A.

THEORY
1.Environmental Chemistry

• Definition: Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the biochemical and

chemical phenomena that occur in natural places. Environmental chemistry is a study
that is more than air, water, soil, and chemicals. This field uses various techniques of
biology, math’s, genetics, engineering, hydrology, toxicology, etc. that will help to fetch
an answer to all the questions related to the environment.

• Nature and Scope of Environmental Pollution:

1. It deals with protection of natural resources.
2. It deals with the use of renewable resources.
3. Managing waste materials and toxic substances.
4. Promoting safe chemicals and fertilizers.
5. It deals with chemical changes occurring in the environment by the impact of human
intervention.
6. It deals with the origin, transport, reactions, effects and fates of chemical species in
the environment.
7. It involves the understanding of undesirable changes in different components of
environment.
8. It is multidisciplinary area and called environmental. science

• Importance of Environmental Chemistry:

1. It helps in understanding the causes, effects, and solutions of different pollutions

like air, water, noise, and soil pollution.
2. The impact of different chemical compounds on the environment is easily
understood with the help of environmental chemistry.
3. It also helps in describing the effects of chemical pollutants on human health.
4. It became easier to understand the impact of global energy usage on climate
change.
5. Environmental chemistry also explains the causes of the problems like ozone holes
and their solutions.
6. It was environmental chemistry that made phenomena like greenhouse effects and
global warming easy to understand and deal with.

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 2. Environmental Pollution

• Definition: Environmental pollution is the discharge of material, in any physical state

that is dangerous to the environment or human health.

• Various Sources of Pollution:

Air Pollution:
1. The burning of fossil fuels.
2. Industrial Emission.
3. Wildfires.
4. Transportation.
5. Agricultural Activities.

Water Pollution:

1. Agricultural Activities
2. Marine Dumping
3. Oil Spill
4. Industrial Discharges
5. Animal Farming

Soil Pollution:

1. Industrial Activities
2. Agricultural Practices
3. Mining Activities
4. Landfills and Waste Dumps
5. Oil Spills

3. Properties of Soil and Water:

• Properties of Soil (Physical and Chemical):

Physical:

1. Texture
2. Structure
3. Porosity
4. Permeability
5. Color
6. Moisture Content

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 7. Temperature

Chemical:

1. pH
2. Cation Exchange Capacity
3. Nutrient Content
4. Organic Matter
5. Salinity
6. Exchangeable Bases
7. Soil Microbial Activity

• Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical):

Physical:

1. State of Matter
2. Density
3. Color and Transparency
4. Boiling and Freezing Points
5. Surface Tension
6. Heat Capacity
7. Solvent Properties
8. Vapor Pressure

Chemical:

1. Polarity
2. Hydrogen Bonding
3. Ionization
4. Chemical Reactivity
5. Buffering Capacity
6. Dissolved Oxygen

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 4. Short Note

DO (Dissolved Oxygen)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is vital for aquatic ecosystems, supporting the respiration of fish,
invertebrates, and other organisms. Adequate oxygen levels ensure the health of aquatic life,
while low levels can lead to hypoxia and harm ecosystems. Factors influencing DO include
water temperature (warmer water holds less oxygen), atmospheric pressure, and the presence
of pollutants. Monitoring and maintaining optimal DO levels are crucial for the well-being of
aquatic environments.

Salinity

Salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts in water, typically measured in parts per
thousand (ppt) or practical salinity units (PSU). It plays a significant role in the health of aquatic
environments, affecting the density and buoyancy of water. Organisms in marine ecosystems,
such as fish and marine plants, have adapted to specific salinity ranges. Fluctuations in salinity
can impact marine life, and factors like evaporation, precipitation, and freshwater input
influence it. Maintaining a stable salinity is essential for the overall balance of marine
ecosystems.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of water's ability to resist a decrease in ph. It primarily results from the
presence of carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ions. In natural waters, alkalinity acts as a
buffering system, helping to stabilize pH levels. This is crucial for aquatic ecosystems, as many
organisms have specific pH requirements. Alkalinity is influenced by geological processes, such
as the dissolution of carbonate minerals, and human activities like wastewater discharge.
Monitoring alkalinity is essential for understanding and maintaining the chemical balance of
water bodies.

