Designing, Development and Testing of a

PIC Micro-controller based Differential

Drive Line Tracing Vehicle-2 with PID

Benjamin Kunal Chand
Student Id No: s11039924
Kirata Iotam
Student Id No: s11045193
Krishneel Ritesh Prasad
Student Id No: s11050297
Ritesh Kumar
Student Id No: s11048886




School of Engineering and Physics
Faculty of Science and Technology
University of the South Pacific


November 2010.


Supervisor
Mr. Imran N Jannif and Mr. Ravinesh Singh
School of Engineering and Physics
Faculty of Science and Technology
University of the South Pacific



A report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering Technology.



2



Aim

To design, develop and test a PIC based differential drive operated automatic robot.




3



Objectives

- The vehicle should be a differential drive system
- Using of programming algorithm to control the total behavior of the robotic
vehicle
- Investigating the different designs on mechanical structures

























4



Declaration of Originality

We, Krishneel Prasad, Ritesh Kumar, Kirata Iotam and Benjamin Kunal Chand hereby
declare that the report that has been written for this project is our own original work
done with the best of our knowledge. All materials adapted from elsewhere have been
appropriately acknowledged and referenced. The material has not been submitted
previously, either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution.






___________________ ____________________
Krishneel Ritesh Prasad Ritesh Prasad
Student Id : s11050297 Student Id : s11048886







___________________ ____________________
Kirata Iotam Benjamin Kunal Chand
Student Id : s11045193 Student Id : s11039935








30
th
November, 2010.








5



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to take this opportunity to thanks the following people for their help,
support and encouragement while doing this project.
Firstly we are especially thankful to Imran Jannif for giving us the opportunity to do this
project. Our family for their understanding by the time we dont spend time with them
and finally to all Engineering staffs for their support and encouragement.
























6



List of Figures
Figure 1.1 PacSea 2
Figure 1.2 Pacsea wave model 3
Figure 1.4 Pacificsea 4
Figure 1.5 Pacsea surf 4
Figure 1.6 Pacsea Loa 5
Figure 1.7 PacSea-Colata model 5
Figure 1.8.1 PacSea-Matai Automatic 1 6
Figure 1.8.2 PacSea-Matai Automatic 2 6
Figure 1.8.3 PacSea-Matai Manual Robot 6
Figure 1.9 PID Block Diagram 7

Figure 2.0 Differential Drive Motor Controller Setup 10
Figure 2.1a IR sensor board 11
Figure 2.1b Shaft encoder and IR sensor unit 11
Figure 2.2 12V Cordless drill motor 12
Figure 2.3 In-house fabricated wooden wheel 13
Figure 2.4 Wheel calculation 13
Figures 2.5a Motor controller board 15
Figures 2.5b PIC16F877 boot loader board 15
Figures 2.5c LM324 comparator PCB board 15
Figures 2.5d IR sensor mounting 15


Figure 4.1 SN754410 chip 29
Figure 4.2 schematic of sn754410 30
Figure 4.3 Pin connection for sn754410 31
Figure 4.4 Cordless drill motor 32

Figure 4.5 shows the testing for sn754410 chip 33

Figure 4.5.1 Graph of current, voltage and rpm for sn754410 chip 34

Figure 4.6 differential drive 35

Figure 4.7 A generic H-bridge 35

Figure 4.8 One output on the SN754410 chip 36
Figure 4.9 Shows the PWM signal 37

Figure 5.1 Heds 5540 a06 39
Figure 5.2 Hardware setup for oktec shaft encoder 41


7


Figure 5.3 16 slots aluminum plate 41
Figure 5.4 The shaft encoder between two ir sensors, shaft encoder circuit 42
Figure 5.5 The hardware for the comparator circuit 43
Figure 5.6 A smooth square wave signal from the comparator output 44

Figure 6.1 Graph of Motor Speed versus time at 35% duty cycle 47
Figure 6.2 The step response of the Graph of Motor at 35% duty cycle 51
Figure 6.3 The graph of Log |1 y (t)| vs. time motor at 35% duty cycle 54
Figure 6.4 The graph of Log (1+A*Exp (- x t) y(t)) Log |1 y (t)| vs. time at 35% duty cycle 57
Figure 6.5 The Graph of Motor Speed versus time at 50% duty cycle 60
Figure 6.6 The graph of Log |1 y (t)| vs. time motor at 50% duty cycle 62
Figure 6.7 The graph of Log (1+A*Exp (- x t) y (t)) Log |1 y (t)| vs. time at 50% duty cycle 64
Figure 6.8 Step responses for a proportional controller 69
Figure 6.9 A step response for a PI controller at 0.005 and 80 respectively 70
Figure 7.0 A step response for a PI controller at 8.5 and 75 respectively 71


Figure 7.1.1 Proposed mechanical base platform 74
Figure: 7.1.2 Uniform holes reducing the weight of the machine 75
Figure 7.1.3 Tricycle wheel 76
Figure 7.1.4 ABU Robocon 2009 76
Figure 7.1.5(a) (b) Proposed wooden wheel 76
Figure 7.1.6 Robot arm design 77
Figure 7.1.7 Roller arm design 78
Figure 7.1.8 Actual view of arm roller 78
Figure 7.1.9 Rubber roller 78
Figure 7.8 Stress Analyses 81
Figure 7.8.1 Krathong Petal 84
Figure 7.8.2 Krathong Petal 84
Figure 7.8.3 Candle Light Flame 85
Figure 7.8.4 Automatic 1 physical diagram 85
Figure 7.8.5 assembled krathong 87
Figure 7.8.6 Automatic arm description 87
Figure 7.8.7 Auto side view 88
Figure 7.8.8 OSMC motor controller 90
Figure 7.8.9 LDR Sensor Schematic 93
Figure 7.9.0 LDR Sensor 93


8


Figure 7.9.1 Force sensor diagram 94
Figure 7.9.2 PIC18f6722 Prototype board 95
Figure 7.9.3 PIC18F4550 microcontroller 96
Figure 7.9.4 Crouzet 82862 001 12 volts DC motor 97
Figure 7.9.5 SERVO MOTOR 98
Figure 7.9.6 Battery 99






































9



List of Tables
Table 4.1 Parameters for sn754410 chip 29
Table 4.2 Truth table for SN754410 31
Table 4.4 No load test for the dc motor 33

Table 6.1 The data recorded for 35 % duty cycle 45-47
Table 6.2 The table below shows the step response figures at 35% duty cycle 49-50
Table 6.3 The log(y (t) y ()) data at 35% duty cycle 52-53
Table 6.4 A Log (1 + A*Exp(oxt) - y(t)) at 35% duty cycle 55-56
Table 6.5 Calculating y(t)=1-(exp(- x t)) for 50% duty cycle 58-59
Table 6.6 Calculating log |1-y(t)| for 50% duty cycle 60-61
Table 6.7 Calculating Log (1 + A*Exp (oxt) - y(t)) at 35% duty cycle 63-64
Table 7.1.0 The comparison of the base unit from previous years robots 73
Table 7.1.1 Different masses and forces applied to the robots arm 79
Table 7.1.2 Manual machine path length, amount of weight, spring constant 80
Table 7.2 The summary table of Auto 1s task objects 85
Table 7.3 The table shows Auto 2 task object and weight 87
Table 7.5.1 Specification for the LDR line tracer sensor 93
Table 7.5.2 A summary of some important features of PIC 18F6722 95






















10


Table of Contents
Aim i

Objective ii
Declaration of Originality iii
Acknowledgements iv
List of Figures v
List of Tables vi
Abstract vii
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Literature Review 2
Chapter 2
2.0 Overview 10
2.1 Motor 11
2.2 Wheels 12
2.3 PCB Mountings 14
Chapter 3
3.0 Introduction to PIC Microcontroller 17
3.1 Reasons of using PIC16F877 19
3.2 How a PIC Microcontroller communicate with the computer 19
3.3 The development of PIC communication between 3 microcontrollers 20
3.4 Programming development 21
Chapter 4
4.0 Introduction 1
4.1 Features of a Quadruple Half H-Bridge Driver 1
4.2 Advantages of using SN754410 chip 29
4.3 Disadvantages of using SN754410 chip 30
4.4 Schematic diagram of SN754410 chips connection to the motors 30
4.5 Connections to the chip 31
4.6 Testing of SN754410 33
4.7 Differential Drive 34
Chapter 5
5.0 Introduction 39
5.1 HEDS 5540 a06 39
5.2 Oktec Pair Shaft Encoder 41
5.3 Comparator 43
Chapter 6
6.1 Outline 45


11


6.2 Calculation of the Transfer function at 35% duty cycle 45
6.3 Calculation of the Transfer function at 35% duty cycle 58
6.4 Comparing the Driver Motor Transfer Function 65
6.5 Obtaining the Driver Motor Transfer Function through Formula 65
6.7 Selecting the transfer function of the motor by comparing the two methods 68
6.8 Using MATLAB to derive the gain of the PI controller 68
Chapter 7

7.1. Mechanical Aspects of Robocon 2011 Robots 73
7.1.1 Base Design 1 73
7.1.2 Mechanical Base Platform 73
7.1.3 Materials Used 74
7.1.4 Wheels 75
7.1.5 Arm Construction 76
7.1.6 Rubber Rollers 77
7.1.7 Displacement Calculation for Manual Robot 78
7.2 Stress Analysis Calculation for Manual Robot 81
7.2.1 Weight Calculation for Manual Robot 82
7.2.2 Mechanical Design for Automatics Machines. 83
7.2.3 Distance travelled by the Auto 1 83
7.2.4 The tasks to be performed Automatic One 83
7.2.5 Time Taken by Automatic 1 86
7.3 Automatic Two 87
7.3.1 Time Taken by Automatic 2 88
7.3.2Moment Calculation 88
7.3.3 Weight Calculation for Automatic 2 Robot 89
7.4 Total Weight of All three Machines 90
7.5 Electronics for Automatic machines 90
7.5.1 Motor Controller 90
7.5.2 Features of OSMC 91
7.5.3 Sensors 92
7.5.4 Force Sensors 94
7.5.5 MICROCONTROLLER 94
7.5.5.1 PIC18f6722 94
7.5.5.2 PIC18F4550 USB DEVELOPMENT BOARD 95
7.5.5.3 VOLTS DC MOTOR 97
7.5.5.4 Motors for the Grippers 98
7.5.5.5 SERVO MOTOR 98
7.5.5.6 Battery 99
7.5.5.7 V 2300 mAH NiMH Rechargeable Battery Pack 100
7.5.5.8 Features and Benefits 100
7.5.5.9 Technical Specifications 100


12


Discussion 101
Conclusions and Recommendations 102
References 103
Appendix 104





































13


Abstract

The project revolves around the design and implantation of a PIC Micro-controller based
differential drive system using PID followed by implementing it in hardware using three
PIC16F877 microcontroller bootloaders, DC motor driver chips, IR shaft encoder sensor
and two DC motors. Using Tera Term program the rpm is fed into the master board
which goes to both the slave boards leading to the SN754410 motor controllers which
instructs both the motors to revolve in a particular direction and speed and thus, a sensory
unit gives a feedback which is sent through the comparator circuitry and into the slave
bootloader board. The feedback then goes through the digital control system which is
within the slave bootloader board. Here the values are corrected to give an almost
equivalent speed value for the motor. Another aspect of the Project was to design robots
based on the 2011 robotics competition (ROBOCON), the machine design and other
factors are discussed in the later chapters.



















14



Chapter 1
Introduction and Literature Review

Asia-Pacific Robot Contest or ABU Robocon was developed by the Asia-Pacific
Broadcasting Union in 2002, and was joined by many universities and colleges around
Asia and the Pacific. The main purpose of ABU is to develop students technical skills as
well as designing abilities in developing robots that will be able to compete a given tasks
in the battlefield/game ground within a set period of time, which will therefore improve
engineering and technology in the region. There are many different robots which
Robocon group had developed in the past. One of the most common robots developed by
the Robocon members is a Line tracing automatic robot, this robot will try to follow a
white track and detecting any obstacles that my come in its way.

Moreover, every year the Robocon group members try to complete at least one automatic
robot and a manual robot. Additionally, the automatic robot with a square base unit has
two motors connect back to back. The speed of each motor must be the same for the two
motors and the two motors must rotate in different directions. Thus, to achieve this, the
shaft encoder is introduced in order for the PIC-Microcontroller to synchronize the speed
of the motor [1]. In addition, an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) sensor with a LED
(Light Emitting Diode) compiled together to give the ability for the robot to do line
tracing. In most cases, the line tracing PCB (printed circuit board) always face downward
in order for the LDR to receive a reflected light from the LED to detect a white or a black
surface.
























15





In 2001, the University of the South Pacific joins the competition which was held in
Tokyo 2002. In the past seven years, the University of the South Pacific has involved in
ABU Robocon contest and below is the details of some robots designed in Robocon in
the past seven years.

1.1 Pacsea

To start off, Pacsea was one of the robotics designed for the competition that was held in
Bangkok, Thailand in August 2002. The diagram of Pacsea was shown below.














Figure 1.1 PacSea (Source: Msc. Thesis, R.Singh)

Additionally, the theme of the contest is Reach for the Top of Mount Fuji. The robot
must be capable to drop the beach balls into different cylinders at different heights. In
addition, the task has to be complete by one automatic robot by navigating the ball and
placing the ball in the right place. A PIC16F877 is one major part of Pacsea which
controls two relays by switching on and off the wiper window motor; however Pacsea has
no feedback sensor [1]

1.2 Pacsea Wave

In 2003 the game was held in Bangkok, Thailand and the theme of the competition was
"Takraw Space Conqueror". To win the contest the robot must shoot a Takraw balls into
all the baskets and the robot will also fill the three nets inside one of the centered basket
with balls [1]. The intelligent part of the robot is chosen as a single PIC16F877 and with
PIC16F877 students make the robot slightly intelligent by giving the robot the ability to
trace a line [1]. The picture of Pacsea wave is shown below:





16














Figure 1.2 Pacsea wave model (Source: Msc. Thesis, R.Singh)

1.3 Pacsea Surge

Furthermore, in 2004 and The Reunion of the Shepherd and the Weaver is the theme of
the contest. Each team has to carry red boxes (gifts to the god) and the robot will carry
the box across the bridge. To win, the robot has to carry most items within the allocated
time. Additionally, the central intelligent part of the machine has upgraded to
PIC18F8720 from PIC16F877. Moreover, the advantage of using a PIC18F8720 is that
there are a lot pins (Input/output pins) compared to PIC16F877, it can handle more
complex game plans. In addition, the type of motor used in Pacsea surge is a wiper
window and the speed of the motor is generic controlled by a pulse width modulator
(PWM) [x] that was sent by PIC18F8720. The diagram of Pacsea surge is as shown
below [1].
















Figure 1.3 Pacsea surge (Source: Msc. Thesis, R.Singh)



17


In addition, Pacsea surge is more intelligence when compared to the previous robot, this
is because this robot can detect the white lines by using an LED (Light Emitting Diode)
and LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) feedback sensors [3].

1.4 PacificSea

In 2005 the forth version of Pacsea was established. The theme of the game is Climb on
the great wall and light the holy fire. The central intelligent unit of the robot is a single
PIC18F6720. To contrast, this robot is far more intelligent compared to the previous
robot. And the reason is that the robot can detect any obstacles as well as tracing the
white line. To detect any obstacles an infra-red (IR) sensors is put in front of the robot [1]

















Figure 1.4 Pacificsea (Source: Msc. Thesis, R.Singh)
1.5 Pacsea Surf

In 2007, the Pacsea surf is designed as a sixth version of Pacsea. In addition the game
takes place in Vietnam, in August 2007. And the theme of the game was Halong Bay
Discovery. The task of the robot is to take hollow cylinders (called peals) and place
these hollow cylinders in the towers (called islands). The main intelligent part of the
robot is designed as PIC18F8720.









Figure 1.5 Pacsea surf (Source: EE300, K. Chandry)


18



1.6 Pacsea Wave

In 2008, the robocon was held in India, on August 2008. The theme of the contest was
Govinda, Touch the Sky. The robot is required to grab Styrofoam cubes (buffer cubes)
and keep holding on it. The Robot that can hold these cubes until the end of the game will
be declared as the winner of the game. PIC18F6720 is the main intelligent part of the
robot.












Figure 1.6 Pacsea - Loa (Source: EE300, K. Chandry)
1.7 Pacsea Colata

In 2009, the robotic contest was held in Tokyo, Japan and the theme of the game is
Travel Together for Victory Drums. In contrast, the competition which was held in
Japan is quite different with the previous competitions and this because there are three
robots need to be designed. And the designed consist of one manual robot and two
automatic robots. The automatic robot will complete the task by hitting the three victory
drums whereas will give supports.













Figure 1.7 PacSea-Colata model (Source: EE300, K. Chandry)





19


1.8 Pacsea Matai

Furthermore, the theme of the robot contest that was held in Cairo, Egypt by the year
2010 is Robo-Pharaoh Build Pyramids. The teams need to be accurate and fast. There
were three robots and this consists of two automatic robots and one Manual robots. The
three robots will work together as a team and complete the missing blocks of three
pyramids. The automatic robot will complete the last part of the pyramid without the
intervention of human. Additionally the intelligent part of the automatic robots is a single
PIC18F877 with the OSMC as the main controller board. For the manual machines, car
relays are used interchangeably to control the speed of the two wheels.












