Anth.309 Ppt. Lecture-8 Dynasties 0-2 El

ANT 309:
Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids

(Predyn.–Second Intermediate Period: 5,000-1550 BC)
Lecture 8:
Early Dynastic Egypt: Dyns.0-2
© Notes & images compiled by Gregory Mumford 2016
How does one determine the location of a royal burial in Dyns.0 and 1-2?
• An Egyptological debate arose in the late 1800s–early 1900s, & continued later,
regarding whether Egypt’s earliest kings were buried at Abydos or Saqqara.
• Items bearing royal names appeared in BOTH the Abydos tombs (at Umm el-
Qaab) and in multiple tombs at Saqqara –during Dynasties 1-2.
• The Abydos tombs had small-medium subterranean substructures, and lay far
to the south of the capital at Memphis (beside the Saqqara cemetery).
• The Saqqara tombs had small-medium substructures & huge superstructures,
and lay near the capital at Memphis (beside the Saqqara cemetery).
• Some MK-NK evidence emerged for the building of royal cenotaph tombs
(i.e., dummy tombs) at Abydos, which later became equated with Osiris’ burial
place and a cult centre for Osiris.
• Could Abydos contain small royal cenotaph tombs?, whilst the real, huge royal
tombs lay at Saqqara, beside the royal capital? (still debated into 1980s-1990s).
• Why did multiple large tombs at Saqqara yield the royal names of individual
rulers? Did this represent queens and princes associated with each ruler?
• Could a closer study of various features from both the Abydos and
Saqqara tombs yield an answer and resolve this issue???
EARLY DYNASTIC
Mortuary Architecture:
TOMBS
Housing for the Dead.
Royal Tombs
Versus
High Officials
ROYAL TOMBS
Location of the royal burials
Saqqara Saqqara versus Abydos
Abydos
ABYDOS:
SAQQARA:
EARLY DYNASTIC (Dyns.1-2) ROYAL TOMBS at Abydos:
• Note: The Abydos Umm el-Qaab tombs had a link(?) with what
were initially a few separate, large enclosures in the valley.
Dynasty 1 Elite Saqqara tombs (top) versus Abydos royal tombs (bottom)
Aha Djer Djet Merneith Adjib?

(or Den) or
Semerkhet
Dyns.1-2
Saqqara elite
No comparable tombs tombs (top)
from Saqqara versus
Dyns.1-2
Abydos
royal tombs
(bottom)
Qa‘a? Peribsen Khasekhemwy

The Location of the Royal Burial Place (Saqqara vs. Abydos)
SAQQARA: (New capital) ABYDOS: (traditional hometown)
Large mastaba superstructure No surviving superstructures

Mastaba tomb not specific to Superstructure type unknown

royal burials (= elite) (except in one case?)
Small substructure (burial rm.) Same/larger substructure (burial)

Subsidiary burials outside tomb Subsidiary burials in two tombs,+

Some boat burials (private) Fleet of boat burials: “W. Mastaba”

(NB: Also at Helwan) (later popular in royal tombs)
1 hidden mound (Qn.Her-neith) Subterranean mounds (+ surf. Mound?)

and stepped structure No stepped precursor to Step
(S3038) over burial shaft Pyramid (only a funerary
and under mastaba. enclosure, like Sed court)
(precursor to Step Pyramid)
NO restrictions on the quantity Umm el-Qaab burial ground

of elite burials at North restricted to burials of
Saqqara (and retainers) rulers ONLY (and their
immediate retainers)
NO twin stelae (Dyns.1, late 2) Twin royal stelae (D.1, late D.2)
Twin stelae (early Dynasty 2) NO twin stelae (early Dyn.2)
= Royal tombs at Saqqara = No royal tombs at Abydos
NO funerary enclosure Funerary enclosure per king
(except for northern royal burials) (+ subsidiary burials)
Some subsidiary burials More subsidiary burials;Djer=580
Numerous jar-sealings of kings Numerous jar sealings of kings
in multiple tombs of (one elite tomb per ruler)
high officials (not all can
be royal tombs)
Narmer & Semerkhet not All Dyn.1 & late Dyn.2 kings
attested by sealings attested by sealings
New capital at Memphis Abydos = traditional home of
(administrative centre) Thinite rulers (*Dyn.1)
Mastabas with mound and Umm el-Qaab subterranean mound
stepped structure are (and Hierakonpolis temple
precursors to Step Pyr. “mound”) may =precursors to
Step Pyr. within its enclosure
ROYAL TOMBS
Location of the royal burials
Saqqara confirmed mostly at Abydos
Abydos
LATE PREDYNASTIC
TO EARLY DYNASTIC:
Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC
HIGH OFFICIALS
TOMBS AT SAQQARA:
ABYDOS:
SAQQARA:
North Saqqara mastabas

