Lesson 2- Assessment Purposes, Learning Targets, and Appropriate Methods

What is the purpose of classroom assessment?

Assessment works best when its purpose is clear. Without a clear purpose, it
is difficult to design or plan assessment effectively and efficiently. In classrooms,
teachers are expected to know the instructional goals and learning outcomes,
which will inform how they will design and implement their assessment. In general,
the purpose of classroom assessment may be classified in terms of the following:

1. Assessment of Learning. This refers to the use of assessment to determine

learners’ acquired knowledge and skills from instruction and whether they were
able to achieve the curriculum outcomes. It is generally summative in nature.

2. Assessment for Learning. This refers to the use of assessment to identify

the needs of learners in order to modify instruction or learning activities in the
classroom. It is formative in nature, and it is meant to identify gaps in the learning
experiences of learners so that they can be assisted in achieving the curriculum
outcomes.

3. Assessment as Learning. This refers to the use of assessment to help

learners become self-regulated. It is formative in nature and meant to use
assessment tasks, results, and feedback to help learners practice self-regulation
and make adjustments to achieve the curriculum outcomes.

As discussed in the previous lesson, assessment serves as the mechanism

by which teachers are able to determine whether instruction worked in facilitating
the learning of students. Hence, it is very important that assessment is aligned
which instruction and the identified learning outcomes for learners. Knowing what
will be taught (instruction) are as important as knowing what we want from the
very start (curriculum outcome) in determining the specific purpose and strategy
for assessment. The alignment is easier if teachers have clear purpose on why they
are performing the assessment. Typically, teachers use classroom assessment for
assessment of learning more than assessment for learning and assessment as
learning. Ideally, however, all three purposes of classroom assessment must be
used. While it is difficult to perform an assessment with all three purposes in mind,
teachers must be able to understand the three purposes of assessment, including
knowing when and how to use them.

The Roles of Classroom Assessment in the Teaching-Learning Process

Assessment is an integral part of the instructional process where teachers

design and conduct instruction (teaching), so learners achieve the specific target
learning outcomes defined by the curriculum. While the purpose of assessment
maybe classified as assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and
assessment as learning, the specific purpose of an assessment depends on the
teacher’s objective in collecting and evaluating assessment data from learners.
More specific objectives for assessing student learning are congruent to the
following roles of classroom assessment in the teaching-learning process: formative,
diagnostic, evaluative, facilitative, and motivational, each of which discussed below.

Formative. Teachers conduct assessment because they want to acquire

information on the current status and level of learners’ knowledge and skills
or competencies. Teachers may need information (e.g., prior knowledge,
 strengths) about the learners’ prior tom instruction, so they can design their
instructional plan to better suit the needs of the learners. Teachers may also
need information on learners during instruction to allow them to modify
instruction or learning activities to help learners achieve the learning
outcomes. How teachers should facilitate students’ learning may be informed
by the information that may be acquired in the assessment results.

Diagnostic. Teachers can use assessment to identify specific learners’

weaknesses or difficulties that may affect their achievement of the intended
learning outcomes. Identifying these weaknesses allows teachers to focus on
specific learning needs and provide opportunities for instructional
intervention or remediation inside or outside the classroom. The diagnostic
role of assessment may also lead to differentiated instruction or even
individualized learning plans when deemed necessary.

Evaluative. Teachers conduct assessment to measure learners’ performance

or achievement for the purpose of making judgment or grading in particular.
Teachers need information on whether the learners have met the intended
learning outcomes after the instruction is fully implemented. The learners’
placement or promotion to the next educational level is informed by the
assessment results.

Facilitative. Classroom assessment may affect student learning. On the

part of teachers, assessment for learning provides information on students’
learning and achievement that teachers can use to improve instruction and
the learning experiences of learners. On the part of the learners, assessment
as learning allows them to monitor, evaluate, and improve their own learning
strategies. In both cases, student learning is facilitated.