Figure 1.8.1 PacSea-Matai Automatic 1













Figure 1.8.2 PacSea-Matai Automatic 2











20











Figure 1.8.3 PacSea-Matai Manual Robot

In this year project, students will work together as team and try to complete one
automatic robot that has the ability of line tracing as well as speed control. The students
decide to use three number of PICs microcontroller as a central processing unit of the
robot. Out of the three microcontrollers, one is set as a master controller while the other
microcontrollers are slaves.

PID Control

First of all, PID is one of the most effective close loop speed control for a robot. In
addition, PID stands for Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control whereas K
P
stands
for proportional gain, K
I
stands for Integral gain and K
D
stands for derivative gain.
The diagram below shows how PID is used to control the plant (motor)

Figure 1.9 PID Block Diagram

The controller Input is controlled be the feedback such as if the output is quite high as
compared to the reference input. In addition, the three gains (Kp, Ki and Kd) will take
action to reduce the error and running the plant as per required.






21



Chapter 2

Mechanical Design

2.0 Overview

For this project, our main objective was to implement PID speed control and line trace
the mobile vehicle on a given platform. Since due to lack of time and some foreseen we
could not complete our desired task hence, we discussed with our supervisor with whom
we found out that we have to complete our project using a differential drive motor
controller setup which is the major project for EE313. The figure below illustrates the
following practical setup of the differential drive motor controller setup. Brief detailed
information of each item indicated below is further discussed in this chapter.


12V dc
motor
Motor Controller Boards Boot loader Boards


22



Figure 2.0: Differential Drive Motor Controller Setup
The mechanical design of above figure is fairly simple, because this project deals with
PID speed control or synchronising the two driver motors, only few components can be
built to attain this task. Moreover, the differential drive motor controller can be divided
into two halves, the component required to make one half of the differential system is one
12Vdc motor, one PIC16F877,one LM324 comparator , a 12V power supply unit, 16
slots shaft encoder and a frequency divider. For this project, we are suppose to complete
the two halfs and complete the loop of the differential drive system. Since the electronics
of the differential drive setup is mounted on a 15mm wooden board, the positioning of
the PCB boards like boot loader board was not catered. However, the positioning of the
feedback or IR sensor and motor controller board was positioned appropriately.



23



a) b)
Shaft encoder
Figure 2.1: a) IR sensor board, b) Shaft encoder and IR sensor unit

2.1 Motor

The differential system drive unit is designed using differential steering system which uses
two independently cordless drill DC motor with built in gearbox. The motor is rated at 12V
each and produces a rated current of 1A. The cordless drill motor is also known as the driver
motor because it drives the whole differential system. It is a two terminal device which has a
+ve and ve terminal to power up the motor and rotate.

The reasons for choosing this motor:


24


1) It is locally available
2) It is cheap and cost around FJ$50.00
3) Capable of generating high torque.
4) And the performance of the motor has been tested in previous Robocon
competitions.

Figure 2.2: 12V Cordless drill motor
The figure shown above is a 12V driver motor which is used in the differential drive system.

2.2 Wheels

The wheels of the differential drive were design out of a timber. The timber was
designed into a wheel shape by using a lathed machine. The wheels of diameter 135mm
was made out from a wood. Two pieces of the timber of fifty millimetres was given to the
technicians to make two wheels of the differential drive steering system. The axle which
connects the shaft encoder to the motor shaft was made out of aluminium. This
aluminium axle is locked onto the chuck of the drill motor. The end of the aluminium
axle which is made rectangular in shape was placed inside the chuck. This was done to
prevent the axle from slipping while in motion. A round collar was made to securely fix
the axle to the wooden wheel. Furthermore, a hole was drilled through the collar and the
axle of the drill motor and a machine screw was used to fix the axle to the collar. A self
tapping screw was used to fix to axle collar to the wooden wheel. The wheel and axle
connections were checked thoroughly. The wooden wheel was sanded and brushed with
sanding sealer. It was also varnish to protect and coat the wood. Rubber glue was then
applied to the circumference of the wheel and the rubber which was cut to shape in the


25


lab was placed on top of it and left to dry in order to keep the rubber securely attached to
the wooden wheel. This rubber which is covering the circumference allows the robot to
grip the floor firmly while in motion and to avoid any slips. The rubber was important
because it will allow the robot to grip properly the floor while moving and avoid slips.
Figure 2.2 below shows the in-house design and fabricated wooden wheel which was
used as the steering control for the differential drive system.


Figure 2.3: In-house fabricated wooden wheel
Wheel circumference calculation
The wheels circumference calculation was found using the equation 2.0 stated below
(Equation 2.0)
The radius of the driver was set to be 67.5mm, and diameter of the wheel is 135mm hence
the circumference was found to be:
m C
mm C
C
r C
42 . 0
424
) 5 . 67 ( 2
2
=
=
=
=
t
t









135mm


26


Figure 2.4: Wheel calculation
Advantages of using wooden wheels are:
Can be made of any size [compatible for robots application]
Does not deform in shape under stress
exact length of distance traveled can be determined from the circumference
easier to mount to shaft encoder
it is cheap
It is easily designed by lathing hardwood with appropriate dimensions

2.3 PCB Mountings

This project was entirely base on speed control on the differential drive setup as earlier
mentioned in this chapter. Hence the PCB mounting was done in a logical manner. The pcb
mounting of the motor controller unit was done closest to the driver motor. Since the drill
motor is driven from the motor controller chip and not from the power supply, it was
necessary to mount the motor controller chip closest to the motor. The associated wires
which are connected directly to the motor were connected to the 5mm dual connector.
Moreover, in between the two motor controllers designated for each side, a PCB for LM324
comparator is mounted onto the 15mm thick wooden board. Since the comparator consist of
four in-built similar circuits, the two motor controllers can be connected and share just one
LM324 chip, so it was appropriate to mount it in between the two motor controllers. On the
other hand, the two boot loader board which has PIC16F877 was mounted right next to the
motor controller board. The positioning of the boot loader was done away from the drill
motor. This was done to avoid any disruption in the signals or mechanical damage being
made to the bootloader board. The PIC micro controller board uses RS232 cable to interface
between PC and PIC16F877. The PCB mounting for the IR sensors was mounted such that
the shaft encoder is properly in between the IR sensors and that could have no disturbances
and emitting and receiving the signals. All of the above mentioned PCB was mounted using
a glue gun and a silicon type clip which holds the PCB for at certain height above the
surface. The figure below shows the PCB mounting configuration of the differential drive
setup. The figure below shows zoom-in PCB a component which is mounted on a 15mm
thick wooden board.


27



a) b)

c)


d)
Figures 2.5: a) Motor controller board. b) PIC16F877 boot loader board, c) LM324
comparator PCB board, d) IR sensor mounting.
The above figures shows the PCB components which was incorporated in our projects for
the hardware sections. All the PCB etched was done by the school technician and the circuit
and schematic diagrams were drawn in the simulation software. The hardware components
like the connectors, resistors LEDs and duplex wiring wires were purchased form RS


28


Company in Australia. The materials for the mechanical parts are added into the part list
which is shown in the Appendix section of this project.































29


Chapter 3
Software Implementation

A PIC16F877 is a single compact microcontroller which is widely used in industries to
control many applications such as an automatic guided vehicle, temperature control, solar
radiation tracker and many more applications [4].
The picture of a PIC16F877A and its corresponding pin layouts












Figure 3.1: A physical diagram of a single PIC16F877 (Source: The Microchip
PIC16F877A, www.solarbotics.com/products/pic16f877a/










Figure 3.2: A
physical pin layout
of a single
PIC16F877
(Source:
PIC16F87XA
memory
organization
tutorial, www.microcontroller.com )








30


Specifications of PIC16F877
High Performance
RSC CPU
Peripheral features Analogue features CMOS
Technology
Operation Speed
200 MHz clock
input and 200 ns
instruction cycle
Three timers
Timer 0 (8 bit)
Time 1 (16 bit)
Timer 2 (8 bit)
8 channels ADC
and 10 bit for each
channel
Low-power, high
speed
Flash/EEPROM
technology
112 KB Flash
memory
2944 bytes Data
memory (RAM)
2048 bytes of
EEPROM Data
Memory
PWM modes:
Capture 16 bit,
resolution is 12.5 ns
Compare 16 bit,
resolution is 200 ns
Two PWM pins for
each PIC
Brown Out Reset Fully static design
The pins are
compatible between
two PIC16CXXX
and PIC16FXXX
microcontrollers
Communication:
SPI Master mode and
Slave mode
PSP 8 bit with
external RD, WR and
CS controls (40/44 pin
only)
An Analogue
comparator has:
-2 analogue
comparators
- Programmable
voltage reference
on the chip module
-The comparator
outputs can be
accessed externally
Operating voltage
starts from 2 V to
5.5 V
Low power
consumption
Figure 3.3: PIC16F877 specifications (source: Microchip Technology Inc,
http://ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/devicedoc/39582b.pdf)


3.1 Reasons of using PIC16F877

PIC16F877 is chosen to be used in this project due to its availability in the University of
the South Pacific and if the chip is faulty it is easy to be replaced. The boot loader
diagram of PIC16F877 is shown below.


31



Figure 3.4: The boot loader diagram of PIC16F877 (Source: R. Singh, Lecture Notes)
In figure 3.4, the boot loader is designed in such a way that PIC16F877 can be replaced
very easily when the chip is faulty or the chip is malfunctioned.

3.2 How a PIC microcontroller communicates with a computer

In order for a PIC microcontroller (PIC16F877) to communicate to the computer, an RS-
232 serial cable is used to transmit data from the computer to PIC microcontroller and
vise versa. In addition, a hex file is sent through from the computer to the PIC
microcontroller and this hex file is created after compiling the PIC C program using PIC
C compiler.

3.3 The development of PIC communication between three PIC microcontrollers

To begin with, there are many ways to communicate between two or more
microcontrollers such as using SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) communication, I
2
C
(Inter-IC) communication and the most common type of communication is a three-bus
wire configuration.


32


In this project, the three-bus wire configuration is used to communicate between PICs
microcontroller since it is simple and fast. There are three PICs used in this
communication and out of these three, one is the master and the other two are the slaves.
Moving on, the task of the master is to send a duty cycle (50%) to the two slaves so that
the two slaves can operate the motors using this initial duty cycle (sent by the master)
respectively. The two motors. And the achieve this, three wires are used one wire for
the data, one wire for latch and one wire for the clock and these wires are parallel to each
PIC. In addition, this can be illustrated from the diagram shown below.






















Figure 3.5 (A 3 bus-wire configuration)

3.4 Programming Development

In order to send a data to each slave, the data has to be packed in a packet and has to be
changed to a binary number for sending purposes. The most challenged part of the
communication is developing a packet. In this project the data that is send from the
master to the slaves contains the duty cycle and the direction of each motor. The
calculation of the packet using high level program (PIC C language)

Packet = (dir1*2) + (dir2*4) + (duty1*256) + (duty2*65536); // packet calculation
Parameters
Dir1 direction for motor 2
Dir2- direction of motor 2
Duty1-duty cycle of motor 1
Duty2-duty cycle of motor 2


33


Moreover, all the duty cycle and the directions of the motor has to be put in the packet in
the sense that after sending the packet the respect slave will do another calculation to
extract the duty cycle and the direction information. In order to send the data from the
master the total packet has to be changed to binary and then send one by one bit to both
slaves. The flow charts shown below explain how the master can communicates to each
respective slave.



Figure 3.6a: Master flow chart






















Figure 3.6b: Master flow chart


34


From the two figures there are three pins allocated for the master to communicate the two
slaves. The first pin is used for latch and this pin is used to enable a communication, the
next pin is the clock, the clock trigger when will be the data send (for example: the data is
send at the rising edge of the clock) and last the pin is for data transmission. In the
following flow chart it shows how each slave communicates to the master PIC.
Figure 3.7a: Slave 1 flow chart


Figure 3.7b slave 1 flow chart continued




35


Figure 3.7c: Slave 1 flow char continued
Figure 3.7d: slave 1 flow chart continued


36


Figure 3.7e: slave 1 flow chart continued



In the main program (Figure 3.6a), the program first initialize all the variables, setup a
PWM mode by using - setup_ccp2 (CCP_PWM) and setting up a try state buffer pins.
Then the program check if the data has been receive by the master(Figure 3.6 b) this is
done by checking the state of latch in the program (if latch high data is ready to send,
data transmitted, if latch low data is not ready for transmission). In addition if the data
has received by the respective slave it will return this value to the main to update the
pwm value and thus the motor starts to rotate with this pwm value with the initial duty
cycle of 50% (receive by the master).
Moreover, the main program always checks the #int_timer1 (Figure 3.7c) and increments
the counter by 1 at every time the timer is over flow, the final value of the counter is
important in calculating the speed of the motor. In addition, the speed is calculated in
every one complete revolution and this shows in the equation shown below.
Mesr_rpm = 60 / spr (spr seconds per revolution)

To calculate the time in seconds per revolution is calculated in the equation given below.
Spr= ((counter x 0.065536) + (0.000001 x get_timer1 ()))










37


The speed calculation is explained in more detailed in the figure 3.7f.









Figure 3.7f: Speed calculation of one wheel

Next, the program will try to compare the calculated speed with required speed by the
user. However the speed are different, the difference between the speed is called the error
and this will then pass to another subroutine called update_pid and this function will try
to correct the error in a minimum number of time (this is shown in figure 3.7d). The
update_pid () has three important part such as integral term, derivative term and
proportional term. The integral term is just add up the previous error with the current
error and then multiply it with the integral gain (Ki), however there will the time that the
sum of errors exceeds the maximum limit (maximum duty cycle), therefore the sum of
error has to limit within 100 and -100 and this is important in this project. In the
derivative term, the previous error has to be subtracted from the current error and then
multiply with the gain (Kd). For the proportional term, the current error is always
multiply with proportional gain (Kp). (To find the proper gain value for Kp, Ki and Kd
each has to derive the transfer function of the motor and this is done in more detail in
chapter five of this project). The total sum of all the proportional term the integral term
and the derivative term is then add up and stored in correction. The correction value is
then limited again within 100 and -100 before sending this value to another subroutine
called stabilize. In stabilize function; the correction value is then divided with 100 since
the correction value must be in percentage form. This correction value will update the
duty cycle value every time to change the speed of the motor according the reference
speed given from the user.












38


Chapter 4
Motor Controller
4.0 Introduction

A motor controller is a device that serves to govern in some set manner the performance of
an electric motor. A motor controller might include a manual or automatic means for starting
and stopping the motor, selecting forward or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the speed,
regulating or limiting the torque, and protecting against overloads and faults. [x]

The robotic group in the past years at the University of the South Pacific has used the
open source motor controller (OSMC) to control the motor. Before the open source motor
controller, the universal H-Bridge was used to control the motors. The basic problem
with this motor controller is that the tracks for the current flow is too weak to carry the
large amount of the current, hence the tracks burns out. Another very interesting solution
of driving DC motor is relay-based motor controller. The difficulty with using relay-
based motor controller design is that it requires at least 50ms energizing and de-
energizing time which greatly limits the navigation algorithm, as it is not possible to
further refine the algorithm even though the PIC microcontroller has much faster
processing capability

A Quadruple Half-H Driver (SN754410) chip is also used to control the motor. It is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V.
The device is designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar
stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply
applications. The chip is faster, cheaper, smaller and better IC for robotics application.
Hence the Quadruple Half-H Driver (SN754410) is the desired motor controller for our
project.

4.1 Features of a Quadruple Half-H Bridge Driver

The chip has four circuit elements so it has four Half H- Bridges which means it can
drive two motors in both directions (clockwise and anticlockwise) by supplying current in
either direction through the motor windings. A half h-bridge can supply current flowing
in one direction only so the chip can control up to four motors as long as you only need
each motor to move in one direction. However, for our application we will drive two
motors in both directions using SN754410 chip. All inputs of SN754410 chip are
compatible with TTL-and low-level CMOS logic.
Other specification and feature of SN754410 is summarized below. [X]

Designed for Positive-Supply Applications
Wide Supply-Voltage Range of 4.5 V to 36 V
Separate Input-Logic Supply
Thermal Shutdown
Internal ESD Protection
Input Hysteresis Improves Noise Immunity


39


3-State Outputs
Minimized Power Dissipation
Sink/Source Interlock Circuitry Prevents Simultaneous Conduction
No Output Glitch During Power Up or Power Down

4.1.1 Other Parameters:
Table 4.1 Parameters for sn754410 chip
Output Voltage(Max)(V) 36
Switching Voltage(Max)(V) 36
Peak Output Current(mA) 2000
Drivers Per Package 4
Input Compatibility CMOS, TTL
Delay Time(ns) 800
Operating Temperature
Range(C
-40 to 85
Pin/Package 16PDIP



Fig 4.1 sn754410 chip

4.2 Advantages of using SN754410 Chip

One major advantage of using SN754410 chip is that it is really cheap and readily
available. One chip costs about US$2.95 that is approximately FJ$7.00 whereas an
OSMC power board is about FJ$400. Thus, if the OSMC board gets bad it has a very
high maintenance cost and is difficult to repair whereas if SN754410 chip goes bad its
easy to replace than to replace an OSMC board.


