components of the trichotomy are the
following (Middleton, 1990: 241; Betti, 2021i: 19; and Igaab, 2015b: 25).

1. Icon: the signified resembles the signifier (signified: a dog's barking

noise, signifier: bow-wow).

2. Index: the signified and signifier are linked by proximity or the

signifier has meaning only because it is pointing to the signified (Igaab,
2010b: 142).

3. Symbol: the signified and signifier are arbitrarily linked (signified: a

cat, signifier: the word cat).

These relationships allow us to use signs to convey what we want to say.

If two people were in a room and one of them wanted to refer to a
characteristic of a chair in the room he would say "this chair has four
legs" instead of "a chair has four legs." The former relies on context
(indexical and referential meaning) by referring to a chair specifically in
the room at that moment while the latter is independent of the context
(semantico-referential meaning), meaning the concept chair (Betti, and
Al-Jubouri, 2015c: 77; and Igaab, 2010: 12).

6. Referential expressions in conversation

Referring to things and people is a common feature of conversation, and

conversants do so collaboratively. Individuals engaging in discourse
utilize pragmatics. (Duranti, 1997: 98; and Betti, 1996: 47).

6
 In addition, individuals within the scope of discourse cannot help but
avoid intuitive use of certain utterances or word choices in an effort to
create communicative success. The study of referential language is
heavily focused upon definite descriptions and referent accessibility.
Theories have been presented for why direct referent descriptions occur
in discourse (Fromkin, 2014: 508; and Betti, 2021h: 6). ).

(In layman's terms: why reiteration of certain names, places, or

individuals involved or as a topic of the conversation at hand are repeated
more than one would think necessary.)

Four factors are widely accepted for the use of referent language
(Betti, Igaab & Al-Ghizzi, 2018: 266 ):

(i) competition with a possible referent,

(ii) salience of the referent in the context of discussion

(iii) an effort for unity of the parties involved, and finally,

(iv) a blatant presence of distance from the last referent(Duranti, 1997: 98;
Algburi, and Igaab, 2021: 7; (Betti, 2020a: 13).
Referential expressions are a form of anaphora.. They are also a means
of connecting past and present thoughts together to create context for
information at hand. Analyzing the context of a sentence and determining
whether or not the use of referent expression is necessary is highly reliant
upon the author/speaker's digression- and is correlated strongly with the
use of pragmatic competency (Fromkin, 2014: 508; Al-Sheikh, 2006a:
12; and Betti, 2020c: 29).
7. Nonreferential uses of language (Silverstein's "Pure" Indexes)
Michael Silverstein has argued that "nonreferential" or "pure" indices
do not contribute to an utterance's referential meaning but instead "signal
some particular value of one or more contextual variables." Although
nonreferential indexes are devoid of semantico-referential meaning, they
do encode "pragmatic" meaning (Fromkin, 2014: 508; Al-Sheikh, 2006b:
43; and Betti, 2021s: 3).

The sorts of contexts that such indexes can mark are varied. Examples
include (Igaab, 2010a: 15):

7
  Sex indexes are affixes or inflections that index the sex of the
speaker, e.g. the verb forms of female Koasati speakers take the
suffix "-s".
 Deference indexes are words that signal social differences (usually
related to status or age) between the speaker and the addressee. The
most common example of a deference index is the V form in a
language with a T–V distinction, the widespread phenomenon in
which there are multiple second-person pronouns that correspond
to the addressee's relative status or familiarity to the speaker.
Honorifics are another common form of deference index and
demonstrate the speaker's respect or esteem for the addressee via
special forms of address and/or self-humbling first-person
pronouns (Betti. 2021u: 5).

An Affinal taboo index is an example of avoidance speech that produces

and reinforces sociological distance, as seen in the Aboriginal Dyirbal
language of Australia. In that language and some others, there is a social
taboo against the use of the everyday lexicon in the presence of certain
relatives (mother-in-law, child-in-law, paternal aunt's child, and maternal
uncle's child). If any of those relatives are present, a Dyirbal speaker has
to switch to a completely separate lexicon reserved for that purpose
(Neale, 1990: 22; Betti, 2021t: 4, Betti and Khalaf , 2021: 12).

In all of these cases, the semantico-referential meaning of the

utterances is unchanged from that of the other possible (but often
impermissible) forms, but the pragmatic meaning is vastly different.

8. The performative

J.L. Austin introduced the concept of the performative, contrasted in his

writing with "constative" (i.e. descriptive) utterances. According to
Austin's original formulation, a performative is a type of utterance
characterized by two distinctive features (Betti and Hashim, 2018: 284):

1. It is not truth-evaluable (i.e. it is neither true nor false)

2. Its uttering performs an action rather than simply describing one.

Examples are as follows:

8
  "I hereby pronounce you man and wife."
 "I accept your apology."
 "This meeting is now adjourned."