Saqqara:
Mastaba tombs of
the elite.
Saqqara: Elite tombs, high officials
North Saqqara tombs:
• Mud brick, rectilinear superstructures
with elaborate buttressing & niching
(“palace façade”).
• Double enclosure wall around Tomb 3357
(an official under King Aha).
• Subterranean burial chamber and side
magazines (variability in plans and time).
• Superstructure initially has many rooms
(e.g., Tomb 3357: 27 rooms for provisions)
Saqqara
• Tomb 3357 had a small model estate in
mud brick on its exterior the north side:
Buildings, granaries, and boat grave at
a small scale
• NB: Some retainer burials for D.1 officials.
(Separate burial pits around mastaba) Abydos
• Dynasty 2 elite tombs vary much more in
size and details.
Saqqara: Mastaba tombs of the elite.
Dynasties 1-2: Mastaba tomb types.
Two niches on Eastern side (perhaps emulating king’s twin stelae)

Southern niche most important  chapel
Dynasty 2: mastabas.
Substructure:
- Larger subterranean burial
complexes duplicating houses:
For example:
- Burial chamber = bedroom
- Side chamber = dressing rm.
- Side room = water jars
Superstructure:
- Generally became simpler.
- Palace façade decreased D.1
- Some tombs already had stela
Dynasty 2: Stela of a princess.
Offerings depicted for provisioning for the afterlife (= insurance!).
Dynasty 2: Stela of an official.
Saqqara Dynasties 1-2: Subterranean stairway access.
Dyn.2 / 3: - Rectilinear “House” coffin for contracted/flexed burial.
Private - Panelled coffins from Saqqara, Tarkhan, and Beni Hasan.
- Previous coffins comprised of rectangular wooden boxes.
The “short coffin” (for contracted/flexed burials)

The later “long coffin” (for extended burials)
Provisions:
Early Dynastic mastaba tombs are characterized by many chambers and/or
numerous containers with provisions for the afterlife: i.e., ensuring food supply.
Saqqara Dynasties 1-2: Mastaba tombs.
• Model estate i.e., dwelling in afterlife
• Boat burials i.e., transport in afterlife (rare)
Some other boat burials at Helwan (options).
Saqqara:
- Retainer burials
Tarkhan:
- Poor burial
LATE PREDYNASTIC
TO EARLY DYNASTIC:
Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC
LOWER OFFICIALS’
TOMBS AT HELWAN:
Early Dynastic Helwan:
• Opposite Saqqara, East Bank of Nile
• Major cemetery for lower officials, etc.
HELWAN: Early Dynastic cemetery
- 10,000 middle-lower class tombs & graves
Some wealthy tombs at Helwan

EARLY DYNASTIC
Ca. 3000 - 2686 BC
Private coffins
& early mummification?
Dyn.1 Tarkhan:
Short coffin
Length 91.2 cm.
- Wooden components
often recycled from parts
used in housing, etc.
- Traces of linen reveal that

the deceased had been
wrapped originally.
- Body flexed on right side.