4.3 Disadvantages of using SN754410 Chip

The disadvantage of using the SN754410 chip is that it heats up very quickly. Chips had
to be in parallel since it provides less output current. Since there are four set of Half H-


40


bridge in one chip we had to parallel six Half H-bridges (or three full H-bridges) to
increase the current output. This means to drive one motor we used one and half chip
along with a heavy heat sink and a fan to prevent the chip from burning out.

4.4 Schematic Diagram of SN754410 chips Connection to Motors


Figure 4.2 schematic of sn754410

The chip shows that to run two motors we have to loop three chips to increase the current
output. One and half chip is looped together for one motor.















M2
M1
R6
1k
R5
1k
R4
1k
R3
1k
R2
1k
R1
1k
+V
5V
+
12V
SN745510
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8 P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
P16
U3
SN745510
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8 P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
P16
U2
SN745510
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8 P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
P16
U1


41


4.5 Connections to the Chip


Figure 4.3 Pin connection for sn754410

EN 1A 2A FUNCTION
H L H Turn right
H H L Turn left
H L L Fast motor stop
H H H Fast motor stop
L X X Fast motor stop
Table 4.2 Truth table for SN754410
L = Low
H = High
X = dont care

4.5.1 Wiring Diagram for the SN754410

The table 4.3 below shows how the chip is connected to the motor using two H-bridges.

Pin Name Full H-Bridge
Function
Notes
1 1,2EN Motor 1 Enable 0V (LOW) = disable motor
5V (HIGH) = enable motor

2 1A Motor 1 Clockwise /
Forward
0V (LOW) = ignore
5V (HIGH) = apply current in one direction
3 1Y Motor 1 Power
(Output)

4 Ground Ground All 4 pins are grounded
5 Ground Ground All 4 pins are grounded
6 2Y Motor 1 Power
(Output)



42


7 2A Motor 1
Counterclockwise /
Reverse
0V (LOW) = ignore
5V (HIGH) = apply current in the other
direction
8 VCC2 Motor Power Source
(Input
attached directly to battery
9 3,4EN Motor 2 Enable 0V (LOW) = disable motor
5V (HIGH) = enable motor

10 3A Motor 2 Clockwise /
Forward
0V (LOW) = ignore
5V (HIGH) = apply current in one direction
11 3Y Motor 2 Power
(Output)

12 Ground Ground All 4 pins are grounded
13 Ground Ground All 4 pins are grounded
14 4Y Motor 2 Power
(Output)

15 4A Motor 2
Counterclockwise /
Reverse
0V (LOW) = ignore
5V (HIGH) = apply current in the other
direction
16 VCC1 IC Logic Power
(Input)
Regulated 5v (VCC / VDD)

4.5.1 12VDC Cordless Drill Motor

The Robocon Groups have extensively been using the 12VDC cordless drill motors
mostly because it is very cheap (costing close to $50FJD) compared to other kinds of DC
motors. Hence, we also used the cordless drill motor for our differential drive setup. The
speed of this motor is easily controlled by varying either the armature voltage or field
current. These 12V cordless Drill motors are series-wound DC motors, where the
stationary and rotating coils are wires in series.





Figure 4.4 cordless
drill motor







43


4.6 Testing of SN754410

The chip was tested with a cordless drill motor running in clockwise direction with
different voltages and the current output and rpm was tabulated.


Figure 4.5 shows the testing for sn754410 chip


Table 4.4 testing results
Test Number Voltage (V) Current (A) RPM
1 12 1.17 494.1
2 11.5 1.12 480
3 11 1.09 445.8
4 10.5 1.07 424.4
5 10 1.04 410.3
6 9.5 1.03 380.1
7 9 0.99 351.3
8 8.5 0.98 325.3
9 8 0.94 294.6
10 7.5 0.92 215.9
11 7 0.88 246.9
12 6.5 0.87 222.9
13 6 0.85 195.1
14 5.5 0.83 168.2
15 5 0.79 148.4
16 4.5 0.75 119
17 4 0.71 99.8
18 3.5 0.68 80.9
19 3 0.64 53.5


44


20 2.5 0.6 28.8
21 2 0.02 0


Figure 4.5.1 Graph of current, voltage and rpm for sn754410 chip




The graph states that when the voltage decreases the current and the rpm decreases
respectively. At no load condition the motor can run on a minimum of 2.5 volts. At 2
volts the motor stops since the current is very low.

4.7 Differential Drive

The term 'differential' means that robot turning speed is determined by the speed
difference between both wheels, each on either side of your robot [5]. The differential
drive consists of two wheels independently controlled by two motors. Such an
arrangement allows the robot to move forward and backwards, turn in place, and turn
while moving. As our setup is a replica of a differential drive system and has both of the
motor placed opposite direction to each other, one wheel has to move in clockwise
direction and the other has to move in anti-clockwise direction. Since the clockwise and
anti-clockwise speeds of the motors are different. The Motors speeds need to be
synchronized in order to be at the same speed. The motor speeds are synchronized using
PID control.



45



Figure 4.6 differential drive


4.7.1 Motor Control

In an H-bridge circuit, the motor is placed at the center of an arrangement of transistors
laid out in the shape of an "H". This allows bidirectional control of the motor by turning
on transistors at opposite corners of the H. One pair switches forward current, the other
reverse.

figure 4.7 A generic H-bridge

The SN754410 chip is a little different. Instead of a whole H-bridge, it contains 4
separate outputs. Each output is built from 2 drive transistors and consist half of an H-
bridge. Since the chip contains 4 of them, it can be wired up for to control 2 DC motors.
The second pair of outputs can also be wired in parallel with the first for higher current
capacity.


46




Figure 4.8 One output on the SN754410 chip

However, to control the speed of the DC motors digitally a Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) signals using the PIC microcontroller was used. The micro-controller, PIC
16F877 supplies appropriate PWM to the SN754410 which than controls the appropriate
motors.
To control the speed of a DC motor we need a variable voltage DC power source.
However if you take a 12V motor and switch on the power to it, the motor will start to
speed up: motors do not respond immediately so it will take a small time to reach full
speed. If we switch the power off sometime before the motor reaches full speed, then the
motor will start to slow down. [2]

If we switch the power on and off quickly enough, the motor will run at some speed
between zero and full speed. This is exactly what a PWM (pulse width modulation) is [3].
The controller switches the motor on in a series of pulses. To control the motor speed it
varies (modulates) the width of the pulses - hence Pulse Width Modulation.

PWM, Pulse Width Modulation, involves taking a square wave and, without changing
the frequency, changing how long in each cycle the wave spends high and low. The ratio
of t-high/t-low is the signal's duty cycle. The higher the duty cycle, the higher the
average voltage on the signal line and the higher the power the signal delivers. In the
basic Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power to the motors is
turned on and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off"
time is what calculates the speed of the motor.

Figure 4.9 shows the PWM signal



47


4.7.2 Duty Cycle

The use of PWM to drive the DC motors makes implementation easier because of greater
circuit simplicity. Additionally, the use of PWM signals allows one to vary motor speed
simply by changing the Duty Cycle or the Time on part of the PWM signal shown Duty
Cycle can be derived as [4]
% 100
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
on off
on
T T
T
DutyCycle
(Eqn
4.1)
Where: - Ton = Time On
: - Toff = Time Off



































48


Chapter 5
Shaft Encoder
5.0 Introduction

The shaft encoder is used to provide feedback from the wheels. the encoder is very
essential in controlling the speed of the automatic vehicle. the encoder provides a signal
produced by the rotation of the wheel is the feedback that is fed back to interrupt port of
the microprocessor that is port b.
The robotic group at the university of the south pacific has used various shaft encoders to
get feedback of the motor speed from the wheels. the most common shaft encoders used
by the groups are heds and oktec pair in house built shaft encoder to filter feedback.

5.1 HEDS 5540 a06

The previous year project groups have used HEDS 5540 a06 as their shaft encoder. each
encoder contains a lensed led source, an integrated circuit with detectors and output
circuitry, and a code wheel which rotates between the emitter and detector IC this
encoder has 1024 counts per revolution and its maximum operating frequency is
100Khz.It has three channels (channel i, channel a and channel b).


Figure 5.1 heds 5540 a06
features
Supply voltage 5 v _ 10 %
Output signal ttl compatible


49


Phase shift _ (nominal) 90e
Logic state width s min. 45e
Signal rise time
(Typical at cl = 25 pf, rl = 2.7 k_, 25c) 180 ns
Signal fall time
(Typical at cl = 25 pf, rl = 2.7 k_, 25c) 40 ns
Index pulse width (nominal) 90e
Operating temperature range -40 ... +100c
Moment of inertia of code wheel _ 0.6 gcm2
Max. Angular acceleration 250 000 rad s-2
output current per channel min. -1 ma, max. 5 ma

5.1.1 Advantages of using HEDS 5540 a06

The major advantages of using this shaft encoder are:

It offers high resolution (that is it gives a high precision).
Enclosed device therefore it is not affected by external light sources.
5.1.2 Disadvantages of using heds 5540 a06

The disadvantage of using this shaft encoder is that it very expensive and maintenance is
very costly. Each HEDS 5540 a06 cost about 114 Australian dollars. Also it has a high
resolution which is not needed for our application.
HEDS 5540 a06 has 1024 pulses per revolution means it has 512 slots. the wheel
diameter is 140mm so the circumference is:

Circumference = 2r
= 2 x x 0.14
= 0.44m

Each time the wheel makes a turn it rotates 360 and since there are 1024 pulses per
revolution the angle of each pulse is given as:

=
1024
360

= 0.35

Hence, the linear distance that the wheel moves when one of the 1024 pulses passes by is
given as:
d =
360

x circumference
=

360
35 . 0
x 0.44m
= 0.000427m


50


Therefore it gives feedback at every 0.35 turn and the linear distance which the wheel
moves is 0.000854m which is very precise and not needed for our application.

5.2 Oktec pair shaft encoder

For our application we have used a oktec pair shaft encoder to filter feedback. oktec pair
shaft encoder is an in-house built shaft encoder. Its a 16 slot encoder cut out on 5mm
aluminum plate together with a pair of IR phototransistor/photodiode (op140/op550)
sensors used to design the shaft encoder. Both have the same emitting and receiving
frequency


Figure 5.2 hardware setup for oktec shaft encoder

Figure 5.3 16 slots aluminum plate

This 16-slot encoder is not capable of differentiating between CW and ACW direction
which incorporates a comparator circuit designed using lm324 operational amplifier. The
two 1k ohm resistors are placed such that the comparator threshold voltage is 2.5v.hence
any input signals blow this threshold voltage would produce a logic low output and above
this threshold voltage would produce a logic high output.



51



Figure 5.4 shows the shaft encoder between two ir sensors along with the comparator
circuit.

5.2.1 Advantages of using oktec pair

The major advantage of using the in-house built shaft encoder is that:
Cheaper (as compared to other encoders which are bought).
Since it is built in-house any problems can be easily resolved.
it is suitable for this particular application
A 16 slot shaft encoder generates 32 pulses per revolution. The wheel diameter is 140mm
so the circumference is:
r = 70mm = 0.07m
Circumference = 2r
= 2 x x 0.07
= 0.44m
Each time the wheel makes a turn it rotates 360 and since there are 32 pulses per
revolution the angle of each pulse is given as:
=
32
360

= 11.25
Hence, the linear distance that the wheel moves when one of the 1024 pulses passes by is
given as:
d =
360

x circumference
=

360
25 . 11
x 0.44m
= 0.01375m
Therefore it gives feedback at every 11.25 turn and the linear distance which the wheel
moves is 0.01375m which is applicable for our application.


52



5.2.2 Disadvantages of using oktec pair

The major disadvantage of using this shaft encoder is that there could be errors if lights
from external sources pass through the shaft encoder. The light can interface with the IR
sensors and cause errors. Therefore, to reduce this error an external cover is needed.

5.3 Comparator

The main purpose comparator circuit (lm324 operational amplifier) is to smoothen the
output that is coming from the receiving sensor. For the operational amplifier to function
a +5 volts and a ground have to be supplied

5.3.1 Output from the comparator
Figure 5.6 shows the signal given by the ir sensors which is amplified by the comparator
circuit giving a smooth square wave signal (0v and 5v).










Figure 5.6: Output from the comparator
CHAPTER 6
Figure 5.5 shows the hardware for the comparator circuit



53



Transfer Function of the Driver Motor

6.1 Outline

The transfer function of the driver motor was calculated by using four different feedbacks. The
feedback was recorded at 35% and 50 % duty cycle. Two sets of duty cycle of which the
feedbacks were recorded and tabulated in the table 6.1 below. This was done to achieve the correct
transfer function. The transfer functions at two different duty cycles should be nearly same
because it involves one motor for feedback operation. Also the poles and zeros of the transfer
function should not be greatly affected by constantly increasing the speed of the dc motor. Hence,
to show the correct transfer function, the transfer function of four different duty cycles were
calculated and compared. The sections below show how the transfer function was calculated and
the results that are obtained from the differential drive setup. The data was recorded was at free
wheel stage of the 12V dc motor. It is assumed that the transfer functions of all four different duty
cycles should be nearly the same.

6.2 Calculation of Transfer Function at 35% duty cycle

Firstly, the Revolution per Minute (RPM) values of the driver motor is obtained. The
sampling time is the time obtained using the get_timer () function whereby it is the time
taken for the counter to overflow. The steps involved in obtaining the transfer function of the
driver motor are in detail discussed in this section.
Table 6.1
Step 1: The table below shows data recorded at 35% duty cycle.
Sampling Time (s) Cumulative Time (s) Cumulative Time (s) RPM
0 0 0 0
1482 1482 0.001482 307.4527
16274 17756 0.017756 286.0276
16854 34610 0.03461 284.9476
28142 62752 0.062752 270.3799
25120 87872 0.087872 274.188
27528 115400 0.1154 271.1852
32982 148382 0.148382 264.6483
2935 151317 0.151317 268.9437


54


30984 182301 0.182301 267.1916
29969 212270 0.21227 268.3087
30815 243085 0.243085 267.3582
28845 271930 0.27193 269.4353
32102 304032 0.304032 265.6395
31457 335489 0.335489 266.508
33264 368753 0.368753 264.4407
29894 398647 0.398647 268.268
29857 428504 0.428504 268.4408
30026 458530 0.45853 268.3892
30699 489229 0.489229 267.4059
29103 518332 0.518332 269.2805
32742 551074 0.551074 265.0786
37491 588565 0.588565 259.6178
43586 632151 0.632151 252.9458
4493 636644 0.636644 251.3426
4818 641462 0.641462 248.0302
48968 690430 0.69043 247.1617
42646 733076 0.733076 253.7438
40656 773732 0.773732 255.7959
41805 815537 0.815537 254.7046
45116 860653 0.860653 251.2373
43568 904221 0.904221 252.8733
43682 947903 0.947903 252.6752
46146 994049 0.994049 250.0615
4441 998490 0.99849 251.9548
45247 1043737 1.043737 251.0429
47278 1091015 1.091015 248.9596
46483 1137498 1.137498 249.8772
45687 1183185 1.183185 250.5272
4627 1187812 1.187812 250.0365
47763 1235575 1.235575 248.4277
4583 1240158 1.240158 250.3902
46461 1286619 1.286619 249.7409
4846 1291465 1.291465 247.6688
46397 1337862 1.337862 249.8647
46715 1384577 1.384577 249.4958
48774 1433351 1.433351 247.3829
46806 1480157 1.480157 249.4357
47962 1528119 1.528119 248.2396
48703 1576822 1.576822 247.5217
45985 1622807 1.622807 250.3327


55


47455 1670262 1.670262 248.7645
48523 1718785 1.718785 247.5697
48025 1766810 1.76681 248.2663
4781 1771591 1.771591 248.4092
46636 1818227 1.818227 249.6495
49436 1867663 1.867663 246.6781
46862 1914525 1.914525 249.3735
4718 1919243 1.919243 249.1415
49851 1969094 1.969094 246.3236
47496 2016590 2.01659 248.683
47298 2063888 2.063888 248.9286
50898 2114786 2.114786 245.3235
47915 2162701 2.162701 248.2766
49274 2211975 2.211975 246.938
50718 2262693 2.262693 245.3877
49804 2312497 2.312497 246.362
49328 2361825 2.361825 246.9177
4996 2366821 2.366821 246.2842
50158 2416979 2.416979 246.0358
49522 2466501 2.466501 246.7643
4959 2471460 2.47146 246.5585
51657 2523117 2.523117 244.4649
48569 2571686 2.571686 247.6177
49159 2620845 2.620845 247.058
51866 2672711 2.672711 244.3066

Step 2: Draw transient response of the graph

From the above data, the transient response was drawn using Microsoft Excel. This graph shows
the transient response of the motor with respect to time.