pH

A pH scale is a tool for measuring acids and bases. The scale ranges from 0-14. Litmus paper is
an indicator used to tell if a substance is an acid or a base. The colour of the paper matches up
with the numbers on the pH scale to indicate what kind of substance is being tested. For
example, Vinegar is an acid and measures 2.4 on the pH scale. A healthy pH balance plays a
significant role in your overall well-being, and doctors and scientists usually agree on this. The
pH level, or possible level of hydrogen in your body, is determined by the food and type of drink
you consume. The pH is the concentration of the hydrogen ions. This calculation is based on a
pH scale.

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 TDS

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a measure of the concentration of dissolved substances in water,
encompassing both organic and inorganic compounds. It includes minerals, salts, metals, ions,
and other dissolved matter present in a liquid solution. TDS is typically expressed in parts per
million (ppm) or milligrams per litre (mg/L). The measurement provides valuable information
about water quality, as elevated TDS levels may indicate the presence of impurities or
contaminants. Common sources of TDS include natural processes like weathering of rocks, as
well as human activities such as industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and wastewater
discharge. While some dissolved solids are essential minerals for aquatic ecosystems,
excessively high TDS can lead to issues such as poor taste in drinking water, scaling in pipes, and
potential environmental harm.

TSS

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) refers to the concentration of solid particles present in water that
are large enough to be trapped by a filter. These particles may include organic matter, silt, clay,
plankton, and other substances that are not dissolved but rather suspended in the water
column. TSS is a key indicator of water quality, and its measurement provides insights into the
clarity and turbidity of water. High levels of TSS can negatively impact aquatic ecosystems by
reducing light penetration, affecting photosynthesis, and interfering with the feeding habits of
aquatic organisms.

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a crucial water quality parameter that measures the
amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms while decomposing organic matter
in water. It serves as an indicator of the level of organic pollution in a water body, particularly
from sources like untreated wastewater or agricultural runoff. High BOD levels suggest a
greater presence of organic substances that require oxygen for decomposition, potentially
leading to oxygen depletion in the water. This depletion can harm aquatic ecosystems, as it
limits the availability of oxygen necessary for the survival of fish and other aquatic organisms.
BOD is commonly used in environmental assessments to gauge the effectiveness of wastewater
treatment processes, identify pollution sources, and evaluate the overall health of water
bodies.

COD

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a critical parameter used to measure the amount of oxygen
required for the chemical oxidation of organic and inorganic substances in water. It serves as an
indicator of the overall pollution level in water, reflecting the quantity of pollutants that can be
chemically oxidized. High COD values suggest a greater presence of organic matter, potentially
originating from industrial discharges, sewage, or agricultural runoff. The COD test involves

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oxidizing the water sample with a strong chemical oxidant, and the amount of oxygen
consumed during this process is quantified. Monitoring COD is essential for assessing water
quality, especially in terms of its suitability for aquatic life and human consumption. Elevated
COD levels can lead to decreased dissolved oxygen, causing harm to aquatic ecosystems, and
posing a risk to human health. Effective wastewater treatment processes and pollution control
measures are essential for managing COD levels and safeguarding the health of water bodies.

5. Prepare a chart based on scale/range of soil/ DO/ salinity / Water

properties (chemical) / PH scale.

Property Scale/Range
Soil pH range of 3 to 10 1
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 0-14.6 mg/L
Salinity 0-70 ppt
Water Properties (Chemical) pH range of 0 to 14
pH Scale 0-14

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 B. Practical
a) Define Do. Discuss the chemical preparation procedure of DO measurement.
Determine the DO of the supplied water sample and make comments on it.

DO: Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water or
other liquids. It is an important parameter in assessing water quality because of its influence on
the organisms living within a body of water.