PRIVATE MUMMIFICATION: Dyn.2 Saqqara:
• Female body excavated by Quibell in 1911.
• Body flexed on its left side.
• Probably treated with natron(?).
• Linen wrapped skull and limbs remaining (over 16 layers).
• Limbs wrapped individually.
• Outer linen layer modelled to portray genitalia.
Dyn.2 / 3: Rectilinear “House” coffin for contracted/flexed burial.
Private Panelled coffins from Saqqara, Tarkhan, and Beni Hasan.
Previous coffins comprised of rectangular wooden boxes.
- The “short coffin” (for contracted burials)
- The “long coffin” (for extended burials)
- i.e., emerging changes in mortuary practices
LATE PREDYNASTIC
TO EARLY DYNASTIC:
Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC
OTHER BURIALS
IN EARLY DYN. EGYPT:
Other Early Dynastic cemeteries:
• Minshat Abu Omar (Delta) yielded
8 elite burials and smaller graves
 implies local social hierarchy
(administrative officials)
• Tarkhan: yielded pit graves with a
mud brick lining, wood lining, and
roofing.
• Hierakonpolis: produced simple pit
graves with a few pots.
• Naqada has a massive mastaba
tomb, associated with a queen,
suggesting she originated from here.
• Hence, we see a complex hierarchy
reflected in the mortuary customs.
• Otherwise, there is a concentration of
numerous ED burials and wealth near
the new capital: Memphis.
roofing.
• Hence, we see a complex hierarchy Dyn.1 Tarkhan: Short coffin 91 cm
reflected in the mortuary customs. Wooden components often recycled
from parts used in housing, etc.
numerous ED burials and wealth near Traces of linen reveal that deceased
the new capital: Memphis. had been wrapped originally.
Body flexed on right side.
Early Dynastic and residual appearance later: Container burials with lids.
E.g., Early Dynastic burial from Beni Hasan.
roofing.
• Hence, we see a complex hierarchy
reflected in the mortuary customs.
numerous ED burials and wealth near
the new capital: Memphis.
Simple tumulus burials
- Continuing into ED period
EARLY DYNASTIC
Domestic Architecture:
DWELLINGS
Housing for the living.
Protodynastic – Early Dynastic rendition of settlements:
Early Dynastic Palace:
The royal palace/serekh enclosing the
King’s name (e.g., Djet) in a palace
surmounted by the royal Horus falcon.
Palace façade: initially represents a timber

and matting structure with door rolls.
The Palace Façade & Bovines:
• Façade surmounted by Bovine heads
• Narmer’s apron: bovine heads & tail
• Private niched tomb with bovine heads
• Royal Bull motif (= an elite-royal motif).
Hierakonpolis:
Early Dynastic
“palace” entryway
and part of the
adjacent town.
Hierakonpolis
Hierakonpolis:
Early Dynastic state structure:
“Palace” or similar elite building.
Postdates earlier temple mound
to south (different alignment).
Administrative centres:
• A variety of administrative centres
are evident throughout ED Egypt:
Hierakonpolis:
• ED town at Kom el-Ahmar.
• Niched mud brick complex
ED “palace” vs. administrative
centre.
• appears to be state-built structure!
Hierakonpolis Kemp (2005): reconstruction.
Early Dynastic
Palatial entry
with niched
royal gateway
enclosing the
town behind it.
Hierakonpolis
Buto:
Stratum 5
Early Dynastic
town (Dyn.2/3).
Very large elite /

public structure with
some buttressing.
Buto: Stratum 5 Early Dynastic town (Dyn.2/3).
Suggestions: (1) Part of a funeral complex
(2) Part of a royal estate (residential)
(3) Elite structure with another function
Walls preserved to 60 cm in height
• Paved and decorated with colours (geometrical patterns)
• wooden roof destroyed by fire
• seal impressions and much pottery
Elephantine (Aswan):
Early Dynastic settlement
at Egypt’s southern
frontier.
Fort and town.
ABU = “Ivory Town”
Elephantine
Elephantine: Early Dynastic – Old Kingdom
town.
Elephantine (Aswan)
• 50 x 50 m Dynasty 1 fort
protecting Egypt from A-Group
Nubians (ca. 3,500-3,000 BC)
Aswan (Elephantine): Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom town.
East Island:
Satet shrine
Housing
Dynasty 1
Fort
Name:
Abu = “Ivory”
= trade with
Nubia
Aswan pink
Granite =
an additional
resource.
El-Kab:
Early Dynastic
settlement remains.
El-Kab
Town wall cross-section
El-Kab:
New evidence
argues that
circular wall
= OK-FIP
EARLY DYNASTIC
Cultic Architecture:
TEMPLES
Housing for the gods.
Early Dynastic cult centres:
Early Dynastic glyptic art:
• Evidence from some texts, pictorial Emblem of goddess Neith
representations, & archaeology.
Buto:
• Mud brick shrine dating to Narmer
(beside an ED “palace” complex).
Elephantine:
• An early shrine to goddess Satet
Hierakonpolis:
• A mound of clean sand 42 x 48 m
E.g., Protodynastic
• A stone revetmentHierakonpolis
wall around it.
• Main Deposit:
- King Scorpion macehead
- Stone statuettes of Khaserkhem
- Small votive figurines
- Hundreds of ivory items
Early Dynastic glyptic art:
Emblem of goddess Neith
• Evidence from some texts, pictorial
4 x 7 m Early Dynastic shrine
Buto:
Elephantine:
Hierakonpolis: Buto: Early Dyn. shrine.