56




Figure 6.1 Shows the Graph of Motor Speed versus time at 35% duty cycle


From the above graph the settling time is assumed to be 0.860653 seconds as shown
on the graph.
ts =0.860653 s
Step 3: Step Response

As referenced from the text Feedback control of dynamic systems[9] the step
response of a motor is given by:
t
e t y
o
= 1 ) (
(Eqn 6.1)
Thus, to use the above equation, we need to calculate the value of sigma (o). If we
want the settling time to occur when the decaying exponential reaches 1% ~
(0.01),the following equations were derived as shown below.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Graph of Motor Speed Versus Time @ 35% duty
cycle


57


n
s
s n
s n
t W
W
t
t W
t W
e
s n
,
,
,
,
61 . 4
61 . 4
) 01 . 0 ln(
01 . 0
=
=
=
=

Since, wn = o

Therefore, we can calculate :
o
61 . 4
=
s
t
(Eqn 6.2)
s
t
61 . 4
= o
(Eqn 6.3)
Using equation 6.3 and the settling time from step 2, we can now calculate the value of
sigma (o).
356 . 5
860653 . 0
61 . 4
61 . 4
=
=
=
o
o
o
s
t


Now, we know the value of sigma and can use the equation 6.1 from step 3 to calculate the
step response.

Table 6.2
The table below shows the step response figures at 35% duty cycle.
Cumulative Time (s) -o x t Exp(-o x t) y(t)
0
0 1 0
0.001482 -0.007937592 0.992093827 0.007906173
0.017756 -0.095101136 0.909280969 0.090719031
0.03461 -0.18537116 0.830795868 0.169204132
0.062752 -0.336099712 0.714551853 0.285448147
0.087872 -0.470642432 0.624600876 0.375399124
0.1154 -0.6180824 0.53897699 0.46102301
0.148382 -0.794733992 0.451701375 0.548298625
0.151317 -0.810453852 0.444656212 0.555343788
0.182301 -0.976404156 0.376663088 0.623336912
0.21227 -1.13691812 0.320806186 0.679193814


58


0.243085 -1.30196326 0.271997267 0.728002733
0.27193 -1.45645708 0.233060529 0.766939471
0.304032 -1.628395392 0.196244217 0.803755783
0.335489 -1.796879084 0.165815578 0.834184422
0.368753 -1.975041068 0.138755614 0.861244386
0.398647 -2.135153332 0.118226461 0.881773539
0.428504 -2.295067424 0.1007546 0.8992454
0.45853 -2.45588668 0.085787096 0.914212904
0.489229 -2.620310524 0.072780259 0.927219741
0.518332 -2.776186192 0.062275562 0.937724438
0.551074 -2.951552344 0.05225852 0.94774148
0.588565 -3.15235414 0.042751366 0.957248634
0.632151 -3.385800756 0.033850525 0.966149475
0.636644 -3.409865264 0.033045653 0.966954347
0.641462 -3.435670472 0.032203811 0.967796189
0.69043 -3.69794308 0.024774433 0.975225567
0.733076 -3.926355056 0.019715403 0.980284597
0.773732 -4.144108592 0.015857565 0.984142435
0.815537 -4.368016172 0.012676363 0.987323637
0.860653 -4.609657468 0.009955228 0.990044772
0.904221 -4.843007676 0.007883308 0.992116692
0.947903 -5.076968468 0.006238793 0.993761207
0.994049 -5.324126444 0.004872606 0.995127394
0.99849 -5.34791244 0.004758073 0.995241927
1.043737 -5.590255372 0.003734074 0.996265926
1.091015 -5.84347634 0.002898748 0.997101252
1.137498 -6.092439288 0.00225989 0.99774011
1.183185 -6.33713886 0.001769357 0.998230643
1.187812 -6.361921072 0.001726048 0.998273952
1.235575 -6.6177397 0.001336448 0.998663552
1.240158 -6.642286248 0.001304042 0.998695958
1.286619 -6.891131364 0.001016763 0.998983237
1.291465 -6.91708654 0.000990712 0.999009288
1.337862 -7.165588872 0.000772724 0.999227276
1.384577 -7.415794412 0.000601674 0.999398326
1.433351 -7.677027956 0.00046335 0.99953665
1.480157 -7.927720892 0.000360607 0.999639393
1.528119 -8.184605364 0.000278914 0.999721086
1.576822 -8.445458632 0.000214874 0.999785126
1.622807 -8.691754292 0.000167965 0.999832035
1.670262 -8.945923272 0.000130267 0.999869733
1.718785 -9.20581246 0.000100454 0.999899546


59


1.76681 -9.46303436 7.76706E-05 0.999922329
1.771591 -9.488641396 7.57069E-05 0.999924293
1.818227 -9.738423812 5.89734E-05 0.999941027
1.867663 -10.00320303 4.52547E-05 0.999954745
1.914525 -10.2541959 3.52095E-05 0.999964791
1.919243 -10.27946551 3.43309E-05 0.999965669
1.969094 -10.54646746 2.62862E-05 0.999973714
2.01659 -10.80085604 2.0382E-05 0.999979618
2.063888 -11.05418413 1.58208E-05 0.999984179
2.114786 -11.32679382 1.20458E-05 0.999987954
2.162701 -11.58342656 9.31927E-06 0.999990681
2.211975 -11.8473381 7.15758E-06 0.999992842
2.262693 -12.11898371 5.45497E-06 0.999994545
2.312497 -12.38573393 4.17777E-06 0.999995822
2.361825 -12.6499347 3.20777E-06 0.999996792
2.366821 -12.67669328 3.12307E-06 0.999996877
2.416979 -12.94533952 2.38732E-06 0.999997613
2.466501 -13.21057936 1.83113E-06 0.999998169
2.47146 -13.23713976 1.78313E-06 0.999998217
2.523117 -13.51381465 1.35215E-06 0.999998648
2.571686 -13.77395022 1.04244E-06 0.999998958
2.620845 -14.03724582 8.01127E-07 0.999999199
2.672711 -14.31504012 6.06816E-07 0.999999393







A step response graph was drawn as shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 shows the step response of the Graph of Motor at 35% duty cycle



60





From the above graph it can be demonstrated that the settling time of 0.904221s
is achieved at 0.992116692 as marked on the graph, at this point the exponential
decay reaches within 1% of the final value. By looking at the step response
graph above, we can assume that it is given by a sum of exponentials, thus we
can write

(Eqn
6.4)


Subtracting off the final value and assuming that


-o (alpha) is the slowest pole, the following equation can be written as:


(Eqation 6.5)
The slope of the equation 5.5 gives the value of alpha (o), and the intercept gives the value of
A. If equation 5.5 is plotted (log graph) it should result in the positive value of A because we
use log(y (t)-y (infinity)). Step 4 shows how A and was calculated.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Graph of y(t) vs Time (s)


61



Step 4: Drawing log(y (t)-y ()) vs. time graph and calculating the value of constant A
and alpha (o).
Table 6.3
The table below shows the log(y (t) y ()) data at 35% duty cycle.
Cumulative Time (s) 1 - y(t) Log |1 - y(t)|
0
1 0
0.001482 0.992093827 -0.003447252
0.017756 0.909280969 -0.041301899
0.03461 0.830795868 -0.080505672
0.062752 0.714551853 -0.14596625
0.087872 0.624600876 -0.204397411
0.1154 0.53897699 -0.268429776
0.148382 0.451701375 -0.345148587
0.151317 0.444656212 -0.351975636
0.182301 0.376663088 -0.424046937
0.21227 0.320806186 -0.493757266
0.243085 0.271997267 -0.565435459
0.27193 0.233060529 -0.632531273
0.304032 0.196244217 -0.707203133
0.335489 0.165815578 -0.780374671
0.368753 0.138755614 -0.857749437
0.398647 0.118226461 -0.92728531
0.428504 0.1007546 -0.996735118
0.45853 0.085787096 -1.066578033
0.489229 0.072780259 -1.137986401
0.518332 0.062275562 -1.205682344
0.551074 0.05225852 -1.281842896
0.588565 0.042751366 -1.369050008
0.632151 0.033850525 -1.470434585
0.636644 0.033045653 -1.480885668
0.641462 0.032203811 -1.492092728
0.69043 0.024774433 -1.605996274
0.733076 0.019715403 -1.705194335
0.773732 0.015857565 -1.799763494
0.815537 0.012676363 -1.89700532
0.860653 0.009955228 -2.001948802
0.904221 0.007883308 -2.10329151
0.947903 0.006238793 -2.20489939
0.994049 0.004872606 -2.312238736


62


0.99849 0.004758073 -2.322568862
1.043737 0.003734074 -2.42781706
1.091015 0.002898748 -2.53778953
1.137498 0.00225989 -2.645912764
1.183185 0.001769357 -2.752184438
1.187812 0.001726048 -2.762947216
1.235575 0.001336448 -2.874047834
1.240158 0.001304042 -2.884708265
1.286619 0.001016763 -2.992780325
1.291465 0.000990712 -3.004052515
1.337862 0.000772724 -3.111975707
1.384577 0.000601674 -3.220638592
1.433351 0.00046335 -3.334090879
1.480157 0.000360607 -3.442965437
1.528119 0.000278914 -3.554528946
1.576822 0.000214874 -3.667816081
1.622807 0.000167965 -3.774780927
1.670262 0.000130267 -3.885165113
1.718785 0.000100454 -3.998033553
1.76681 7.76706E-05 -4.109743605
1.771591 7.57069E-05 -4.120864599
1.818227 5.89734E-05 -4.229343724
1.867663 4.52547E-05 -4.344335876
1.914525 3.52095E-05 -4.453340696
1.919243 3.43309E-05 -4.464315147
1.969094 2.62862E-05 -4.580272623
2.01659 2.0382E-05 -4.690752178
2.063888 1.58208E-05 -4.800771169
2.114786 1.20458E-05 -4.919164052
2.162701 9.31927E-06 -5.030618235
2.211975 7.15758E-06 -5.145233562
2.262693 5.45497E-06 -5.263207751
2.312497 4.17777E-06 -5.379055901
2.361825 3.20777E-06 -5.493796837
2.366821 3.12307E-06 -5.505417939
2.416979 2.38732E-06 -5.622089522
2.466501 1.83113E-06 -5.737281717
2.47146 1.78313E-06 -5.748816754
2.523117 1.35215E-06 -5.868975133
2.571686 1.04244E-06 -5.981950573
2.620845 8.01127E-07 -6.096298401
2.672711 6.06816E-07 -6.216942931


63








The graph of Log |1 y(t)| vs. time was obtained from table 6.3 above.
Figure 6.3 shows the graph of Log |1 y (t)| vs. time motor at 35% duty cycle

From the graph in Figure 6.3 and equation 6.5, we now calculate the value of A and alpha
(o).
1
0 log
10
=
=
A
A



Using equation 6.5 and the slope of the graph in figure 6.3 the value of o is calculated as
shown:


-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Graph of Log |1 - y(t)| vs Time (s)


64


383 . 5
338 . 2 4343 . 0
768779 . 1
113708 . 4
904221 . 0 673 . 2
103292 . 2 217 . 6
4343 . 0
=
=
=

=
o
o
o





Step 5: Drawing log Be
-|t
Vs. time graph and calculating the value of B and|.




Table 6.4
Cumulative
Time (s)
-o x t Exp(-o x t) 1 + A*Exp(-
o x t)
1 + A*Exp(-o
x t) y(t)
Log (1 + A*Exp(-o
x t) y(t))
0
0 1 2 2 0.301029996
0.001482 -0.007977606 0.992054131 1.992054131 1.984147958 0.297574054
0.017756 -0.095580548 0.908845153 1.908845153 1.818126122 0.259624007
0.03461 -0.18630563 0.830019877 1.830019877 1.660815746 0.220321454
0.062752 -0.337794016 0.71334221 1.71334221 1.427894063 0.154695988
0.087872 -0.473014976 0.623120739 1.623120739 1.247721615 0.096117699
0.1154 -0.6211982 0.537300259 1.537300259 1.076277248 0.03192416
0.148382 -0.798740306 0.449895338 1.449895338 0.901596713 -0.04498768
0.151317 -0.814539411 0.442843249 1.442843249 0.887499461 -0.051831902
0.182301 -0.981326283 0.37481366 1.37481366 0.751476748 -0.124084452
0.21227 -1.14264941 0.318972812 1.318972812 0.639778998 -0.193970021
0.243085 -1.308526555 0.270217914 1.270217914 0.542215182 -0.265828327
0.27193 -1.46379919 0.231355639 1.231355639 0.464416167 -0.33309267
0.304032 -1.636604256 0.194639869 1.194639869 0.390884085 -0.407952011
0.335489 -1.805937287 0.164320369 1.164320369 0.330135947 -0.481307185
0.368753 -1.984997399 0.137380971 1.137380971 0.276136585 -0.55887605
0.398647 -2.145916801 0.116960758 1.116960758 0.235187219 -0.628586283
0.428504 -2.306637032 0.099595626 1.099595626 0.200350226 -0.698210164
0.45853 -2.46826699 0.084731572 1.084731572 0.170518669 -0.768228067
0.489229 -2.633519707 0.071825213 1.071825213 0.144605472 -0.839815271
0.518332 -2.790181156 0.061410088 1.061410088 0.12368565 -0.907680684
0.551074 -2.966431342 0.051486721 1.051486721 0.103745241 -0.984031816


65


0.588565 -3.168245395 0.042077362 1.042077362 0.084828728 -1.071457046
0.632151 -3.402868833 0.033277665 1.033277665 0.06712819 -1.173095061
0.636644 -3.427054652 0.032482472 1.032482472 0.065528125 -1.183572261
0.641462 -3.452989946 0.03165086 1.03165086 0.063854672 -1.194807324
0.69043 -3.71658469 0.024316876 1.024316876 0.049091309 -1.308995388
0.733076 -3.946148108 0.019329012 1.019329012 0.039044415 -1.408441078
0.773732 -4.164999356 0.015529725 1.015529725 0.03138729 -1.503246178
0.815537 -4.390035671 0.012400287 1.012400287 0.02507665 -1.600730477
0.860653 -4.632895099 0.009726559 1.009726559 0.019681787 -1.70593548
0.904221 -4.867421643 0.007693175 1.007693175 0.015576483 -1.807530583
0.947903 -5.102561849 0.006081148 1.006081148 0.012319941 -1.909391369
0.994049 -5.350965767 0.004743568 1.004743568 0.009616173 -2.016997721
0.99849 -5.37487167 0.004631513 1.004631513 0.009389586 -2.027353535
1.043737 -5.618436271 0.003630313 1.003630313 0.007364388 -2.132863358
1.091015 -5.872933745 0.002814604 1.002814604 0.005713352 -2.243109023
1.137498 -6.123151734 0.002191538 1.002191538 0.004451428 -2.351500687
1.183185 -6.369084855 0.001713727 1.001713727 0.003483084 -2.458036027
1.187812 -6.393991996 0.00167157 1.00167157 0.003397618 -2.468825499
1.235575 -6.651100225 0.001292599 1.001292599 0.002629047 -2.58020157
1.240158 -6.675770514 0.001261101 1.001261101 0.002565143 -2.590888422
1.286619 -6.925870077 0.000982048 1.000982048 0.001998811 -2.699228237
1.291465 -6.951956095 0.000956762 1.000956762 0.001947474 -2.710528344
1.337862 -7.201711146 0.000745309 1.000745309 0.001518033 -2.818718733
1.384577 -7.453177991 0.000579597 1.000579597 0.001181271 -2.927650474
1.433351 -7.715728433 0.000445761 1.000445761 0.000909111 -3.041383283
1.480157 -7.967685131 0.00034648 1.00034648 0.000707087 -3.150526868
1.528119 -8.225864577 0.000267641 1.000267641 0.000546555 -3.262365868
1.576822 -8.488032826 0.000205918 1.000205918 0.000420792 -3.375932563
1.622807 -8.735570081 0.000160764 1.000160764 0.00032873 -3.483161196
1.670262 -8.991020346 0.000124523 1.000124523 0.00025479 -3.593817426
1.718785 -9.252219655 9.58986E-05 1.000095899 0.000196352 -3.706963848
1.76681 -9.51073823 7.40524E-05 1.000074052 0.000151723 -3.818948846
1.771591 -9.536474353 7.21708E-05 1.000072171 0.000147878 -3.830097202
1.818227 -9.787515941 5.61482E-05 1.000056148 0.000115122 -3.938843129
1.867663 -10.05362993 4.30293E-05 1.000043029 8.8284E-05 -4.054117913
1.914525 -10.30588808 3.34356E-05 1.000033436 6.86451E-05 -4.163390471
1.919243 -10.33128507 3.25972E-05 1.000032597 6.6928E-05 -4.174391868
1.969094 -10.599633 2.49252E-05 1.000024925 5.12113E-05 -4.29063395
2.01659 -10.85530397 1.9302E-05 1.000019302 3.9684E-05 -4.401384483
2.063888 -11.1099091 1.49633E-05 1.000014963 3.07841E-05 -4.511673144
2.114786 -11.38389304 1.13773E-05 1.000011377 2.34231E-05 -4.630356026
2.162701 -11.64181948 8.79067E-06 1.000008791 1.81099E-05 -4.742083025


66


2.211975 -11.90706143 6.74262E-06 1.000006743 1.39002E-05 -4.856978716
2.262693 -12.18007642 5.13169E-06 1.000005132 1.05867E-05 -4.975241284
2.312497 -12.44817135 3.92489E-06 1.000003925 8.10266E-06 -5.09137242
2.361825 -12.71370398 3.0096E-06 1.00000301 6.21737E-06 -5.206393442
2.366821 -12.74059744 2.92974E-06 1.00000293 6.05281E-06 -5.218042901
2.416979 -13.01059796 2.2365E-06 1.000002237 4.62382E-06 -5.334999066
2.466501 -13.27717488 1.71315E-06 1.000001713 3.54428E-06 -5.450472041
2.47146 -13.30386918 1.66803E-06 1.000001668 3.45116E-06 -5.462035183
2.523117 -13.58193881 1.2631E-06 1.000001263 2.61525E-06 -5.582486219
2.571686 -13.84338574 9.7251E-07 1.000000973 2.01495E-06 -5.695736629
2.620845 -14.10800864 7.46397E-07 1.000000746 1.54752E-06 -5.810362577
2.672711 -14.38720331 5.64569E-07 1.000000565 1.17139E-06 -5.931300335

Step 5: Also shows how the value of B and (|) is calculated.
Using the data from table 5.4 the graph was plotted as shown in figure 6.4

Figure 6.4 shows the graph of Log (1+A*Exp (- x t) y(t)) Log |1 y (t)| vs. time at
35% duty cycle.