To be performative, an utterance must conform to various conditions

involving what Austin calls felicity. These deal with things like
appropriate context and the speaker's authority. For instance, when a
couple has been arguing and the husband says to his wife that he accepts
her apology even though she has offered nothing approaching an apology,
his assertion is infelicitous: because she has made neither expression of
regret nor request for forgiveness, there exists none to accept, and thus no
act of accepting can possibly happen (Betti, and Hashim, (2021: 16).
(Betti, 2013: 9). .

9. Jacobson's six functions of language

The six factors of an effective verbal communication. To each one

corresponds a communication function (not displayed in this picture).

Roman Jakobson, expanding on the work of Karl Bühler, described six

"constitutive factors" of a speech event, each of which represents the
privileging of a corresponding function, and only one of which is the
referential (which corresponds to the context of the speech event). The six
constitutive factors and their corresponding functions are diagrammed
below.

The six constitutive factors of a speech event

Context

Message

Addresser---------------------Addressee

Contact

Code

The six functions of language

Referential

Poetic

9
Emotive-----------------------Conative

Phatic

Metalingual

 The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Context and

describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive
statements of the referential function can consist of both definite
descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all
fallen now."
 The Expressive (alternatively called "emotive" or "affective")
Function relates to the Addresser and is best exemplified by
interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the
denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about
the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!"
 The Conative Function engages the Addressee directly and is best
illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside
and eat!"

The Poetic Function focuses on "the message for its own sake" (Deleuze
and Guattari , 1987: 35; Betti, 2003: 4; and Igaab, 2010b: 154) and is the
operative function in poetry as well as slogans.

1. The Phatic Function is language for the sake of interaction and is

therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be
observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly
with strangers.

2. The Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive")

Function is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss
or describe itself.

10. Related Fields

There is considerable overlap between pragmatics and sociolinguistics,
since both share an interest in linguistic meaning as determined by usage
in a speech community. However, sociolinguists tend to be more
interested in variations in language within such communities ((Betti,
2021c: 5).

Pragmatics helps anthropologists relate elements of language to

broader social phenomena; it thus pervades the field of linguistic

11
anthropology. Because pragmatics describes generally the forces in play
for a given utterance, it includes the study of power, gender, race,
identity, and their interactions with individual speech acts. For example,
the study of code switching directly relates to pragmatics, since a switch
in code effects a shift in pragmatic force (Deleuze and Guattari , 1987:
21; and Betti and Ulaiwi, 2018: 84).

According to Charles W. Morris, pragmatics tries to understand the

relationship between signs and their users, while semantics tends to focus
on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and syntax (or
"syntactics") examines relationships among signs or symbols. Semantics
is the literal meaning of an idea whereas pragmatics is the implied
meaning of the given idea (Betti, 2002c : 80; and Betti, and Hasan, 2020:
79).

Speech Act Theory, pioneered by J.L. Austin and further developed by

John Searle, centers around the idea of the performative, a type of
utterance that performs the very action it describes. Speech Act Theory's
examination of Illocutionary Acts has many of the same goals as
pragmatics, as outlined above (Austin, 1962; Betti, and Ghadhab, 2020:
61; and Betti, 2015a: 45).).

Computational Pragmatics, as defined by Victoria Fromkin, concerns

how humans can communicate their intentions to computers with as little
ambiguity as possible. That process, integral to the science of natural
language processing (seen as a sub-discipline of artificial intelligence),
involves providing a computer system with some database of knowledge
related to a topic and a series of algorithms, which control how the
system responds to incoming data, using contextual knowledge to more
accurately approximate natural human language and information
processing abilities. Reference resolution, how a computer determines
when two objects are different or not, is one of the most important tasks
of computational pragmatics (Fromkin, 2014: 508; Al-Sheikh, 2006b: 68;
and Betti, 2021l: 1).

11. Formalization

There has been a great amount of discussion on the boundary between

semantics and pragmatics and there are many different formalizations of
aspects of pragmatics linked to context dependence. Particularly

11
interesting cases are the discussions on the semantics of indexicals and
the problem of referential descriptions, a topic developed after the
theories of Keith Donnellan. A proper logical theory of formal pragmatics
has been developed by Carlo Dalla Pozza, according to which it is
possible to connect classical semantics (treating propositional contents as
true or false) and intuitionistic semantics (dealing with illocutionary
forces). The presentation of a formal treatment of pragmatics appears to
be a development of the Fregean idea of assertion sign as formal sign of
the act of assertion (Fromkin, 2014: 509; Betti, 2002e: 83; Betti, and
Yaseen, 2020: 62).

12. In Literary Theory

Pragmatics (more specifically, Speech Act Theory's notion of the

performative) underpins Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity.
In Gender Trouble, she claims that gender and sex are not natural
categories, but socially constructed roles produced by "reiterative acting."