Experiment NO.1
Necessary Instruments:
1) BOD bottle 2) Burette 3) Burette stand 4) Pipette 5) Conical stand 6) Dropper 7) Beaker
Necessary chemicals:
1) manganese sulphate, MnSO4 2) potassium iodide, KI 3) sulfuric acid, H2SO4 4) sodium
thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 5) starch solution, 6) distilled water.
Chemical preparation:
1) MnSO4+ 100 ml distilled water
2) 6.5 g Na2S2O3 + 200 ml distilled water
3) 1 g Starch solution + 100 ml distilled water
Procedure:
1) At first, we have to take sample from the laboratory stored water sample like distilled
water.
2) Then we have to take blood bottle of 145 mL and have to fill it completely by different
water.
3) Then we have to mix 0.97 mL manganese sulphate in distilled water.
4) Then we have to mix 0.97 M potassium iodide with the solution, and we have to wait
about 10 minutes.
5) Then we have to mix 0.97 ML sulfuric acid with the solution.
6) Then we have to take 10 mL of solution (water + MnSO4+ KI+ H2SO4) in conical flux step
by step and have to run five experiments.
7) Then 2-3 drops at starts have to add in the solution.
8) Then we have to take some Na2S2O3in the burette.
9) After that a few drops of have to mixed in the start solution from the burette slowly.
10) and we have to shake the conical flux and if the colour change of the solution, the
experiment will be finished.
Thus, the experiment is completed and had to take bullet trading and came out the result as
mean and have to apply. Calculation method and get do.

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 Table
Reading for the test
Serial no Burette initial Reading final Difference Mean
01 4 4.5 0.5 0.34
02 4.5 4.8 0.3
03 4.8 5.1 0.3
04 5.1 5.5 0.4
05 5.5 5.7 0.2

Calculation:
Measurement formula
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑩
DO= N ×V ×5.6 × ×
𝒔 𝑩−𝒓
Here, N = Normality of Na 2S2 O3
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
We know, N = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Here, gram solute = 6.5 g Na2 S2 O3
Volume solvent = 200 ml water = 0.2 L
Equivalent weight = 248 g
6.5
N = 0.2 × = 0.13 L-1 = 1.3 × 10-4 mL-1
248
V= Avg. reading of each sample which is used in conical flask for filtration (145 ml)
R = (0.97 + 0.97) = 1.94 ml

100 145
DO = 1.3 × 10-4 × 0.34 × 5.6 × 10
× 145−1.94
= 1.3 × 10-4 × 0.34 × 5.6 × 10 × 1.0136
= 0.0025 mg/L

Result analysis: The quantity of DO of the collected sample water is 0.0025 mg/L. But we
know the optimum value for food quantity water has been 4-6 mg/L of DO which is able to
maintain aquatic life in a water body. Here the value of DO is not optimum value. so that
supplied water is not suitable for drinking and it is polluted.
Caution:
1. We should put on gloves in the lab.
2. We should take the actual measure from the burette.
3. We should be very careful when poured starch in conical flask.
4. Fort maintain extra portion when use H2SO4.
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 Experiment NO.2
Necessary Instruments:
1)BOD bottle 2) Burette 3) Burette stand 4) Pipette 5) Conical stand 6) Dropper 7) Beaker
Necessary chemicals:
1)manganese sulfate, MnSO4 2) potassium iodide, KI 3) sulfuric acid, H2SO4
4) sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3
5)starch solution, 6) distilled water.
Chemical Preparation:
1)MnSO4+ 100 ml distilled water
2)6.5 g Na2S2O3 + 200 ml distilled water
3) 1 g Starch solution + 100 ml distilled water
Procedure:
1)At first we have to take sample from the laboratory stored water samples like distilled water.
2)Then we have to take blood bottle of 145 mL and have to fill it completely by different water.
3)Then we have to mix 0.97 mL manganese sulfate in distilled water.
4)Then we have to mix 0.97 M potassium iodide with the solution and we have to wait about 10
minutes.
5)Then we have to mix 0.97 mL sulfuric acid with the solution.
6)Then we have to take 10 mL of solution (water + MnSO4+ KI+ H2SO4) in conical flux step by step
and have to run five experiments.
7)Then 2-3 drops at starts have to add in the solution.
8)Then we have to take some Na2S2O3 in the burrette.
9)After that a few drop of have to mixed in the start solution from the burrette slowly .
10)and we have to shake the conical flux and if the color change of the solution, the experiment
will be finished.
Thus the experiment is completed and had to take bullet trading and came out the result as
mean and have to apply. Calculation method and get do.
Table
Reading for DO test
Serial no Burette initial Reading final difference Mean
01 0 0.4 0.4
02 0.4 0.9 0.5
03 0.9 1.2 0.3 0.4
04 1.2 1.5 0.3
05 1.5 1.9 0.4