Using the intercepts and the values obtained from the graph in Figure 6.4, the
value of B and beta (|) was calculated.
2
30103 . 0 log
10
=
=
B
B


The graph of Log (1+A*Exp (- x t) y(t)) Log |1 y (t)| vs. Time gives a value for |
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Graph of Log (1 + A*Exp(oxt) - y(t)) vs Time (s)


67



370 . 5
1636 . 2
046 . 5
4343 . 0
1484 . 0 312 . 2
0458 . 0 0914 . 5
4343 . 0
=
=

=
|
|
|



Step 6: Calculating the transfer function using the values found in previous steps

Since there is not much difference in the value of o (Step 4) and | (Step 5), that is

o = 5.383

| = 5.370




Hence, using equation 6.4 from (Step 3), we get the estimate value of y (t) to be:

370 . 5 383 . 5
2 1 ) (
) ( ) (


+ =
+ + =
e e t y
Be Ae y t y
t
t t | o


Taking the Laplace of the equation gives:

) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
907 . 28 889 . 26 4
) (
) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
) 383 . 5 ( 2 ) 370 . 5 ( ) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
) (
370 . 5
2
383 . 5
1 1
) (
2
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ + + + + +
=
+
+
+
+ =
s s s
s s
s y
s s s
s s s s s s
s y
s s s
s y


The transfer function of the motor at 35% duty cycle is given as:



68



) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
907 . 28 889 . 26 4
2
+ +
+ +
=
s s s
s s
nction Transf erFu


6.3 Calculation of Transfer Function at 50% duty cycle

Table 6.5
Cumulative Time (s) x t Exp (- x t) y(t)=1-(exp(- x t))
0 0 1 0
0.002109 0.025755614 0.974573232 0.025426768
0.066574 0.813017666 0.443517657 0.556482343
0.069393 0.84744397 0.428508815 0.571491185
0.134515 1.642729464 0.193451303 0.806548697
0.199853 2.440652801 0.087103971 0.912896029
0.204555 2.498074753 0.082243185 0.917756815
0.207 2.52793368 0.079823791 0.920176209
0.210009 2.56468031 0.076943776 0.923056224
0.213404 2.606140865 0.073818872 0.926181128
0.21475 2.62257854 0.07261538 0.92738462
0.215564 2.632519303 0.071897103 0.928102897
0.217154 2.651936765 0.070514511 0.929485489
0.226254 2.763068149 0.063097877 0.936902123
0.226285 2.763446728 0.063073994 0.936926006
0.226469 2.765693781 0.062932423 0.937067577
0.290745 3.550647719 0.02870604 0.97129396
0.291581 3.560857151 0.028414459 0.971585541
0.292105 3.567256365 0.028233209 0.971766791
0.301493 3.681904874 0.025174974 0.974825026
0.303374 3.704876098 0.024603266 0.975396734
0.312841 3.820489374 0.021917073 0.978082927
0.377494 4.610047327 0.009951347 0.990048653
0.378904 4.627266585 0.009781459 0.990218541
0.444224 5.424970102 0.004405198 0.995594802
0.444323 5.426179114 0.004399875 0.995600125
0.445621 5.442030601 0.00433068 0.99566932
0.454847 5.554700727 0.003869226 0.996130774
0.455029 5.556923355 0.003860636 0.996139364
0.519157 6.340069882 0.001764179 0.998235821
0.583444 7.125158155 0.000804606 0.999195394
0.648902 7.92454696 0.000361754 0.999638246
0.657161 8.025407851 0.000327047 0.999672953
0.721467 8.810728156 0.000149125 0.999850875
0.722253 8.820326977 0.0001477 0.9998523


69


0.730742 8.923996682 0.000133155 0.999866845
0.739284 9.028313636 0.000119965 0.999880035
0.74014 9.038767314 0.000118717 0.999881283
0.748306 9.138492465 0.000107449 0.999892551
0.81336 9.932947526 4.85485E-05 0.999951452
0.814846 9.951094915 4.76754E-05 0.999952325
0.823322 10.05460586 4.29873E-05 0.999957013
0.823843 10.06096844 4.27147E-05 0.999957285
0.824817 10.07286316 4.22096E-05 0.99995779
0.833874 10.18346942 3.77899E-05 0.99996221
0.842931 10.29407568 3.38329E-05 0.999966167
0.843167 10.29695776 3.37356E-05 0.999966264
0.843235 10.2977882 3.37076E-05 0.999966292
0.844061 10.30787551 3.33693E-05 0.999966631
0.908684 11.09706709 1.51567E-05 0.999984843
0.90905 11.10153677 1.50891E-05 0.999984911
0.910668 11.12129618 1.47939E-05 0.999985206
0.920284 11.23872908 1.31547E-05 0.999986845
0.921276 11.25084362 1.29963E-05 0.999987004
0.923002 11.27192194 1.27253E-05 0.999987275
0.932188 11.38410358 1.13749E-05 0.999988625
0.93351 11.40024816 1.11927E-05 0.999988807
0.933654 11.40200672 1.1173E-05 0.999988827
0.934178 11.40840594 1.11018E-05 0.999988898
0.934982 11.41822458 1.09933E-05 0.999989007
1.000016 12.2124354 4.96829E-06 0.999995032
1.000384 12.2169295 4.94601E-06 0.999995054
1.002262 12.23986409 4.83387E-06 0.999995166
1.011672 12.35478127 4.3091E-06 0.999995691
1.012116 12.3602035 4.2858E-06 0.999995714
1.013277 12.37438191 4.22546E-06 0.999995775
1.078511 13.17103517 1.90499E-06 0.999998095
1.0801 13.19044042 1.86838E-06 0.999998132
1.145355 13.98735015 8.42114E-07 0.999999158
1.146102 13.99647269 8.34467E-07 0.999999166




70



Figure 6.5 Shows the Graph of Motor Speed versus time at 50% duty cycle

Table 6.6

|1-y(t)| log |1-y(t)|
1 0
0.974573232 -0.011185521
0.443517657 -0.353089086
0.428508815 -0.36804024
0.193451303 -0.713428341
0.087103971 -1.059962044
0.082243185 -1.084900081
0.079823791 -1.097867648
0.076943776 -1.113826507
0.073818872 -1.131832597
0.07261538 -1.138971388
0.071897103 -1.143288607
0.070514511 -1.151721503
0.063097877 -1.19998525
0.063073994 -1.200149665
0.062932423 -1.201125548
0.02870604 -1.542026711
0.028414459 -1.546460612
0.028233209 -1.549239755
0.025174974 -1.59903097
0.024603266 -1.609007245
0.021917073 -1.659217453
0.009951347 -2.002118115
0.009781459 -2.009596344
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Y
(
t
)

Time(s)
Step Response @ o.5


71


0.004405198 -2.35603458
0.004399875 -2.356559647
0.00433068 -2.36344386
0.003869226 -2.412375874
0.003860636 -2.413341149
0.001764179 -2.753457364
0.000804606 -3.094416869
0.000361754 -3.441587017
0.000327047 -3.485390345
0.000149125 -3.82645062
0.0001477 -3.830619335
0.000133155 -3.875642516
0.000119965 -3.920946793
0.000118717 -3.925486768
0.000107449 -3.968796851
4.85485E-05 -4.3138243
4.76754E-05 -4.32170561
4.29873E-05 -4.366659843
4.27147E-05 -4.369423075
4.22096E-05 -4.374588887
3.77899E-05 -4.422624575
3.38329E-05 -4.470660262
3.37356E-05 -4.471911937
3.37076E-05 -4.47227259
3.33693E-05 -4.476653453
1.51567E-05 -4.819395003
1.50891E-05 -4.821336161
1.47939E-05 -4.829917561
1.31547E-05 -4.880918021
1.29963E-05 -4.8861793
1.27253E-05 -4.895333501
1.13749E-05 -4.944053367
1.11927E-05 -4.951064869
1.1173E-05 -4.951828603
1.11018E-05 -4.954607746
1.09933E-05 -4.958871928
4.96829E-06 -5.303793303
4.94601E-06 -5.305745068
4.83387E-06 -5.315705432
4.3091E-06 -5.365613329
4.2858E-06 -5.367968175
4.22546E-06 -5.374125781
1.90499E-06 -5.720107897
1.86838E-06 -5.72853549
8.42114E-07 -6.074628985
8.34467E-07 -6.078590855


72










Figure 6.6 shows the graph of Log |1 y (t)| vs. time motor at 50% duty cycle

Table 6.7
x t exp (- x t)
1 + A*exp (-
x t)
y(t)
1 + A*exp (-
x t) - y(t)
Log (1 +
A*exp (- x t)
- y(t))
0 1 2 0 2 0.301029996
-0.02576 0.974573726 1.974573726 0.025426768 1.949146958 0.289844584
-0.813 0.443524743 1.443524743 0.556482343 0.8870424 -0.052055621
-0.84743 0.428515951 1.428515951 0.571491185 0.857024766 -0.067006628
-1.6427 0.193457548 1.193457548 0.806548697 0.386908851 -0.412391335
-2.4406 0.087108149 1.087108149 0.912896029 0.174212121 -0.758921632
-2.49803 0.082247222 1.082247222 0.917756815 0.164490407 -0.783859424
-2.52788 0.079827757 1.079827757 0.920176209 0.159651549 -0.796826864
-2.56463 0.076947654 1.076947654 0.923056224 0.15389143 -0.812785566
-2.60609 0.073822653 1.073822653 0.926181128 0.147641524 -0.830791479
-2.62253 0.072619122 1.072619122 0.92738462 0.145234502 -0.837930201
-2.63247 0.071900823 1.071900823 0.928102897 0.143797926 -0.842247377
-2.65188 0.070518186 1.070518186 0.929485489 0.141032696 -0.850680191
-2.76301 0.063101304 1.063101304 0.936902123 0.126199181 -0.898943463
-2.76339 0.06307742 1.06307742 0.936926006 0.126151414 -0.899107876
-2.76564 0.062935844 1.062935844 0.937067577 0.125868266 -0.900083749
y = -5.3037x - 9E-13
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
L
o
g
(
y
(
t
)
)

Time(s)
Log |y(t)-1| @0.5


73


-3.55058 0.028708043 1.028708043 0.97129396 0.057414084 -1.240981563
-3.56079 0.028416447 1.028416447 0.971585541 0.056830906 -1.24541542
-3.56719 0.028235188 1.028235188 0.971766791 0.056468398 -1.248194536
-3.68183 0.025176796 1.025176796 0.974825026 0.05035177 -1.297985261
-3.7048 0.024605057 1.024605057 0.975396734 0.049208323 -1.307961439
-3.82041 0.021918718 1.021918718 0.978082927 0.043835791 -1.358171153
-4.60996 0.009952249 1.009952249 0.990048653 0.019903596 -1.701068446
-4.62718 0.009782349 1.009782349 0.990218541 0.019563808 -1.708546601
-5.42486 0.004405668 1.004405668 0.995594802 0.008810865 -2.054981433
-5.42607 0.004400344 1.004400344 0.995600125 0.00880022 -2.055506494
-5.44192 0.004331144 1.004331144 0.99566932 0.008661824 -2.06239064
-5.55459 0.003869649 1.003869649 0.996130774 0.007738875 -2.111322174
-5.55681 0.003861058 1.003861058 0.996139364 0.007721694 -2.112287439
-6.33995 0.001764399 1.001764399 0.998235821 0.003528578 -2.452400312
-7.12502 0.000804718 1.000804718 0.999195394 0.001609324 -2.793356466
-7.92439 0.00036181 1.00036181 0.999638246 0.000723564 -3.140523202
-8.02525 0.000327098 1.000327098 0.999672953 0.000654145 -3.184326099
-8.81056 0.00014915 1.00014915 0.999850875 0.000298275 -3.525383023
-8.82015 0.000147726 1.000147726 0.9998523 0.000295426 -3.529551697
-8.92382 0.000133178 1.000133178 0.999866845 0.000266333 -3.574574435
-9.02814 0.000119986 1.000119986 0.999880035 0.000239951 -3.619878268
-9.03859 0.000118738 1.000118738 0.999881283 0.000237455 -3.624418197
-9.13831 0.000107468 1.000107468 0.999892551 0.000214918 -3.667727855
-9.93275 4.8558E-05 1.000048558 0.999951452 9.71065E-05 -4.012751913
-9.9509 4.76847E-05 1.000047685 0.999952325 9.53601E-05 -4.020633147
-10.0544 4.29958E-05 1.000042996 0.999957013 8.59831E-05 -4.065586938
-10.0608 4.27231E-05 1.000042723 0.999957285 8.54378E-05 -4.068350143
-10.0727 4.22179E-05 1.000042218 0.99995779 8.44275E-05 -4.073515904
-10.1833 3.77974E-05 1.000037797 0.99996221 7.55873E-05 -4.121551119
-10.2939 3.38398E-05 1.00003384 0.999966167 6.76727E-05 -4.169586335
-10.2968 3.37424E-05 1.000033742 0.999966264 6.7478E-05 -4.170837998
-10.2976 3.37144E-05 1.000033714 0.999966292 6.7422E-05 -4.171198646
-10.3077 3.3376E-05 1.000033376 0.999966631 6.67453E-05 -4.175579466
-11.0968 1.516E-05 1.00001516 0.999984843 3.03167E-05 -4.518317649
-11.1013 1.50924E-05 1.000015092 0.999984911 3.01815E-05 -4.520258787
-11.1211 1.47971E-05 1.000014797 0.999985206 2.9591E-05 -4.528840103
-11.2385 1.31576E-05 1.000013158 0.999986845 2.63124E-05 -4.579840062
-11.2506 1.29992E-05 1.000012999 0.999987004 2.59955E-05 -4.585101289
-11.2717 1.27281E-05 1.000012728 0.999987275 2.54533E-05 -4.5942554
-11.3839 1.13774E-05 1.000011377 0.999988625 2.27523E-05 -4.642974787
-11.4 1.11952E-05 1.000011195 0.999988807 2.23879E-05 -4.649986221
-11.4018 1.11755E-05 1.000011176 0.999988827 2.23486E-05 -4.650749947


74


-11.4082 1.11043E-05 1.000011104 0.999988898 2.2206E-05 -4.653529063
-11.418 1.09958E-05 1.000010996 0.999989007 2.19891E-05 -4.657793203
-12.2122 4.96948E-06 1.000004969 0.999995032 9.93777E-06 -5.002711188
-12.2167 4.9472E-06 1.000004947 0.999995054 9.89321E-06 -5.004662934
-12.2396 4.83503E-06 1.000004835 0.999995166 9.66889E-06 -5.0146232
-12.3545 4.31015E-06 1.00000431 0.999995691 8.61925E-06 -5.064530606
-12.36 4.28684E-06 1.000004287 0.999995714 8.57264E-06 -5.06688543
-12.3741 4.22649E-06 1.000004226 0.999995775 8.45195E-06 -5.073042975
-13.1708 1.90548E-06 1.000001905 0.999998095 3.81047E-06 -5.419021691
-13.1902 1.86886E-06 1.000001869 0.999998132 3.73724E-06 -5.427449201
-13.9871 8.42346E-07 1.000000842 0.999999158 1.68446E-06 -5.773539294
-13.9962 8.34697E-07 1.000000835 0.999999166 1.66916E-06 -5.777501125



Figure 6.7 shows the graph of Log (1+A*Exp (- x t) y (t)) Log |1 y (t)| vs. time at
50% duty cycle.

From the above tabulated results and graph the value of

o = 12.212
| = 12.212
y = -5.3037x + 0.301
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
L
o
g

(
1

+

A
*
e
x
p

(
-

x

t
)

-

y
(
t
)
)

Time
Log (1+A*Exp (- x t) y (t)) Log |1
y (t)| vs. time


75


t t
t t
e e t y
Be Ae y t y
212 . 12 212 . 12
2 1 ) (
) ( ) (


+ =
+ + =
| o

Taking the Laplace of the equation gives;









Therefore, the transfer function of the motor at 50% duty cycle is given as;

) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 3
+
+ +
=
s s
s s
nction TransferFu


6.4 Comparing the Driver Motor Transfer Function

The following transfer functions were obtained for different duty cycle values.
At 35% duty cycle, the transfer function was found to be:
) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
907 . 28 889 . 26 4
2
+ +
+ +
=
s s s
s s
nction Transf erFu

At 50% duty cycle, the transfer function was found to be:
) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 3
+
+ +
=
s s
s s
nction TransferFu


6.5 Obtaining the Driver Motor Transfer Function through Formula

The formula shown below is used for calculating the driver motor transfer function. This
was the second approach taken to calculate the driver motor transfer function and to
compare the transfer function of that obtained above.