• A mound of clean sand 42 x 48 m Temple of Wadjet cobra
• A stone revetment wall around it. goddess.
• Main Deposit:
- King Scorpion macehead Dyn.1: “Two Ladies” title
- Stone statuettes of Khaserkhem (Nebty-name)
- Small votive figurines Pyramid Texts: Wadjet
- Hundreds of ivory items associated with Dep
Buto = NW Delta (one of twin cities of Buto:
Pe and Dep).
Buto: Early Dyn. shrine.
Temple of Wadjet cobra
goddess.
Dyn.1: “Two Ladies” title

(Nebty-name)
Pyramid Texts: Wadjet
associated with Dep
(one of twin cities of Buto:
Pe and Dep).
Buto
Elephantine (Aswan):
Early Dynastic shrine to Satet: 8 x 10 m
- A local, late Predynastic goddess
at Abu: “Ivory/Elephant Town”
(= later Elephantine; Aswan).
Elephantine
• Evidence from some texts, pictorial
Buto:
Elephantine:
Hierakonpolis:
• A mound of clean sand 42 x 48 m
• A stone revetment wall around it.
• Main Deposit:
- King Scorpion macehead
- Stone statuettes of Khaserkhem
- Small votive figurines
- Hundreds of ivory items
HIERAKONPOLIS:
- Early Dynastic shrine and votive
Offerings below Old Kingdom level.
Temple of Horus of Nekhen

- Closely associated with kingship
- Falcon-deity worshipped at several
sites (Hierakonpolis; Edfu;
Tell el-Belamun; Letopolis)
Hierakonpolis
Models and glyptic
revealing various
designs for Early
Dynastic shrines:
Plus evidence for ...
(a). Timber frame;
(b). Mat covering;
(c). Interior altar/shrine
(d). Interior cult figure(s)
(e). Range in size from
small to large shrine
(f). Various types of votive
offerings, food, drink, +
(g). Private to state cult
centres (for deities)
(h). Private-royal mortuary
cults ...
Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom votive deposits from
a. Elephantine
b. Hierakonpolis
c. Abydos
- animal & human figures
- stone & ivory figurines
- scorpion & scorpion tails
- Plaques with animal heads

(e.g., hedgehog popular at
Elephantine)
- Vases
- Maceheads
- Palettes
- Natural pebbles
Hierakonpolis:
•Early Dynastic Temple wall block fragment of granodiorite (Khaserkhemwy)
Temple
of Horus
King and goddess
Seshat in a temple
foundation ritual:
laying out four
foundation pegs.
Hierakonpolis
Gebelein:
Early Dynastic Temple wall block
fragment (temp. Khaserkhemwy).
Temple of Hathor
- King participating in a foundation
ritual (well-attested later in Egypt).
- Deity closely associated with
motherhood (often shown as a cow)
Gebelein
LATE PREDYNASTIC
TO EARLY DYNASTIC:
Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC
International
Relations:
PREDYNASTIC – ED
EGYPTIAN
ITEMS, MATERIALS
& INFLUENCE IN
SW PALESTINE:
SYRIA
PALESTINE
MESOPOTAMIA
N. SINAI
S. SINAI
Expanding Early Dynastic State:
• Egyptian influence appears to have
expanded abroad in Dyn.0 -early Dyn.1
a.Lower Nubia: A-Group
b.N-Sinai-S.Palestine EB Age Canaan
North Sinai-South Palestine:
North Sinai (& South Sinai [Den])
• Seasonal camps yield
serekh-names on pottery jars N. Sinai
(= mostly King Narmer)
• Most jars = Egyptian fabrics South Palestine
• Some jars = local imitations
South Palestine:
• En-Besor (st.III) has yielded pots with
serekh-names: Djer, Den, Anedjib,
Semerkhet(?) (90+ seal impressions)
• Mostly Egyptian pottery (bread moulds)
• Site interpreted as a customs station
• Egypt loses control of this area when
Early Bronze Age Canaanite cities
extend control into this region.
PALESTINE / CANAAN (SW LEVANT):
Agricultural produce: e.g.,
-Olive oil
-Wine
-Resins
-Livestock & by-products
Minerals, etc.: e.g.,
-Bitumen (Dead Sea)
-Salt SYRIA
-Sulphur
Metals: e.g.,
-Copper (Wadi Feinan, N. Arabah)
Finished products: e.g.,