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Calculation:
Measurement formula
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑩
DO= N ×V ×5.6 × ×
𝒔 𝑩−𝒓

Here, N = Normality of Na 2S2 O3

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
We know, N = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 × 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Here, gram solute = 6.5 g Na2 S2 O3

Volume solvent = 200 ml water = 0.2 L
Equivalent weight = 248 g
6.5
N = 0.2 × = 0.13 L-1 = 1.3 × 10-4 mL-1
248

V= Avg. reading of each sample which is used in a conical flask for filtration (145 ml)
R = ( 0.97 + 0.97) = 1.94 ml
100 145
DO = 1.3 × 10-4 × 0.4 × 5.6 × × 145−1.94
10

= 1.3 × 10-4 × 0.4 × 5.6 × 10 × 1.0136

= 0.00295 mg/L

Result analysis: The quantity of DO of the collected sample water is 0.00295 mg/L. But we
know the optimum value for food quantity water has been 4-6 mg/L of DO which is able to
maintain aquatic life in a water body. Here the value of DO is not the optimum value. so that
supplied water is not suitable for drinking and it is polluted.

Caution:
1. We should put on gloves in the lab.
2. We should take the actual measure from the burette.
3. We should be very careful when poured starch in conical flask.
4. Fort maintain extra portion when use H 2SO4.

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b) Determination of the Salinity of the supplied water sample and make
comments on it.
Definition of salinity: The word salinity means saltiness or dissolved salt. Salinity refers to
the concentration of salt in water or soils. The standard expression of salinity is parts per
thousand.

Experiment No. 1

Required instrument: 1) Conical flasks, 2) beaker, 3) burette stand, 4) pipette 5) funnel 6)

dropper.
Required Chemical:
1. Silver nitrate, (AgNO3)
2. potassium dichromate, (K2 Cr2 O7)
3. distilled water.
Chemical preparation:
➢ AgNO3 Solutions: 24.5 mg AgNO3 + 500 ml distilled water
➢ K2 Cr2 O7 Solutions: 1.75 g K2 Cr2 O7 +500 ml distilled water
Procedure:
1. We should take 10 mL, and supply it AgNO3 in a conical flux.
2. Then 15 mL K2CR2O7 Have to mix with the solution.
3. Then the remain AgNO3 in the burette have to be mixed with the solution slowly and it
will take a brick red color.
4. After that we have to take the reading from Burette and make calculation and there we
get the salinity of water through titration process.

Table
Reading for Salinity test
Sample no Burette initial Reading final Difference Mean
01 3.8 11.2 7.4
02 11.2 17.2 6 3
03 17.2 20 2.8

Calculation: Here, mean is 3.

Salinity = 0.003+ 1.805 × mean
= 0.003+ 1.805 × 3
=5.418
Limitations:
1) We have to wait for colour change of about 10 minutes.
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 2) Mixing activity should be done carefully.
3) We should put on gloves and secure instruments.

Comment: We know every salinity of seawater is (30-33) %. So we can see the collected water
salinity from the calculation is low.

Experiment No. 2
Required instrument: 1) Conical flasks,2) beaker 3) burette stand, 4) pipette 5) funnel
6)dropper.
Required Chemical:
1. Silver nitrate, (AgNO3)
2. potassium dichromate, (K2 Cr2 O7)
3. distilled water.
Chemical preparation:
➢ AgNO3 Solutions: 24.5 mg AgNO3 + 500 ml distilled water
➢ K2Cr2O7 Solutions: 1.75 g K2Cr2O7 +500 ml distilled water
Procedure:
1.We should take 10mL, supply it AgNO3 in a conical flux.
2. Then 15mL K2Cr2O7 Have to mix with the solution.
3. Then the remaining AgNO3 in the burette have to mix with the solution slowly and it will take
a brick red color.
4. After that we have to take the reading from Burette and make calculation and there we get
the salinity of water through titration process.