2
) ( ) (
) (
S LJ s L B RJ k k RB
k
s E
s
m m m T E m
T
a
m
+ + + +
=
O
(Eq 6.6)

) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 3
) (
) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 1 3
) (
212 . 12
2
212 . 12
1 1
) (
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
=
+
+
+
+ =
s s
s s
s y
s s
s s
s y
s s s
s y


76


(Source: EE312, Chapter 5; Topic: Actuators)

Where:
-
m
B - Viscous friction (N-m per rads/sec)
-
f
T - Torque (N-m)
-
E
k - Voltage constant (volts)
-
a
L - Armature Inductance (Henries)
- R - Armature Resistance (ohms)
- k - Motor constant (N-m per amp)
-
m
J - Moment of inertia (kg-m
2
)

One of the main reasons for using the formula to obtain the transfer of the drive motor is to
get the exact transfer function of the motor. The motor resistance was obtained by measuring
the resistance between the two terminals (+ve and -ve) of motor. Hence, a digital multimeter
was used to get the resistance value of the driver motor. The resistance of the motor was
found to be:

R = 12

The Armature Inductance
a
L of the driver motor was also obtained by using the LCR meter
to measure the inductance between the two terminals. The Armature Inductance of the motor
was found to be:
a
L = 2.10mH

The moment of inertia was obtained by using the equation 5.7.


2
IR J
m
= (Eqn 6.7)
Where:
- I mass of the wheel and axle (kg)
- R Radius of the wheel (m)

The mass of the wheel and axle was weighted to be 300g and the circumference of the wheel
was calculated using the radius of the wheel, the radius of the wheel is 6.75cm.


77


m c
r c
424 . 0
0675 . 0 2
2
=
=
=
t
t


Hence, using the equation 5.7 to calculate the moment of inertia.

2 3
2
2
10 377 . 1
) 0675 . 0 )( 3 . 0 (
kgm J
J
IR J
m
m
m

=
=
=


The torque produced by the driver motor is used to drive the load that is the differential
drive motor controller setup as shown in chapter 2 of this project. Hence the motor constant,
K of the motor is calculated using the equation 5.8.
a
kI s T = ) ( (Eqn 6.8)

The armature current of the driver motor,
a
I is calculated by:
A I
I
R I V
a
a
a
0 . 1
) 12 )( ( 12
=
=
=


Therefore, the motor constant, k of the motor is:
amp Nm k
k
kI T
a f
/ 0 . 22
) 0 . 1 ( 22
=
=
=


The torque of the motor differs for different motor constant values. Thus, it can be said that
torque is directly proportional to motor constant. The viscous friction, B of the motor can be
calculated; therefore, from the C complier program the frequency is 500Hz. Using the
system frequency and equation 5.9, the angular rotation of the driver wheel is calculated.

f t e 2 =
(Eqn 6.9)
Thus,
sec / 10 14 . 3
) 500 ( 2
2
3
rad
f
=
=
=
t
t e



78



Therefore, viscous friction, B is calculated using equation 5.10


e t / =
m
B

(Eqn 6.10)
Hence,
sec / / 007 . 0
10 14 . 3 / 22
3
rad mper N
B
m
=
=


By obtaining the above parameters, the corresponding values are substituted in place of the
variable. Hence, the transfer function of the driver motor is calculated using the equation 5.6
as shown below:

2 6 3
2 3 3 3 3
2
10 89 . 2 10 91 . 15 334 . 0
5 . 0
) 10 377 . 1 )( 10 10 . 2 ( )) 10 10 . 2 )( 007 . 0 ( ) 10 377 . 1 )( 12 (( ) 5 . 0 )( 5 . 0 ( ) 007 . 0 )( 12 (
5 . 0
) ( ) (
) (
s s
s s
S LJ s L B RJ k k RB
k
s E
s
m m m T E m
T
a
m


+ +
=
+ + + +
=
+ + + +
=
O

Therefore, the transfer function of the driver motor at 50% motor constant is:

334 . 0 10 91 . 15 10 89 . 2
5 . 0
3 2 6
+ +
=

s s
nction TransferFu


6.7 Selecting the transfer function of the motor by comparing the two methods

(i) First method Deriving the transfer function of the motor by using the
feedback method

For 35% duty cycle
) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
907 . 28 889 . 26 4
2
+ +
+ +
=
s s s
s s
nction Transf erFu


For 50% duty cycle
) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 3
+
+ +
=
s s
s s
nction TransferFu



79


(ii) Second method Deriving the transfer function of the motor by using the
given datasheet of the motor

334 . 0 10 91 . 15 10 89 . 2
5 . 0
3 2 6
+ +
=

s s
nction TransferFu


In contrast, the transfer function is selected from 50 % duty cycle since there
are two numbers of poles as well as two numbers of zeros while had
different number of poles and zeros.

) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 3
+
+ +
=
s s
s s
nction TransferFu


6.8 This section will show how to use Matlab to find the proper integral gain, derivative
and proportional gain of the system.

Deriving the transfer function of a proportional controller Kp
:
) 21 . 12 (
) 21 . 12 4 (
2
s s
K s
nction TransferFu
p
+
+
=
When the proportional gain (Kp) equals 10, the output response when a step input is
applied is




Transfer function of the motor with the gain of 70


280 s + 854.7
-------------
s^2 + 12.21 s


The close loop transfer function of the motor

280 s + 854.7
---------------------
s^2 + 292.2 s + 854.7


80



Step Response


Figure 6.8 Step responses for a proportional controller









Designing a PI controller

s
K s K
i p
+


Transfer function of the motor with Kp = 0.005 and Ki = 80





81


0.02 s^2 + 320.1 s + 976.8
--------------------------
s^3 + 12.21 s^2


The close loop transfer function of the motor

0.02 s^2 + 320.1 s + 976.8
---------------------------------
s^3 + 12.23 s^2 + 320.1 s + 976.8

Step Response


Figure 6.9 a step response for a PI controller at 0.005 and 80 respectively




Transfer function of the motor with Kp = 8.5 and Ki = 75



34 s^2 + 403.8 s + 915.8
------------------------


82


s^3 + 12.21 s^2


The close loop transfer function of the motor

34 s^2 + 403.8 s + 915.8
---------------------------------
s^3 + 46.21 s^2 + 403.8 s + 915.8

Step Response

Figure 7.0 a step response for a PI controller at 8.5 and 75 respectively


Thus the proper gain value for the p-term is 8.5 with the i-term of 75










83


Chapter 7
Mechanical and Electrical Design for Robocon 2011

7.1. Mechanical Aspects of Robocon 2011 Robots
Almost one half of this project was devoted in designing the robots for next years
Robocon competition. The game strategy for the competition was planned in accordance
with the rules of the competition. As in the preliminary stages the project members had
decided to use three machines which is one manual and two automatic machines.

7.1.1 Base Design
The base unit of the machines was similar to that of the machines of 2008 Robocon
competition which was held in India. The base of the manual machine is constructed
using aluminium sheets, since the base has to handle the maximum amount of weight; a
25mm size of aluminium sheet can be used in construction of the base unit. The project
members had chosen to use aluminium because of several reasons stated below:
1) It is very strong
2) Is resistance to corrosion
3) It is affordable (locally)
4) It is bendy
5) Easy to cut, shape and drill
A comparison of the base unit from previous years robots was done and tabulated as
shown in the table below. This allows us to determine our base unit dimensions in
comparison with past years robots.

Table 7.1.0
Year 2010 2008 2007 2005 2004 2003 2002
Length (mm) 600 400 450 455 800 330 560
Width (mm) 500 400 400 400 500 330 560
Height (mm) 150 150 150 150 100 60 60
Average
Length
514mm
Average Width 441mm
Average Height 117mm














84


7.1.2 Mechanical Base Platform

Figure 7.1.1: Proposed mechanical base platform

The above shows the mechanical base of the manual robot. The size of the base is (600 X
500 X 150) mm. The reason for adapting to this style of base unit design is because of it
is easier to distribute the load evenly on both the wheels and also due to limitations of the
rules of this competition. With this type of base design, it can support the structure easily.
The height of the base unit is 1400mm.

7.1.3 Materials Used
The use of Aluminium has been common in many of the ROBOCON machines. This has
been due to the fact that Aluminium is durable, lighter than most of the other type of
metals, readily available, cheap and easy to drill and make structures out of. During the
design process of the machines aluminium angle-line has been extensively used.
Furthermore we recommend that Robotics and Automation Group (RAG) make use
aluminium that has been uniformly holed as shown in figure below. Other materials that
can be taken into consideration are the use of aluminium tubing. This can either
compliment or fully replace the use of aluminium angle line.


85



Figure: 7.1.2
This allows the machine to be lighter in weight. Since because meeting the weight
restrictions has been one of the major problems faced by the ROBOCON group. This will
allow the machines to not exceed the limit set out by the organisers and also allow better
performance.

7.1.4 Wheels
As earlier mentioned in this chapter, the wheel for the base unit can be designed and
fabricated in house. The wooden wheel portrays many advantages in robotic application
as it is useful to cover the circumference with a rubber coating. This rubber reduces the
friction in the wheels and therefore eases the circular motion activity of the robot. The
wooden wheels are more useful to use in place of the rubber or plastic wheels because the
wooden wheels and cater the weight of the whole robot while the rubber and plastic
wheels might not be able to handle the total weight of the machine and also there is a
possibility that it might wear-out at some point in time.
Wheels which have been used in previous years Robocon competitions have had some
problems with the instability of the weight of the machine and friction.

Uniform
Holes


86



Figure 7.1.3: Tricycle wheel Figure 7.1.4 :(ABURobocon2009,HongKongrobot)







Figure a

Figure 7.1.5 a),b):Proposed wooden wheel

The calculation for diameter and circumference of the proposed wheel is shown in the
Chapter 2. This type of wooden wheel is appropriate for robot since the floor that the
robot will be operating on will be very flat with almost no dents on the floor surface.
Moreover the woods lathed in the machine are very accurately made and would remain in
shape longer whereas the plastic wheels might dent as unpleasant shapes has been
experienced from previous years robots. Also the wheel is much easily fixed to the axle
since designing our own wheels allowed us to have a wheel which was much suitable for
the robot.

7.1.5 Arm Construction
The construction of the manual and automatic robotic arms was done in view of the
Robocon 2011 rule and game plan of this competition. The structure can be purely built
using aluminium material because it works well and does the same job when using steel
or any other material to construct the structure. It dimensions of the extension of robotic
arm has been carefully planned as the main aim is to complete each task in the
competition successfully.

Figure b


87



Figure 7.1.6: Robot arm design

Figure 7.4 shows the proposed arm design for Robocon 2011 competition. The design on
its own looks like a folding or integrated machine. Since arm is designed to move
up/down and back/forth. The smaller arm in the front is made up of 15mm aluminium
sheets and because it has to carry a total weight of about 250g according to the rules of
the Robocon contest rules. The smaller arms on the left hand side is design to pick up the
Joss Stick pots from the storage points and place them on the poles situated in the
common zone. The total extension of the manual arm is 650mm from the edge of the
base. This means that the robot does not require going closer to the poles to pick and drop
the Joss Stick pots. This will also allow the arms to function properly and independently
and will cause no harm to other arms located beside it. The arms are sitting on the rubber
rollers to move up and downward directions. The rubber rollers are equally spaced to
reduce friction in the arms.

7.1.6 Rubber Rollers
The operation of the manual robot is in the XYZ plane directions so that means that the
arms have to move forward and backward as well as up and down. To do this task, the
manual arm is designed with the built-in rollers to reduce the friction and also help in
sliding along the XYZ directions. By mounting the rubber rollers in the side and bottom
of the arm reduces the friction and allows the arms to slide in and out smoothly. The
roller tracks can be provided with the grease to further fine the operation of the arms. The
rollers are also designed to reduce the friction in the cable. The rollers itself is designed
with rubber coating or layer on the outer side of the roller and can freely rotate at 360.


88



Figure 7.5: Figure 7.1.7 Roller arm design Figure 7.1.8: Actual view of arm roller

Figure 7.5 shows the design for rubber rollers and its mounting on the robots arm. The
rubbers rollers are there it reduce the friction.


Figure 7.1.9: Rubber roller

Figure 7.7 shows the rubber castor with soft thread. This type of roller can be easily
mounted on the sides and bottom of the arms. It requires M22 size of bolt and machine
screws can also be used to mount it on the surface. Moreover, this type of rubber rollers
can handle maximum weight of up to 70kg. This will be an advantage to use and it can
perform the task up to standard. This type of rubber roller cab is purchased from RS
components in Australia.

7.1.7 Displacement Calculation for Manual Robot
The linear distance travelled by the manual robot was calculated using the game field
specification of Robocon 2011 rules. The trajectory followed by manual machine was
found using the concept shown below.

(Equation 2.1)






89


Where:
F - Applied force
m - Mass of the object
a - gravitational constant (9.81m/s)
Hence, objects which are picked by the manual machine are:
1) Joss Stick pots (250g)
2) Candle Base (800g)
3) Joss Stick (100g)
Therefore, a sample calculation of the force applied at the arms of the machine when
picking the Joss Stick pots is shown below.
N F
F
ma F
45 . 2
) 81 . 9 ( 25 . 0
=
=
=

Table 7.1.1
Mass (Kg) Gravitational Constant
(m/s)
Applied Force (N)
0.25 9.81 2.45
0.8 9.81 7.85
0.1 9.81 0.98

The linear distance travelled by the manual robot at each allocated task of operating point
was again calculated using the game field specification of Robocon 2011 rules. The
distance covered by the manual robot and the spring constant K was tabulated as shown
below.

kx F =

(Equation 2.1)
Where:
F Applied force (Newton)
-K spring constant (elasticity)
X is the displacement at the end operating point.
A sample calculation of the spring constant is shown below:
m N K
K
kx F
/ 13 . 0
7 . 21 ) ( 45 . 2
=
=
=

Table 7.1.2
Desired Tasks Mass (Kg) Applied Force
(N)
Distance (m) Spring
Constant (N/m)
Joss Stick Pots 0.25 2.45 21.7 0.13
Candle Base 0.8 7.85 2.0 3.93
Joss Stick 0.1 0.98 4.3 0.23


90



Table 7.2 shows the distance travelled by the manual machine, amount of weight it will
carry and the spring constant when doing the desired tasks. The time taken for the manual
machine to finish all of its tasks is calculated using the concept shown below. For manual
machine, the motor which can be used to control the speed of the wheels is the SPG
motor, which has high torque capacity of 5.3 N/m and an input voltage of 12 -24V. The
speed of the motor is 1200rpm; hence, it can drive the wheels under load condition.
Assuming the speed of the motor is 40rpm, the rpm value can be converted to m/s
including the circumference of the wheel stated in Figure 2.3.
Speed = wheel circumference x motor rpm / 60 seconds
= 0.42m x 40 / 60 sec
= 0.28 m/s
There will be some delay when the manual robot is performing a particular task for
example when aligning the position of the Joss Stick pots and gripping of the Joss
Stick from the common zone. A delay time of 10 seconds has been added to the total
duration of the manual robot.
Time = total distance travelled by the robot / speed
= 21.7/0.2
= 77.5s
Therefore, the total duration of the manual robot without any technical problems to
perform the desire tasks at the Robocon 2011 competition is
Total time covered by manual robot = 77.5 + 10 = 87.5s or 1minute and 27.5 seconds

7.2 Stress Analysis Calculation for Manual Robot

Figure 7.8 Stress Analysis

The calculation shown below is under load conditions when the manual robot picks up
the Joss Stick pots.
MB = 0 = -2.46 (0.75) + Ax (1.05)
0.75m
A
B
Fmax = 2.46N
1.05m


91


Ax = 1.76N
MA = 0 = -2.46 (0.75) - Bx (1.05)
Bx = -1.76N
Forces in the X direction is = 0
Therefore, -Ax + Bx = 0
Ay = by cancels out each other, therefore, forces in the y direction is = 0
By = -2.46N = 0
By = 2.46N

The calculation shown below is under load conditions when the manual robot picks up
the candle base. The weight of the candle base is 800g and applied force is 7.85N
Hence,
MB = 0 = -2.46 (0.8) + Ax (1.05)
Ax = 1.89N
MA = 0 = -2.46 (0.8) - Bx (1.05)
Bx = -1.89N

7.2.1 Weight Calculation for Manual Robot
The weight of the manual machine can be calculated using the formula shown below.
Considering the limitation value of the weight of all the three robots, it was deemed that
the weight of the machine be analysed and calculated such that all the three machines
does not exceed the set value for the Robocon 2011 competition.
volume mass Density / =

(Equation 2.2)
Therefore mass = Density x volume
The total density of the manual machine was totalled and found to be 9309.6m
3.
; the
density of the aluminium is 2.7g/cm.
Hence the weight of the machine is:
Mass = 2.7 x 9309.6 = 25135.92g /cm = 25.14Kg
This is the total weight of the manual machine which the whole aluminium structured
arm, base and tower.
