-Stone vessels (EB I)
-Flints
-Pottery vessels (containers for other items)
Security: e.g., Late Predyn.-ED Egypt
-Asiatic Bedouin & city states has intense contact with
Trade routes: N. Sinai  S. Palestine:
-Eliminate costly “middleman” to SYRIA
Personnel: e.g., It held highly desirable
-Captives / slaves  labour source materials & commodities
Predynastic
Egyptian
influence in
**Chalcolithic and
*EB I-II South Sinai:
• Egyptian pottery
• Egyptian beads
• Egyptian molluscs
(Aspatharia Rubens)
**Chalcolithic = much of the Predynastic period in Egypt
*EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

= contemporary with late Predyn. – early Dyn.1 in Egypt.
EB II = Early Bronze Age II in Syria-Palestine

= contemporary with late Dyn. 1 to Dyn. 2 in Egypt.
Predynastic
Egyptian
influence
in EB I South
Palestine (late
Predyn.-Dyn.1):
Egyptian-style
buildings at ...
(a) En-Besor &
(b) Tel Erani
Trade vs. Colony
Mound of En-Besor
Predyn. Egyptian products in Chalcolithic
and EB I (Predyn.-Dyn.1) South Palestine:
• Egyptian imported pottery
• Locally-made Egyptian pottery
• Hybrid Egyptian-Palestinian forms
• Pottery incised with Egyptian serekh-names
(Kings Ka; Scorpion?; Narmer; Aha; Den?).
Significance: Control? Trade? Diplomacy? Etc.
Predynastic
Egyptian
products in
Chalcolithic
and EB I
S. Palestine:
Egyptian-style
flint tools
Chalcolithic = much of Predynastic.
EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

contemporary with late Predyn.- Dyn.1
EB II = Early Bronze Age II (late Dyn.1 – Dyn.2)

Predynastic
Egyptian
products in
Chalcolithic
and EB I-II
S. Palestine:
Egyptian-style
copper tools
Predynastic
Egyptian
products in
Chalcolithic
and EB I
S. Palestine:
Egyptian-style
Stone palettes


Predynastic
Egyptian
Products
in Chalcolithic
and EB I South
Palestine:
• possibly Egy.
“alabaster”
(i.e., calcite)
mace heads
Note: debated
origin for
pear-shaped
mace heads
(Egypt versus
Palestine).
Predynastic
Egyptian
Products
in Chalcolithic
and EB I South
Palestine:
Egyptian
jewellery


Predynastic
Egyptian
Products
in Chalcolithic
and EB I South
Palestine:
Egyptian/Nile
molluscs
(Aspatharia
rubens)
Nile catfish
PREDYNASTIC – ED
EGYPTIAN
ITEMS, MATERIALS
& INFLUENCE IN
SYRIA-LEBANON:
SYRIA
PALESTINE
MESOPOTAMIA
N. SINAI
S. SINAI
Predynastic
Egyptian
influence
in EB I
Syria:
• Egyptian
pottery
a). Lug-handled
vessels
(F-ware)