Motivational. Classroom assessment can serve as a mechanism for learners

to be motivated and engaged in learning and achievement in the classroom.
Grades, for instance, can motivate and demotivate learners. Focusing on
progress, providing effective feedback, innovating assessment tasks, and
using scaffolding during assessment activities provide opportunities for
assessment to be motivating rather than demotivating.

What are learning targets?

Educational Goals, Standards, and Objectives

Before discussing what learning targets are, it is important to first define

educational goals, standards, and objectives.

Goals. Goals are general statements about desired learner outcomes in a

given year or during the duration of a program (e.g., senior high school)

Standards. Standards are specific statements about what learners should

know and are capable of doing at a particular grade level, subject, or course.
McMillan (2014, p. 31) described four different types of educational
standards: (1) content (desired outcomes in a content area), (2) performance (what
students do to demonstrate competence), (3) developmental (sequence of
growth and change over time), (4) grade-level (outcomes for a specific grade).
 Educational Objectives. Educational objectives are specific statements of
learner performance at the end of an instructional unit. These are sometimes
referred to as behavioral objectives and are typically stated with the use of
verbs. The most popular taxonomy of educational objectives is Bloom’s
Taxonomy of educational Objectives.

The Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy consists of three domains: cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor. These three domains correspond to the three types of goals that
teachers want to assess: knowledge-based goals (cognitive), skills-based goals
(psychomotor), and affective goals (affective). Hence, there are three taxonomies
that can be used by teachers depending on the goals. Each taxonomy consists of
different levels of expertise with varying degrees of complexity. The most popular
among the three taxonomies is the Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for
Knowledge-based Goals. The taxonomy describes six levels of expertise: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Table 2.1 presents
the description, illustrative verbs and a sample objective for each of the six levels.

Table 2.1. Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain

Cognitive Level Description Illustrative Verbs Sample Objectives

Knowledge Recall or recognition of Defines, recalls, Enumerate the six
learned materials like names, levels of expertise in
concepts, events, facts, enumerates, and the Bloom’s
ideas, and procedures labels taxonomy of
objectives in the
cognitive domain.
Comprehension Understanding the Explains, Explain each of the
meaning of a learned describes, six levels of expertise
material, including summarizes, in the Bloom’s
interpretation, discusses, and Taxonomy of
explanation, and literal translates objectives in the
translation cognitive domain.
Application Use of abstract ideas, Applies, Demonstrate how to
principles, or methods to demonstrates, use Bloom’s
specific concrete produces, taxonomy in
situations illustrates, and formulating learning
uses objectives.
Analysis Separation of a concept Compares, Compare and
or idea into constituent contrasts, contrasts the six
parts or elements and categorizes, levels of expertise in
an understanding of a classifies, and Bloom’s taxonomy of
nature and association calculates objectives in the
among the elements cognitive domain.
Synthesis Construction of Composes, Compose learning
elements or parts from constructs, creates, targets using Bloom’s
different sources to form designs, and taxonomy.
a more complex or novel integrates
structure
Evaluation Making judgment of Appraises, Evaluate the
ideas or methods based evaluates, judges, congruence between
on sound and concludes, and learning targets and
established criteria criticizes assessment methods.
 Bloom’s taxonomies of educational objectives provide teachers with a
structured guide in formulating more specific learning targets as they provide an
exhaustive list of learning objectives. The taxonomies do not only serve as guide for
teachers’ instruction but also as a guide for their assessment of student learning in
the classroom. Thus, it is imperative that teachers identify the levels of expertise
that they expect the learners to achieve and demonstrate. This will then inform the
assessment method required to properly assess student learning. It is assumed
that a higher level of expertise in a given domain requires more sophisticated
assessment methods or strategies.