92


7.2.2 Mechanical Design for Automatics Machines.

Figure:
Key: Auto 1 (task 1), (task 2) (task 3) Auto 2
The above figure shows the path taken by Auto 1 and Auto 2 in order to complete their
assigned tasks.
7.2.3 Distance travelled by the Auto 1
Task1 = 28 Meters
Task 2 = 12.5 Meters
Task 3 = 23 Meters
Total = 63.5 Meters
Distance travelled by the Auto 2 is equal to
Task 1 = 9.5 Meters

7.2.4 The tasks to be performed Automatic One.
:


93


- Pick up the krathong petal and flower and place it at the preparation area.
- decorate the petal and flower on the candle base.
- pick up the candle light flame and drop it on the decorated krathong at the river
surface
- Illustrations of Auto 1s Task.








































Figure 7.8.1 Krathong Petal
Side
view
Top
view
Figure 7.8.3 Candle Light
Flame
B: top view
A: side view

Figure 7.8.2 Krathong Petal
Side
view


94



Table 7.2: summary of Auto 1s task objects
Object Base Diameter Height of
Placement on
Pole
Weight(approx) Applied
Force (N)
Krathong Petal 400mm 800mm 250g 2.45
Flower 280mm 800mm 250g 2.45
Candle light
flame
76mm 800mm 200g 1.962

NB: when robot is picking up an object it has to clear/lift the objects a distance of 110mm
and 45mm (+10mm allowance) to clear the objects (petal&flower, candle light flame
respectively) from the storage poles.
By using the table above, the size of the gripper can be estimated. The gripper should
have a maximum opening of 450mm (+50mm allowance). Therefore it would be easier
for the machine to grasp the object. The extension of the arm to grab the flower and petal
are




















7.2.4 Weight Calculation for Automatic 1 Robot
Considering the limitation value of the weight of all the three robots, it was deemed that
the weight of the machine be analysed and calculated such that all the three machines
does not exceed the set value for the Robocon 2011 competition.
volume mass Density / =

(Equation 2.2)
Therefore mass = Density x volume
The total density of the manual machine was totalled and found to be 6550.5m
3.
; The
density of the aluminium is 2.7g/cm.
Figure 7.8.4: Automatic 1 physical diagram


95


Hence the weight of the machine is:
Mass = 2.7 x 6050.5 = 25135.92g /cm = 17.68Kg

7.2.5 Time Taken by Automatic 1
For Auto1 machine, the motor which can be used to control the speed of the wheels is the
RS motor, which has high torque capacity of 2.5 N/m and an input voltage of 12 -24V.
The speed of the motor is 2200rpm; hence, it can drive the wheels under load condition.
Assuming the speed of the motor is 65rpm, the rpm value can be converted to m/s
including the circumference of the wheel stated in Figure 2.3.
Speed = wheel circumference x motor rpm / 60 seconds
= 0.42m x 70 / 60 sec
= 0.49 m/s
There will be some delay when the robot is performing a particular task. A delay time of
10 seconds has been added to the total duration. This can be due to the fact that the
machines have to wait for the other two machines to perform their respective tasks.
Time = total distance travelled by the robot / speed
= 63.5/0.49
= 129.59s
Therefore, the total duration of the Automatic 1 robot without any technical problems to
perform the desire tasks at the Robocon 2011 competition is
Total time covered = 129.59 + 10 = 139.59s or 2minutes and 10 seconds
7.3 Automatic Two.

Pick the assembled krathong and place it on
the river surface.






Table 7.3 showing Auto 2s task objects size and weight
Object Base
Diameter
Weight(approx) Applied
Force
(N)
Krathong
Petal
400mm 0.25kg 2.45
Flower 280mm 0.25kg 2.45
Candle
Base
500mm 0.8kg 7.858






Figure 7.8.5 assembled krathong


96


Therefore the total weight of the assembled krathong (minus the candle light flame) is
1.7kg.

Figure 7.8.6: Automatic arm
7.3.1 Time Taken by Automatic 2
For Auto 2 machine, the motor which can be used to control the speed of the wheels is
the RS motor, which has medium to low torque capacity of about 2-2.5 N/m and an input
voltage of 12 -24V. The speed of the motor is 2200rpm; hence, it can drive the wheels
under load condition. Assuming the speed of the motor is 100rpm, this value is possible
since the machine is small and does not weigh much.
Speed = wheel circumference x motor rpm / 60 seconds
= 0.42m x 100 / 60 sec
= 0.7 m/s
There will be some delay when the robot is performing a particular task. A delay time of
5 seconds has been added to the total duration. This can be due to delays faced by the
machine in picking up the object.
Time = total distance travelled by the robot / speed
= 9.5/0.7
= 13.57s
Therefore, the total duration of the Automatic 2 robot without any technical problems to
perform the desire tasks at the Robocon 2011 competition is
Total time covered = 13.57 + 5 = 18.57 seconds.




97




7.3.2Moment Calculation
The calculation shown below is when Auto 2 picks up the Karthong without candle light
flame.
MB = 0 = -16.67(0.5) + Ax (1.0)
Ax = 8.335N
MA = 0 = -16.67(0.5) - Bx (1.0)
Bx = -8.335N
Forces in the X direction is = 0
Therefore, -Ax + Bx = 0
Ay = by cancels out each other, therefore, forces in the y direction is = 0
By = -16.67N = 0
By = 16.67N
The calculation shown below is under load conditions when the manual robot picks up
the candle base. The weight of the candle base is 800g and applied force is 7.85N
Hence,
MB = 0 = -16.67 (0.8) + Ax (1.0)
Ax = 13.36N
MA = 0 = -16.67 (0.8) - Bx (1.0)
Bx = -13.36N

7.3.3 Weight Calculation for Automatic 2 Robot
The weight of the manual machine can be calculated using the formula shown below.
Considering the limitation value of the weight of all the three robots, it was deemed that
the weight of the machine be analysed and calculated such that all the three machines
does not exceed the set value for the Robocon 2011 competition.
volume mass Density / =

(Equation 2.2)
Fmax =
16.67N
0.5m
A
B
1.0m
Figure 7.8.7: Auto side view


98


Therefore mass = Density x volume
The total density of the manual machine was totalled and found to be 4859.7m
3.
; The
density of the aluminium is 2.7g/cm.
Hence the weight of the machine is:
Mass = 2.7 x 4859.7 = 25135.92g /cm = 13.12Kg
7.4 Total Weight of All three Machines:
Manual + Auto 1 + Auto 2 = Total weight
24.14 + 17.68 + 13.12 = 54.94Kg
The above calculation shows that the weight of the machine exceeds by almost 5kg. And
this is with no electronics on board. Therefore, we can use alternative material or modify
the designs such that the weight can be reduced.


7.5 Electronics for Automatic machines

7.5.1 Motor Controller
From the past year of Robocon competition, the open source motor controllers (OSMC)
have been used to drive the motor which then drives the automatic vehicles. OSMC is an
high power H-bridge circuit which is designed to control permanent Dc motors.
Moreover, it was designed expressly for robot competitions. There are several types of
motor controller available on the internet but because of the OSMC performances used in
the past robot, it is recommended that it could be used again for Robocon 2011. The
reason for choosing OSMC is because it is capable of driving and at the same time can
control the speed of the motor also OSMC is cable of withstanding high currents and
voltage.


99




Figure 7.8.8: Open source motor controller
Source: http://www.robotpower.com/images/osmc-wfan-sm.jpg
The OSMC has larger current handling capability. It can also drive wide variety of motor,
since a cordless drill motor is used in the manual machine, the OSMC can drive the
motors without having any problems.
This type of motor controller is suited for robotic application hence it can be used in the
manual machine to drive the cordless frill DC motors.
7.5.2 Features of OSMC
Key Features OSMC
Supply voltage
13V to 50V (36V max battery
rating)
output Current (continuous) 160A
Output Current (surge) >400A
Weight 0.6 lb


100























Advantages of using OSMC:
- It can be easily mounted on a flat surface
- It can be interfaced with PIC microcontrollers
- the OSMC can be repaired and further modified
- it is reliable to use

7.5.3 Sensors
Light Dependant Resistor Sensors(LDRs)
Last year this particular technology has been used to navigate the Robocon machines in
their respective tasks. Therefore, for the Automatic machine we recommend to use this
technology again. This is a very simple but effective way of path-finding. The concept
makes use of basic electronics such as LEDs, LDRs, and an operational-amplifier (op-
amp) IC-LM324. In the field of robotics the use of Line tracing is very important as it
gives to the robot an easy way to navigate itself. Sensors provide a sense of perception
during navigation. Before the use of LDRs, our ROBOCON team was using Lynx Single
line detection sensor.
The basic principle for the LDR is that depending on the varying light it receives
accordingly resistance also varies. When light falls on the LDR the resistance value
decreases, this is called negative co-efficient.
Whereas when the LDR is operating in opposite way that is when resistance becomes
high in the presence of light (positive co-efficient).
MOSFETs
16 ea. IRFB3207 (or IRF1405
on older units)
On Resistance 0.0026 ohm max at 25C
Cooling 40 CFM fan
Bridge Driver Intersil HIP4081A
Logic Interface 10-pin dual-row header
RC Interface External via logic interface
Power Supply 12V .5A regulator
Current Limiting Optional Add-on
Connectors
Solder pads for up to 10 ga
wire or #8 bolts


101


The LDR in use for this project is a negative co-efficient LDR.





Figure 1 shows the property of the LDR, which
shows that resistance and Light Intensity are
inversely proportional. As Light Intensity
increased resistance decreased.












Table 7.5.1: Specification
for the LDR line tracer sensor
Specification
Sensor Type LDR(Light Dependant Resistor
LED Super-bright White (4mm)
I/O Required One digital line (input)
Minimum Range 5mm from floor
Maximum range 30mm from floor
Input Voltage 5vdc regulated
Current Requirements 18mA - 29mA
Overall Size 0.75" w x 1.5" l x 0.25 h
Weight 0.02 lbs




Figure 7.5.1

Figure 7.8.9 LDR Sensor Schematic
Figure 7.9.0 LDR Sensor


102


7.5.4 Force Sensors
Force sensors are used in the grippers of the automatic machine to detect the force and
grip it.


Figure 7.9.1 Force sensor diagram

This is a small force sensitive resistor. It has a 0.16" (4 mm) diameter active sensing area.
This FSR will vary its resistance depending on how much pressure is being applied to the
sensing area. The harder the force, the lower the resistance. When no pressure is being
applied to the FSR, its resistance will be larger than 1M, with full pressure applied the
resistance will be 2.5k.
Two pins extend from the bottom of the sensor with 0.1" pitch making it bread board
friendly.

These sensors are simple to set up and great for sensing pressure, but they aren't
incredibly accurate. Use them to sense if it's being squeezed, but you may not want to use
it as a scale
This sensor is available at http://www.sparkfun.com
Price is USD $5.95
Stock number SEN 09673

7.5.5 MICROCONTROLLER
The robotic groups in the past years have used PIC18f6722 for their microcontroller.
However for next year contest we recommend to use PIC18f4550 since the chip 18f4550
is replaceable. For the PIC18f6722 if the PIC goes bad we have to replace the whole
board since the chip is not replaceable. However for PIC18f4550 the chip is replaceable.
7.5.5.1 PIC18f6722
The Robocon projects from past two years have begun to use the PIC 18F6722 instead of
the PIC 16F877 of the following reasons :
High-Performance RISC CPU
64 pins altogether
7 ports(A,B,C,D,E,F,G) with 52 I/O pins
5 Capture/Compare/PWM (CCP) modules
Operates at DC 40MHz
17 Interrupt sources
Large amounts of RAM memory for buffering and FLASH program memory

The Table 7.5.2 summarises the other important features of PIC 18F6722.
Parameter Name Value
Program Memory Type Flash


103


Program Memory (KB) 128
CPU Speed (MIPS) 10
RAM Bytes 3,936
Data EEPROM (bytes) 1024
Digital Communication Peripherals 2-A/E/USART, 2-MSSP(SPI/I2C)
Capture/Compare/PWM Peripherals 2 CCP, 3 ECCP
Timers 2 x 8-bit, 3 x 16-bit
ADC 12 ch, 10-bit
Comparators 2
Temperature Range (C) -40 to 125
Operating Voltage Range (V) 2 to 5.5
Pin Count 64



Figure 7.9.2 PIC18f6722 Prototype board

7.5.5.2 PIC18F4550 USB DEVELOPMENT BOARD
Features of PIC18f4550 development board
Includes Microchip PIC18F4550 Microcontroller
All necessary power supply components are pre-installed and board is ready-to-run
Direct In-Circuit Program Download with the PIC Programmer or Microchip ICD2
4 Pushbuttons with Speaker On-Board
4 Variable Trimpots for Adjustable Analogue Inputs
4 Red Test LED's
Large Breadboard
USB and RS232 Connection
Selectable PROG-RUN Switch
Power and Programming LED
In-Circuit Debugging with Microchip ICD2 Unit
Ideal Training and Development Board for the PIC18F4550 Microcontroller


104



Figure 7.9.3 PIC18F4550 microcontroller
FEATURES OF PIC18F4550





105



This chip is available at http://www.futurlec.com
Price: of the PIC18f4550 development board USD $40.00
Price of PIC18f4550 chip USD $6.90
Total price is USD $46.90
7.5.5.3 VOLTS DC MOTOR
IN PREVIOUS Years the robotic groups have used cordless drill motor for their
differential drive system. However for next years robocon completion we recommend to
use Crouzet 82862 001 12 volts DC motor since it is very suitable for this application.
Features of the Motor
- Output Speed 441rpm
- Output Torque 50nm
- Power rating 3.9W
- Voltage 12V


Figure 7.9.4 Crouzet 82862 001 12 volts DC motor
Since the tasks of the automatic machines are as such we recommend using a high torque
motor.
This motor is available at http://australia.rs-online.com
RS Stock No. 178-4585
The price of each motor is Australian $155.00
7.5.5.4 Motors for the Grippers


106


After completing our possible designs for the next years competition we recommend to
use Hi-Tec servo motors for the grippers. Also these motors will be used in the automatic
machine to rotate the tower.
7.5.5.5 SERVO MOTOR
The servo motor is actually an assembly of four things: a normal DC motor, a gear
reduction unit, a position-sensing device (usually a potentiometera volume control
knob), and a control circuit.
The function of the servo is to receive a control signal that represents a desired output
position of the servo shaft, and apply power to its DC motor until its shaft turns to that
position. It uses the position-sensing device to determine the rotational position of the
shaft, so it knows which way the motor must turn to move the shaft to the commanded
position. The shaft typically does not rotate freely round and round like a DC motor, but
rather can only turn 200 degrees or so back and forth


Figure 7.9.5 SERVO MOTOR

This servo can operate 180 when given a pulse signal ranging from 600usec to
2400usec. Since most R/C controllers cannot generate this wide of signal range

This motor is available at http://www.servocity.com













107



Price is USD $8.99
Stock number: 31311S
7.5.5.6 Battery
Batteries are one of the most common parts of the machine. They are the fuel for the
machine to run. In the previous years batteries put weight to the machine. Hence we
recommend using a lighter battery which reduces the weight of the machine.













7.5.5.7 V 2300 mAH NiMH Rechargeable Battery Pack
During my research we found out that NiMH Rechargeable Battery Pack would be
suitable for application since its lighter in weight.
7.5.5.8 Features and Benefits
- 9.6V 2300mAh NIMH rechargeable battery pack
- Made of 8 x AA high capacity NiMH cells with 6" wire 14 Gu. .
- NiMH technology enables convenient charging at any time. No cell memory
effect. No need to fully discharge before recharging.
- Standard discharging rate at 1.8A and Max. discharging rate at 3.5A.
- Perfect for robots.
7.5.5.9 Technical Specifications
- Standard Dimension: 2.25"(58mm)L x 1.91"(49mm)W x 1.12"(29mm) H
- Weight: 7.8 Oz
- Capacity: 2300 mAh
- Voltage: 9.6V
- Standard Charge: 2 hours @ 0.9A with our Smart Universal Battery Pack Charger
The only disadvantage of using this battery is that the motor will not run at 100
percent duty cycle, rather it will lower close to 80 percent. However, it could be
used since from my literature review I have found out that the teams at the
competition this year have used similar batteries in their machines.
Figure 7.9.6 Battery



108


This battery is available at http://www.all-battery.com
Price is USD $15.99






































109


Discussion
In this project, students are able to do a close loop speed control of the motor using PID
(Proportional Integral Derivative) control. There are two types of method used in
calculating the transfer function of the motor and the first method is deriving the transfer
function of the motor with the given speed and time obtained from the motor. In the
second method, students use a datasheet to calculate the transfer function of the motor.
Moreover, students select two duty cycles such as 35% and 50% to calculate the transfer
function of the motor. In 35% duty cycle, the transfer function of the motor comes to be
) 370 . 5 )( 383 . 5 (
907 . 28 889 . 26 4
2
+ +
+ +
s s s
s s

And for 50 % duty cycle the transfer function of the motor comes to be
) 212 . 12 (
) 212 . 12 ( 3
+
+ +
s s
s s

However, by using the data sheet of the motor the transfer function of the motor comes to
be
334 . 0 10 91 . 15 10 89 . 2
5 . 0
3 2 6
+ +

s s

In contrast the selected transfer function of the motor is selected at 50% duty cycle since
the transfer function obtained has equal number of poles and equal number of zeros.
From the transfer function obtained from a 50% duty cycle, students then use MATLAB
(Matrix Laboratory) to obtain the proportional gain of 8.5 and the integral gain of 75 for a
PI controller.


