PREDYNASTIC – ED
EGYPTIAN
ITEMS, MATERIALS
& INFLUENCE IN
MESOPOTAMIA:
Predynastic+
Egyptian
influence
in EB I
Mesopotamia
• Non-
indigenous
gold from
Tepe Gawra
Egyptian gold?
GOLD?
The only preserved Egyptian(?)
trade product with Mesopotamia
(probably also aromatics, etc.)
EARLY BRONZE I-II
NEAR EASTERN
ITEMS, MATERIALS
& INFLUENCE IN
PREDYN-ED EGYPT:
SYRIA
PALESTINE
MESOPOTAMIA
N. SINAI
S. SINAI
SOUTHWEST ASIA: Syro-Mesopotamian relations / trade with Egypt
AFGHANISTAN:
- Lapis lazuli (indirect trade)
MESOPOTAMIA:
Sumer; Babylonia; Assyria SYRIA
Pottery (containers):
- Late Uruk ware (EB I-II)
?
Seals/amulets:
- Cylinder seals (EB I-II) MESOPOTAMIA
Architecture:
- Niched / palace façade
- ”Wall cones” (e.g., Buto?)
Motifs:
- Hero separating 2 animals
- Boats
- Garments, etc.
Mesopotamian Products in Predynastic
Egypt: Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan
• Lapis lazuli as inlay in 5th millennium BC+

• Lapis lazuli as jewellery (Tomb 11 Hierakonpolis)
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic to
Early Dynastic
Egypt:
• Buildings with a
niched façade.
(“palace façade”)
Egyptian mastaba:
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic to
Early Dynastic
Egypt:
• Palace façade
motif:
Egyptian mastaba: Sumer (Uruk 4ab) Sumer (Susa):

Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic to
Early Dynastic
Egypt:
Mosaic wall-cones?
Buto (tenuous
connection): Mesopotamia:
Mesopotamian
Products in
Protodynastic to
Early Dynastic
Egypt:
• Mesopotamian
pottery in Egypt
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic
To Early
Dynastic Egypt:
• Cylinder seals
& sealing
impressions
in Egypt
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic
to ED Egypt:
“Gilgamesh”-hero
figure separating
two animals
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic
to ED Egypt:
Mesopotamian-
Style garments
(including hat)
Egypt:
Gebel el-Arak
Knife handle:
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic
to ED Egypt:
• Mesopotamian-
animals with
entwined necks
Sumeria
Mesopotamian
Influence in
Protodynastic
to ED Egypt:
• The Mesopotamian
language is (mostly) no
longer believed to have
influenced development
of Egyptian hieroglyphs
LOWER NUBIA:
A-GROUP culture
(contemporary with
Egyptian Naqada 1-3+)
ca. 4,000 – 3,000+ BC
A-Group culture: (4000-3000 BC)
Lower Nubia (N. Sudan):
• Distinct Lower Nubian culture
• Lies south of Aswan: 1st to 2nd Cataracts.
• Contemporary with Naqada I-III
• Mostly represented by excavated graves
(including G.A. Reisner excavations)
• A-Group pottery:
Characteristic “egg-shell” ware beakers
• A few graves have leather clothing, bags,
and headgear with a fringe.
• Some graves have animals (goats; dogs)
• Egyptian (Naqada) items are present,
reflecting trade (beer; wine; oil).
• Virtually no A-Group items in Egypt
(which desired African materials: ivory+)
BUT still have pottery, etc. From Nubia.
• Distinct Lower Nubian culture
• Lies south of Aswan: 1st to 2nd Cataracts.
• Contemporary with Naqada I-III
• Mostly represented by excavated graves
(including G.A. Reisner excavations)
• A-Group pottery:
Characteristic “egg-shell” ware beakers
• A few graves have leather clothing, bags,
and headgear with a fringe.
• Some graves have animals (goats; dogs)
• Egyptian (Naqada) items are present,
reflecting trade (beer; wine; oil).
• Virtually no A-Group items in Egypt
(which desired African materials: ivory+)
BUT still have pottery, etc. From Nubia.
Predynastic
Egyptian
influence
in A-Group
Nubia (Sudan)
4,000-3000 BC
Egy. Naqada 2
Pottery, etc.
• Some settlements have been found:
a. Reed huts
b. Rock shelters
c. A few stone slab-based dwellings
• Agriculture emerges even later in Nubia,
ca. Naqada IIIb/Dyn.0-Dyn.1 (3000 BC)
at the time of Terminal A-Group.
• 3 major late A-Group sites = known
at Sayala, Dakka, and Qustul.
Qustul may yield evidence for a Nubian
king/chieftain:
- Wealthy A-Group graves with imported
Egyptian tools and stone containers.
- Mace heads with gold handles.
- A stone incense burner with a seated
ruler on a boat, holding a flail and
wearing Upper Egyptian White Crown.
• Some settlements have been found:
a. Reed huts
b. Rock shelters
king/chieftain:
Mid-Late A-Group, Cemetery at Sayala