The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Anderson and Krathwohl proposed a revision of the Bloom’s Taxonomy in

the cognitive domain by introducing a two-dimensional model for writing learning
objectives (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001). The first dimension knowledge
dimension, includes four types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive.
dimension, includes four types: The second dimension, cognitive process dimension,
consist of six types: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. An
educational or learning objective formulated from this two-dimensional model
contains a noun (type of knowledge) and a verb (type of cognitive process). The
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy provides teachers with a more structured and more
precise approach in designing and assessing learning objectives.

Students will be able to differentiate qualitative research and quantitative

research.

In the example, differentiate is the verb that represents the type of cognitive
process (in this case, analyze), while qualitative research and quantitative research
is the noun phrase that represents the type of knowledge (in this case, conceptual)

Tables 2.2. Cognitive Process Dimensions in the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives

Cognitive Process Definition Illustrative Verbs Sample Objective

Create Combining parts Compose, Propose a program
to make a whole produce, develop, of action to help
formulate, devise, solve Metro
prepare, design, Manila’s traffic
construct, congestion.
propose, and re-
organize
Evaluate Judging the value Assess, measure, Critique the latest
of information or estimate, evaluate, film that you have
data critique, and judge watched.
Use the critique
guidelines and
format discussed
in the class.
Analyze Breaking down Analyze, calculate, Classify the
information into examine, test, following chemical
parts compare, elements .based
differentiate, on some
organize, and categories/areas
 classify
Apply Applying the facts, Apply, employ, Solve the following
rules, concepts, practice, relate, problems using
and ideas in use, implement, the different
another context carry-out, and measures of
solve central tendency.
Understand Understanding Describe, Explain the
what the determine, causes of
information means interpret, malnutrition in
paraphrase, and the country.
explain
Remember Recognizing and Identify, list, Name the 7th
recalling facts name, underline, President of the
recall, retrieve, Philippines
locate

Table 2.3. Knowledge Dimensions in the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives

Knowledge Description Sample Question

Factual This type of knowledge is What is the capital of the
basic in every discipline. It Philippines?
tells the facts or bits of
information one needs to
know in a discipline. This
type of knowledge usually
answers questions that
begin with “who”, “where”,
“what”, and “when”.
Conceptual This type of knowledge is What makes the Philippines the
also fundamental in every “Pearl of the Orient Seas”?
discipline. It tells the
concepts, generalizations,
principles, theories, and
models that one needs to
know in a discipline. This
type of knowledge usually
answers questions that
begin with “what”.
Procedural This type of knowledge is How do we develop items for an
also fundamental in every achievement test?
discipline. It tells the
processes, steps,
techniques,
methodologies, or specific
skills needed in
performing a specific task
that one needs to know
and be able to do in a
discipline. This type of
knowledge usually
answers questions that
begin with “how”.
 Metacognitive This type of knowledge Why is Engineering the most
makes the discipline suitable course for you?
relevant to one’s life. It
makes one understand the
value of learning on one’s
life. It requires reflective
knowledge and strategies
on how to solve problems
or perform a cognitive task
through understanding of
oneself and context. This
type of knowledge usually
answers questions that
begin with “why”.
Questions that begin with
“how” and what could be
used if they are embedded
in a situation that one
experiences in real life.

Learning Targets

A learning target is “a statement of student performance for a relatively

restricted type of learning outcome that will be achieved in a single lesson or a few
days” and contains “both a description of what students should know, understand,
and be able to do at the end of instruction and something about the criteria for
judging the level of performance demonstrated” (McMillan 2014, p. 43). In other
words, learning targets are statements on what learners are supposed to learn and
what they can do because of instruction. Compared with educational goals,
standards, and objectives, learning targets are the most specific and lead to more
specific instructional and assessment activities.

Learning targets should be congruent with the standards prescribed by

program or level and aligned with the instructional or learning objectives of a
subject or course. Teachers must inform learners about the learning targets of
lessons prior to classroom instruction. The learning targets should be meaningful
for the learners; hence, they must be as clear and as specific as possible. It is
suggested that learning targets be stated in the learners’ point of view, typically
using the phrase “I can….” For example, “I can differentiate between instructional
objectives and learning targets.”