110


Conclusion and Recommendations

After doing this project, it has enabled us broaden our knowledge about robot designing
and has been a great means of gaining experience. It has also allowed a good experience
in this field of work. We have gained a lot of experience in designing PCBs and soldering
the various components to the PCB after checking the continuity of the circuit. We have
soldered the components to the PCB as well as de-soldered the old components from the
previous years robots and projects. And also drilled and filed the PCBs to shape. The
boot loader interfacing board, the sensor PCB was also a new learning curve. We have
also worked on the programming of the robots and testing the robots abilities using PID
control by shaft encoders and motor controllers. We have also learnt a lot about the motor
controller boards and how to program it in order to control the motors by setting the
appropriate duties. The tachometer was used to measure the wheel rotation and chose the
duties for both wheels. After both wheels were rotating at the same speed the robot was
placed on the game field and tested on it. These robots were a two wheel drive robot and
had two castor wheels in the front to allow it to turn around. This course had been a very
interesting experience and a chance to learn a lot about robot designing. We have learnt a
lot from the previous years ROBOCON robots and would be using these skills in future.
We have been able to improve all our skills during this semester due to our commitment
to ROBOCON and the EE300 course. Our work in this course was a very good one to
practice and enhance our skills. What we have noticed during EE300 project is that
students doing hardware projects most of the time have their parts delayed. This causes
the students to fall behind in their work. If this area could be looked at it would further
improve this unit. This course has enabled us to broaden our knowledge about robot
designing and has been a great means of experience gaining. We have been able to
enhance our skills and knowledge in the many ways.












111



References

[1] R .Singh. A Distributed PIC Microcontroller Architecture for AGV Application.
MSc thesis, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, 2006.

[2] Department of Engineering University of the South Pacific, EN300 Project,
Vehicle platform for non-linear control, 2008

[3] Department of Engineering University of the South Pacific, EE300 Project
Designing, Development and Testing of a PIC Micro-controller based Differential
Drive Line Tracing Vehicle-2 with PID, 2009

[4] Microchip. PIC16F8X Datasheet: 28/40 pin 8-BIT CMOS FLASH
Microcontrollers. Technical Reference Document DS30292C, Microchip
Technology Inc., 2001.

[6] Praneel Chand, Chapter 5, Actuators, EE312, Department of Engineering
University of the South Pacific

[7] http://www.ikalogic.com/sensors.html

[8] From farnel, HEDS 5540 A06 product information
http://de.farnell.com/jsp/search/productdetail.jsp?sku=280940&N=0
(Accessed October, 08)

[9] http://octopart.com/info/Avago/HEDS-5540%23A06

[10] http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet2/c/0g7eikd8l6augl4oplt2ozda7dfy.pdf

[11] http://www.robotmarketplace.com/products/RP-OSMC.html

[12] Department of Engineering University of the South Pacific, EN300 Project, PIC
Based Generic DC Motor Speed and Position Controller, 2004.

[13] http://www.australia.rs-online.com

[14] http://www.servocity.com/servomotor.com.html




112


Appendix
//This is a master program code
#include <16f877.h>
#device *=16
#use delay (clock=4000000)
#fuses XT,noWDT
#use rs232(baud=9600,parity=N,xmit=PIN_c6,rcv=PIN_c7)
#opt 9
#org 0x1f00,0x1fff void loader16f877(void){}
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>
#USE STANDARD_IO(a)
#USE STANDARD_IO(e)

#define latch pin_D5 //LATCH
#define clock pin_D6 //CLOCK
#define data pin_D7 //DATA

void xmit();//function declaration
*************************************************
float duty2 = 50,duty1=50;//seconds per revolution

//**********************************function declaration**********
int dir1,cons,i;
unsigned int32 array[23];
unsigned int32 pac,packet;
signed int32 A2=0,dir2=0;
//**********************************************************************
*************
void main(void)
{
set_tris_e(0xff);// this is used for tristate buffers
set_tris_a(0x1f);
set_tris_c(0x00);
xmit();
}
//**********************************************************************
******
void xmit()
{
Cons = 0;
pac = 0;
packet = 0;

printf("\n\rduty2:%ld",duty2); // this displays the duty cycle that has to send



113


pac = (dir1*2)+(dir2*4)+(duty1*256)+(duty2*65536);// max value of the packet
8257536;
printf("\n\rpacket for dc = %lu",pac);
printf("\n\r");
delay_ms(10);
output_high(latch); //enable latch
delay_ms(10);
output_high(clock); //clock signal high
//converting the packet into binary format for sending over the
//data line
for( i=0; i<23; i++)
{
array[i]= pac % 2;
output_high(clock);
printf("%lu",array[i]);
delay_ms(10);
if (array[i]==1) //if the bit is 1 then the data line is high
{
output_high(data); // send data bit 1
delay_ms(10);
}
else if (array[i]==0) //if the bit is 0 then the data line is low
{
output_low(data); // send data bit 0
delay_ms(10);
}
output_low(clock); //clock signal low
pac = pac/2;
}
output_low(latch); //disable latch

}
//Slave 1 codes

#include <16f877.h>
#device *=16
#use delay (clock=4000000)
#fuses XT,noWDT
#use rs232(baud=9600,parity=N,xmit=PIN_c6,rcv=PIN_c7)
#opt 9
#org 0x1f00,0x1fff void loader16f877(void){}

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>

#define latch pin_e2 //LATCH


114


#define clock pin_e1 //CLOCK
#define data pin_e0 //DATA
//*****************************************Global Declaration of the
variables****************************************************************
****
unsigned int32 dir1, dir2;
float duty2,duty1,freq,spr;
unsigned int32 period, pwm_value;
unsigned int16 req_rpm = 0, mesr_rpm = 0;
signed int16 error=0;
double i_term,p_term,i_state,d_term;
unsigned int16 d_state=0;
unsigned int8 obit7,optodetect=0,counter=0;
unsigned int32 j=0,i=0,g,array[22];
unsigned int32 packet,mult2po;
float correction=0.0;
//**********************************function
declaration***************************************************************
*
void mydelay(); // mydelay function for delays in decimal values
void xmit();
void recieve();
void update_pid();
void stabilise();
//**********************************************************************
***************************************************************
#INT_TIMER1//These directives specify the following function is an interrupt function.
Interrupt functions may not have any parameters.
//Not all directives may be used with all parts.
// See the devices .h file for all valid interrupts for the part or in PCW use the pull
down VIEW | Valid Ints
void timer_overflow_counter()//when the timer is overflow the counter will increase by 1

{
counter++;
}

//**********************************************************************
***************************************************************
#INT_RB //it detects all the interrupts in ports_b

void check_rpm()//the function is used to detect the rpm of the motor

{
int value,nbit7;
obit7 = nbit7;


115


value = input_b(); //read optodetect inputs
nbit7 = value & 0x80; //B7 mask unwanted bits
//*******************************this is used to stabilise the left
motor*********************

If(nbit7 != obit7)

{
optodetect++;

// printf("Optodetect %d",optodetect);

}
if(optodetect==32) //number of interrupts for full rev(8 ups and 8 downs)
{

spr=((counter*0.065536)+(0.000001*get_timer1()));//seconds per rev=tallyed
time(2^16+current time)
//get_timer1 is used to get the time when needed from
timer 1

mesr_rpm = 60/spr;//spr=>rpm;use 60 for full rev and 30 for half
//we divide the counter by 1x10^6 Hz since to seconds per
revolution
set_timer1(0);
counter=0;
optodetect=0;
printf("\n\rDesired Rpm: %lu\n\n\r",req_rpm);

printf("\n\rCurrent Rpm: %lu\n\n\r",mesr_rpm);//is this needed?

error = req_rpm - mesr_rpm; // attain req_rpm from serial cornmswith epp.

update_pid();
//delay_ms(2);//why DELAY
}

}

//******************************************pid is updated now***********
void update_pid()
{
p_term = 8.5*error;

i_state += error;



116


if(i_state >100){

i_state = 100;
}
else if(i_state < -100){

i_state = -100;
}

i_term = 75*i_state;

d_term = (0* (error - d_state));

d_state = error;

correction = p_term + i_term + d_term;

if(correction > 100){

correction=100;
}
else if(correction < -100){
correction = -100;
}

stabiliSe();

}
//**********************************************************************
*************
void stabilise()
{
correction = correction/100;

duty2=duty2+correction;

if(duty2>=100)duty2=100;

else if(duty2<=0)duty2=0; //?20

printf("\n\rThe new duty cycle is: %3.2f", duty2);
}
//**********************************************************************
*************




117


void main(void)
{
freq=500,req_rpm =180;; //Frequency of PWM

setup_ccp2(CCP_PWM);//wire7 //port_c1 generates pwm
set_tris_e(0xff);// this is used for tristate buffers
set_tris_a(0x1f);
set_tris_c(0x00);

recieve(); //it suppose to go the function and wait for the latch to get high

setup_timer_1(T1_INTERNAL|T1_DIV_BY_1); //Initializes timer 1.
//The timer value may be read and written to using
SET_TIMER1() and GET_TIMER1()Timer 1 is a 16 bit timer.
//With an internal clock at 20mhz and with the T1_DIV_BY_8
mode, the timer will increment every 1.6us.
//It will overflow every 104.8576ms.

set_timer1(0);//Sets the count value of a real time clock/counter. RTCC and Timer0 are
the same.
//All timers count up. When a timer reaches the maximum value it will flip over
to 0 and continue counting (254, 255, 0, 1, 2...)





while(1)
{
enable_interrupts(INT_TIMER1);
enable_interrupts(INT_RB);
enable_interrupts(GLOBAL);//could we put 500 directly into the period formula

period = (float)(4000000/(freq*64))-1;//timer2 resets every 124 us

setup_timer_2(T2_DIV_BY_16,period,1); //set timer2 with t2 DIV set to 16

pwm_value=(float)(duty2*4000000)/(100*freq*16); //assign duty cycle and frequency
for PWM

set_pwm2_duty(pwm_value);

}
}
//**********************************************************************
*************


118


void recieve()
{
i=0;

printf("\n\rwaiting for Latch to enable\n\r");

while(!input(latch)); // if latch become high,
// then !(high) = 0, which means that
// the program jumps out of the while loop
// otherwise hang in and wait here until a high
printf("\n\rLatch enabled\n\r");
while(input(latch)) //latch is high
{
while(input(clock));//clock high
// now we read the data bit for this round
// only 1 bit to be read

while((!input(clock))&&(input(latch))) //clock low
{
array[i]=input(data); // store the value of the data pin
} // in the array at address i
printf("%u",array[i]);
i++; //incrementing i
}

printf("\n\rLatch disabled");

packet = 0;// initialise packet to 0 for
//purpose of clean reconstrcution

for( j=0;j<21;j++) //converting binary to decimal value
{
mult2po = array[j]<<j;
packet = packet + mult2po;

// printf("\n\rarray @ %u is %lu", j,array[j]);
// printf("\tpacket is %lu",packet);
// printf("\tmult2po is %lu",mult2po);
}

}







119


//Slave 2 code

#include <16f877.h>
#device *=16
#use delay (clock=4000000)
#fuses XT,noWDT
#use rs232(baud=9600,parity=N,xmit=PIN_c6,rcv=PIN_c7)
#opt 9
#org 0x1f00,0x1fff void loader16f877(void){}

#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>

#define latch pin_e2 //LATCH
#define clock pin_e1 //CLOCK
#define data pin_e0 //DATA


//*****************************************Global Declaration of the
variables****************************************************************
****
unsigned int32 dir1, dir2;
float duty2,duty1,freq,spr;
unsigned int32 period, pwm_value;
unsigned int16 req_rpm = 0, mesr_rpm = 0;
signed int16 error=0;
double i_term,p_term,i_state,d_term;
unsigned int16 d_state=0;
unsigned int8 obit6,optodetect=0,counter=0;
unsigned int32 j=0,i=0,g,array[22];
unsigned int32 packet,mult2po;
float correction=0.0;
//**********************************function
declaration***************************************************************
*
void mydelay(); // mydelay function for delays in decimal values
void xmit();
void recieve();
void update_pid();
void stablise();
//**********************************************************************
***************************************************************






120


#INT_TIMER1//These directives specify the following function is an interrupt function.
Interrupt functions may not have any parameters.
void timer_overflow_counter()//when the timer is overflow the counter will increase by 1

{

counter++;

}

//**********************************************************************
***************************************************************
#INT_RB //it detects all the interrupts in ports_b

void check_rpm()//the function is used to detect the rpm of the motor

{

int value,nbit6;

obit6 = nbit6;

value = input_b(); //read optodetect inputs

nbit6 = value & 0x40; //B7 mask unwanted bits
//*************************************************this is used to stabilise the
left motor******************************

if(nbit6 != obit6)

{
optodetect++;

// printf("Optodetect %d",optodetect);

}
if(optodetect==32) //number of interrupts for full rev(8 ups and 8 downs)
{

spr=((counter*0.065536)+(0.000001*get_timer1()));//seconds per rev=tallyed
time(2^16+current time)
//get_timer1 is used to get the time when needed from
timer 1

mesr_rpm = 60/spr;//spr=>rpm;use 60 for full rev and 30 for half


121


//we divide the counter by 1x10^6 Hz since to seconds per
revolution
set_timer1(0);

counter=0;

optodetect=0;

printf("\n\rDesired Rpm: %lu\n\n\r",req_rpm);

printf("\n\rCurrent Rpm: %lu\n\n\r",mesr_rpm);//is this needed?


error = req_rpm - mesr_rpm; // attain req_rpm from serial cornmswith epp.

update_pid();
//delay_ms(2);//why DELAY
}

}
//******************************************pid is updated
now**********************************************************
void update_pid()
{
p_term = 8.5*error;

i_state += error;

if(i_state >100){

i_state = 100;
}
else if(i_state < -100){

i_state = -100;
}

i_term = 75*i_state;

d_term = (0* (error - d_state));

d_state = error;

correction = p_term + i_term + d_term;

//intduty = correction;


122



if(correction > 100){

correction=100;
}
else if(correction < -100){
correction = -100;
}

stabliSe();

}
//**********************************************************************
**************************************************************
void stablise()
{
//printf("\n\rStabalising speed now...");//printf("\n\rError = %l",error);

correction = correction/100;

duty2=duty2+correction;

if(duty2>=100)duty2=100;

else if(duty2<=0)duty2=0; //?20

printf("\n\rThe new duty cycle is: %3.2f", duty2);
}
//**********************************************************************
**************************************************************

void main(void)
{

set_tris_e(0xff);// this is used for tristate buffers
set_tris_a(0x1f);
set_tris_c(0x00);

recieve(); //it suppose to go the function and wait for the latch to get high

freq=500; //Frequency of PWM

setup_ccp2(CCP_PWM);//wire7 //port_c1 generates pwm

req_rpm =180;



123


setup_timer_1(T1_INTERNAL|T1_DIV_BY_1); //Initializes timer 1.
//The timer value may be read and written to using
SET_TIMER1() and GET_TIMER1()Timer 1 is a 16 bit timer.
//With an internal clock at 20mhz and with the T1_DIV_BY_8
mode, the timer will increment every 1.6us.
//It will overflow every 104.8576ms.

set_timer1(0);//Sets the count value of a real time clock/counter. RTCC and Timer0 are
the same.
//All timers count up. When a timer reaches the maximum value it will flip over
to 0 and continue counting (254, 255, 0, 1, 2...)

while(1)

{

enable_interrupts(INT_TIMER1);
enable_interrupts(INT_RB);
enable_interrupts(GLOBAL);//could we put 500 directly into the period formula

period = (float)(4000000/(freq*64))-1;//timer2 resets every 124 us

setup_timer_2(T2_DIV_BY_16,period,1); //set timer2 with t2 DIV set to 16

pwm_value=(float)(duty2*4000000)/(100*freq*16); //assign duty cycle and frequency
for PWM

set_pwm2_duty(pwm_value);

}
}
//**********************************************************************
******************************************************************
void recieve()
{
i=0;

printf("\n\rwaiting for Latch to enable\n\r");

while(!input(latch)); // if latch become high,
// then !(high) = 0, which means that
// the program jumps out of the while loop
// otherwise hang in and wait here until a high
printf("\n\rLatch enabled\n\r");
while(input(latch)) //latch is high
{


124


while(input(clock));//clock high
// now we read the data bit for this round
// only 1 bit to be read

while((!input(clock))&&(input(latch))) //clock low
{
array[i]=input(data); // store the value of the data pin
} // in the array at address i
printf("%u",array[i]);
i++; //incrementing i
}

printf("\n\rLatch disabled");

packet = 0;// initialise packet to 0 for
//purpose of clean reconstrcution

for( j=0;j<21;j++) //converting binary to decimal value
{
mult2po = array[j]<<j;
packet = packet + mult2po;

// printf("\n\rarray @ %u is %lu", j,array[j]);
// printf("\tpacket is %lu",packet);
// printf("\tmult2po is %lu",mult2po);
}

}













125