Lower Nubia (N. Sudan): Late A-Group,
• Some settlements have been found: Cemetery L
a. Reed huts at Qustul
b. Rock shelters
king/chieftain:
LATE PREDYNASTIC
TO EARLY DYNASTIC:
Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC
SUMMARY:
Early Dynastic royal tombs versus elite tombs:
• Royal tombs begin to have distinct characteristics via royal name stelae,
large separate valley enclosures, and some Dyn.1 sacrificial retainer burials.
• Elite tombs begin to be distinct via their size and wealth in possessions and
provisions, and share some features with royal burials: buttressing & niches
(i.e., royal valley enclosures), boat burials, retainer burials, etc.
• Many ED royal burials are placed at Abydos, apparent home town of Egypt’s
earliest rulers and later associated with a deity: Osiris, Lord of the Dead.
• Some ED royal burials are placed at Saqqara (near capital at Memphis), and
may reflect either a personal preference to be associated with the new capital,
or a different family line: i.e., civil war? Usurper? Marriage ties with the North?
• The wealthiest, largest private burials in ED Egypt appear at Saqqara, and
reflect the location of both courtiers and the court at the capital: Memphis.
• A huge middle class cemetery appears at Helwan, SW of Saqqara/Memphis,
and represents the emerging bureaucracy that ran the new state administration.
• Most of ED Egypt, other than Saqqara and Abydos, lacked huge tombs &
wealth, arguing for a centralization of both power and wealth at the new capital
during this period: i.e., provincial high officials moving to, living at , and being
buried at Memphis (some lower level family & officials residing in provinces).
Emerging Early Dynastic burial practices and beliefs:
• Numerous real provisions (food and drink) of all types are placed in multiple
chambers adjacent to the burial chamber in elite – royal tombs.
• Many ED stelae portray elite seated at a banquet table receiving a choice
selection of food and drink –the base requirement of survival in life & afterlife.
• Many tombs contain furnishings and possessions that either replicate, or
represent, items used in daily life: bedding, furniture, clothing, jewellery, games,
hunting equipment, travel boats, etc.
• Some Dyn.1 royal & elite tombs have retainers placed in burials beside the
owner’s tomb, suggesting the requirement of service personnel to attend to the
elite during the afterlife.
• Some royal-elite tomb architecture replicates components from housing
in life: e.g., bedrooms; living rooms; storerooms; granaries; bathrooms; etc.
• Some elite burial features contain representative magic: i.e., models of
some things, such as model boat and an estate, may stand in for the real thing.
• A focal niche and chapel for family visits to the tomb superstructure imply a
felt need for delivering offerings before the portrait of the deceased at a banquet
(later expressing an invocation offering to priests & family on such stelae).
• The elite deceased is increasingly preserved as in life, and shown as in life.
Increasing social stratification and craft specialization in ED Egypt:
• The requirements of a larger state and an increasingly stratified society in-turn
creates more craft specialization and social stratification (graves  tombs).
• Peasant farmers supplying needs of non-agricultural citizens within state.
• Lower level bureaucrats organizing & maintaining provincial farming, irrigation
taxation, re-dispersal of materials & products, etc. between centre & provinces.
• Writing and mathematics: maintaining records, counting, communicating, etc.
from a low level to higher level bureaucrat (scribal schools and limited literacy).
• Diverse craftsmen producing tools, weapons, containers, jewellery, furniture,
ships, housing, temples, tombs, industrial components, and numerous other
things (1000s of diverse items from functional specialty items to luxury items).
• High level officials: ensuring the running of government, and other institutions,
including cultic activity.
• Priesthood and deities: ensuring the well-being of state and provincial deities,