Table
Reading for Salinity test
Sample NO Initial Final Difference Average
01 4 11.8 7.8
02 11.8 19.1 7.3
03 19.1 25 5.9 7.3
04 0 7.5 7.5
05 7.5 15.5 8

Calculation: Here, mean is 3.

Salinity = 0.003+ 1.805 × mean
= 0.003+ 1.805 × 3
=5.418
Limitations:
We have to wait for a color change of about 10 minutes.

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 Mixing activity should be done carefully.
We should put on gloves and secure instruments.

Comment: We know every salinity of seawater is (30-33) %. So we can see the collected water
salinity from the calculation is low.

C) Determination of Alkalinity in the supplied water sample and comment on it.

Alkalinity:
The word alkalinity means the amount of alkalinity in water. The buffering capacity of a water
body; a measure of the ability of the water body to neutralize acid and bases and thus maintain
a fairly stable pH level.

Experiment No. 1
Required instrument: 1) Beaker ,2) Burette 3) Burette stand, 4) Pipette, 5) Conical flask 6)
Funnel, 7) Dropper, 8) Glass rod.
Required chemical:
1. Methyl orange,
2. hydrochloric acid, (HCL)
3. sodium carbonate, (Na CO3)
Chemical Preparation:
Sodium Carbonate: 0.53 g Na2 CO3 + 100 ml distilled water
Methyl orange: 0.05 g Methyl orange + 100 ml distilled water
HCL: (20 ml distilled water + 0.2 ml HCL)
Procedure:
1. At first we have to take 100 mL of distilled water in a conical water flask.
2. Then we have to mix three to four drops of methyl orange and then 2-3 drops of HCL
with distilled water.
3. After that we have to wait to change color.
4. Na2CO3 will remain in burette. Then we have to mix Na2CO3 in the conical flask step by
step. We have to notice the parameter of changing color.
5. We have to count the parameter for five times for the alkalinity test.

Table
Reading for Alkalinity test
Sample no Initial Final Difference Average
01 0 2 2
02 2 5 3 2.67
03 5 8 3

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Calculation: Alkalinity = Mean × 53
= 333.75

Result: It is that the result is 333.75 of the supplied sample.

Caution:
1. Color changing should be identified carefully.
2. Mixing activities should be done carefully.
3.
Comment: The alkalinity of the supplied sample is very high.

Experiment No 2

Required instrument: 1) Beaker,2) Burette 3) Burette stand, 4) Pipette, 5) Conical flask 6)

Funnel, 7) Dropper, 8) Glass rod
Required chemical:
1. Methyl orange,
2. hydrochloric acid, (HCL)
3. sodium carbonate, (Na2CO3)
Chemical Preparation:
Sodium carbonate: 0.53 g Na2CO3 + 100 ml distilled water
Methyl orange: 0.05 g Methyl orange + 100 ml distilled water
HCL: (20 ml distilled water + 0.2 ml HCL)
Procedure:
1. At first, we have to take 100mL of distilled water in a conical water flask.
2. Then we have to mix three to four drops of methyl orange and then 2-3 drops of HCL
with distilled water.
3. After that we have to wait to change color.
4. Na2CO3 will remain in the burette. Then we have to mix Na2CO3 in the conical flask step
by step. We have to notice the parameter of changing color.
5. We have to count the parameter five times for the alkalinity test.

Table
Reading for Alkalinity test
Sample no Initial reading Final reading Difference Average
01 0 2.1 2.1
02 2.1 3.9 1.8
03 3.9 6.8 2.9 2.6
04 6.8 9.6 2.8
05 9.6 13 3.4

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Calculation: Alkalinity = Mean × 53
= 325

Result: It is that the result is 325 of the supplied sample.

Caution:
1. Color changing should be identified carefully.
2. Mixing activities should be done carefully.
Comment: The alkalinity of the supplied sample is very high.

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