With clear articulation of learning targets, learners will know what they are
expected to learn during a lesson or set of lessons. Learning targets will also inform
learners what they should be able to do or demonstrate as evidence of their
learning. Both classroom instruction and assessment should be aligned with the
specified learning targets of a lesson.

Mcmillan (2014, p. 53) proposed five criteria for selecting learning targets: (1)
establish the right number of learning targets (Are there too many or too few
targets?); (2) established comprehensive learning targets (Are all important types of
learning included?); (3) establish learning targets that reflect school goals and 21 st
century skills (Do the targets reflect school goals and 21 st century knowledge, skills,
and dispositions?); (4) establish learning targets that are challenging yet feasible
(Will the targets challenge students to do their best work?); and (5) establish
learning targets that are consistent with current principles of learning and
motivation (Are the targets consistent with research on learning and motivation?).

Types of Learning Targets

Many experts consider four primary types of learning targets: knowledge,

reasoning, skill, and product. Table 2.4 summarizes these types of learning targets.

Table 2.4. Description and Sample Learning Targets

Type of Learning
Description Sample
Targets
Knowledge targets Refers to factual, I can explain the role of
conceptual, and conceptual framework in
procedural information a research.
that learners must learn
in a subject or content
area
Reasoning targets Knowledge-based thought I c.an justify my research
processes that learners problems with a theory
must learn. It involves
application of knowledge
in problem-solving,
decision-making, and
other tasks that require
mental skills.
Skill targets Use of knowledge and/or I can facilitate a focus
reasoning to perform or group discussion (FGD)
demonstrate physical with research
skills. participants.
Product targets Use of knowledge, I can write a thesis
reasoning, and skills is proposal.
creating a concrete or
tangible product

Other experts consider a fifth type of learning target-affect, which refers to

affective characteristics that students can develop and demonstrate because of
instruction. This includes attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values. Some experts
use disposition as an alternative term for affect. The following is an example of an
affect or disposition learning target:

I can appreciate the importance of addressing potential ethical issues in the

conduct of thesis research.

Appropriate Methods of Assessment

Once the learning targets are identified, appropriate assessment methods

can be selected to measure student learning. The match between a learning target
and the assessment method used to measure if students have met the target is very
critical. Tables 2.5.1 and 2.5.2 present a matrix of the different types of learning
targets and sample assessment methods.

Table 2.5.1. Matching Learning Targets with Paper-and Pencil

 Types of Assessment

Selected Response Constructed Response

Learning
Multiple True or Matching Short Problem-
Targets Essay
Choice False Type Answer Solving
Knowledge √√√ √√√ √√√ √√√ √√√ √√√
Reasoning √√ √ √ √ √√√ √√√
Skills √ √ √ √ √√ √√
Product √ √ √ √ √ √
Note: More checks mean better matches.

Table 2.5.2. Matching Learning Targets with Other Types of Assessment

Learning
Project-based Portfolio Recitation Observation
Targets
Knowledge √ √√√ √√√ √√
Reasoning √√ √√ √√√ √√
Skills √√ √√√ √ √√
Product √√√ √√√ √ √

There are other types of assessment, and it is up to the teachers to select the
method of assessment and design appropriate assessment tasks and activities to
measure the identified learning targets.

PEC 8- ACTIVITY NO. 2

 What ideas you have acquired about the purposes of assessing student
learning in the classroom; identifying and formulating learning targets; and
matching appropriate assessment methods with identified learning targets.

1. What are the different purposes of assessing students’ learning in the

classroom?

2. Why is classroom assessment important in the teaching-learning process?

3. Why is classroom assessment important in the teaching-learning process?

4. What is the difference between instructional objectives and learning targets?

5. Why is it important that learning targets and assessment tasks/activities are

matched?