In Excitable Speech she extends her theory of performativity to hate

speech and censorship, arguing that censorship necessarily strengthens
any discourse it tries to suppress and therefore, since the state has sole
power to define hate speech legally, it is the state that makes hate speech
performative (Betti, 2002b: 43; and Igaab and Al-Bdeary, 2016: 18).

remarked that some work done under Pragmatics Jacques Derrida

aligned well with the program he outlined in his book Of Grammatology.

Émile Benveniste argued that the pronouns "I" and "you" are
fundamentally distinct from other pronouns because of their role in
creating the subject.

13. Significant Works and Concepts

Some significant works and concepts in this field include the following
(Betti, 1990: 82; (Betti and Igaab, 2016: 51).

a. J. L. Austin's How To Do Things With Words

12
b. Paul Grice's cooperative principle and conversational maxims

c. Brown and Levinson's politeness theory

d. Geoffrey Leech's politeness maxims

e. Levinson's presumptive meanings

f. Jürgen Habermas's universal pragmatics

g. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson's relevance theory

h. Dallin D. Oaks's Structural Ambiguity in English: An Applied

Grammatical Inventory

i. Vonk, Hustinx, and Simon's Referential Expression Journal

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Learners’ Ability to Use Speech Acts in MA and Ph.D. Theses
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 Defense. Education, Language and Sociology Research, 1, 2, 41-
65.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Ghadhab, Amal Odeh (2020). A Pragma-

Dialectical Study of the argumentative Indicators in American
Electoral Campaign Debates. International Journal of
Advancement in Social Science and Humanity, 9, 27-74.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2020a). Compounding in English and Arabic:

A Contrastive Study. International Journal of Research in Social
Sciences and Humanities, 10, III, 1-13.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2020b). A Comprehensive Introduction to

linguistics. Diwaniya: Nippur.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2020c). Using and Teaching English Drama.

Diwaniya: Nippur.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2020d). A Linguistic Analysis of Two Legal

Texts in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study of International
Conventions, Basrah Journal, 3, 1, 45-67.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Mahdi, Mohammed Abbas (2020). A

Conversation Analysis of Repair Trouble Sources, Inadequacy and
Positions in the Iraqi University Viva Discussions in English.
International Linguistics Research, 3, 4, 69-93.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Mahdi, Mohammed Abbas (2021).

A Conversation Analysis of Staff Members’ and Researchers’
Repair Strategies in the Iraqi University Viva Discussions in
English. Education, Language and Sociology Research, 2, 1, 14-
56.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim. (2021a). Theoretical and Applied Linguistics.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347943117_Theoretical_and_Applied_
Linguistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim. (2021b). Applied Linguistics.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348627973_Applied_Linguistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021c). The Department of English in Iraq: A

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 System Approach.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349337984_The_Department_o
f_English_in_Iraq_A_System_Approach

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021d). An Operational Analysis of the

Department of English in Iraq.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349054695_An_Operational_Analysis_
of_the_Department_of_English_in_Iraq

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021e). An Input-Process-Output Analysis of

the Department of English in the Colleges of Education in Iraq.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349054602_An_Input-Process-
Output_Analysis_of_the_Department_of_English_in_the_Colleges_of_Education_i
n_Iraq

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021f). Applied Linguistics vs Theoretical

Linguistics.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349336695_Applied_Linguistics_vs_Th
eoretical_Linguistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021g). The English Used in the Department of

Arabic.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351229469_The_English_Used_in_the_
Department_of_Arabic

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021h). English for Literary Purposes: A Case

Study.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350487483_English_for_Literary_Purp
oses_A_Case_Study

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021i). Sentence Patterns in English.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350975244_Sentence_Patterns_in_Eng
lish

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021j). ESP and ELP.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351657343_ESP_and_ELP

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021k). Language Alternation.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351938765_Language_Alternation

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021l). Stress in English with Pedagogical

Implications.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352248961_Stress_in_English_with_Pe
dagogical_Implications

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Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021m). Intonation in English with
Pedagogical Implications.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352313269_Intonation_in_English_wit
h_pedagogical_Implications#fullTextFileContent

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021n). Needs Analysis.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352780645_Needs_Analysis

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021o). Slips of the Tongue and Other Slips.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352837551_Slips_of_the_Tongue_and_Other_Sli
ps

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021p). Contrastive Linguistics and Other

Related Fields.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353052851_Contrastive_Linguistics_an
d_Other_Related_Fields

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021q). Types of Verbs.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353072360_Types_of_
Verbs#fullTextFileContent
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021r). Aims and Objectives of Teaching
Language and Literature.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353143615_Aims_and_Objectives_of_
Teaching_Language_and_Literature

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021s). Complement and Complementation.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021t). Politeness Principle.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021u). Semantics.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Khalaf , Noor Sattar (2021). A Pragma-

Stylistic Study of Implicature in Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twelfth

Night. International Linguistics Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 12-31.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Hashim, Zainab Kadhim (2021). The Effect

of Gender on the Bilingual and Bicultural Identity of the Iraqi EFL

Learners' Recognition and Production of Request. International

Linguistics Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 32-71.

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