their priesthoods, and the local-regional and state populace and land in general
i.e., Building, maintaining, embellishing, temples and priesthoods of deities.
i.e., Building and maintaining mortuary complexes & priesthoods for deceased
• Security and international relations: securing the nation, its borders, and its
relations with adjacent regions and peoples: military; emissaries; traders; etc.
Emerging urban lifestyle in ED Egypt:
• Many villages to larger towns in the Nile flood plain were sited on higher
ground, such as turtle backs (geziras) and relic levees (i.e., old river banks).
• The emerging provinces had larger/dominant towns, of which a few places
began emerging as a prime provincial centre within each province: e.g., seat of
a former Predynastic chieftain/ruler, a cultic centre (Hierakonpolis; Abydos),
a trading centre (Aswan), a strategic locality (Memphis), etc.
• Some towns have a fortification/enclosure wall (el-Kab; Aswan): i.e., a flood
barrier and defense (e.g., against desert tribes; other provinces; wild animals)
• Town shapes range from circular to ovoid, to irregular shapes.
• Town components vary depending upon individual status: i.e., state capital,
provincial capital, cultic centre, trading centre, agricultural town/village, etc.
E.g., Royal palace and administrative complex (presumed at Memphis);
E.g., Residences for high officials & bureaucracy (presumed at Memphis);
E.g., Residences for provincial administration (e.g., Buto; Hierakonpolis);
E.g., Residences for others: poorer to middle and upper classes (Awan);
E.g., Streets, open areas (markets), interior enclosures (temples; forts; palaces).
E.g., Diverse industrial quarters, workshops, etc. (including outside towns);
E.g., Temples, shrines, etc. within cities, towns and villages (varying in size);
E.g., Adjacent cemeteries (often in desert; on raised land in delta floodplain);
Emerging Early Dynastic temples and shrines:
• Most temples and shrines are built of unbaked mud brick, like housing, but
display one or inner sanctuaries (e.g., 3 living quarters for triad/family of deities)
outer halls (e.g., reception areas), and enclosures (separation from secular).
• Some late Early Dynastic temples display stone features or construction:
E.g., Khasekhemwy built a stone temple at Gebelein and Hierakonpolis.
• Temple architecture begins to become increasingly specialized:
E.g., Tripartite shrines, altars, decoration, enclosures, votive offerings, etc.
• Votive offerings display a range of wealth in materials, form, & intention:
E.g., Food offerings: i.e., sustenance for deities (and priesthood)
E.g., Everyday items: e.g., jewellery, clothing, etc. (i.e., clothing deity, etc.)
E.g., Specialized items for specific requests: e.g., leg model: healing ailing limb
• Some cult centres receive greater attention, reflecting greater importance:
E.g., Abydos cult and its links with ED royal burials and later Osiris cult.
E.g., Hierakonpolis cult and its link with Horus and state kingship
• Some cults remain fairly small and impoverished:
I.e., Minimal importance to the state and provincial officials
I.e., Maintained by local populace, addressing local needs
• Other cults become increasingly important as their role changes:
E.g., Satis cult in Elephantine; Min cult in Coptos (much later = stone temples).
Emerging and changing Predynastic-Early Dynastic international relations:
Mesopotamia:
• Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; much influence and trade from Mesopotamia
(e.g., pottery; cylinder seals; building forms; wall cones?; art motifs; etc.)
Syria:
• Egyptian pottery, etc., in Syria (Byblos); Syrian pottery, etc., in Egypt.
North Sinai – Southern Palestine:
• Egyptian buildings, pottery, jewellery, weaponry, tools, palettes, local imitations,
and royal names across N. Sinai & in S. Palestine in late Predyn.-Dyn.1.
South Sinai:
• Turquoise in Predyn-ED Egypt; 1% Egyptian Dyn.1 pottery in S. Sinai (trade?)
Lower Nubia:
• Egyptian pottery, etc., in Lower Nubia; some Nubian pottery etc. in Egypt; trade
Upper Nubia and NE Ethiopia (“Punt”?):
• Probable ivory, incense, ebony [African Blackwood(?)], obsidian, etc.
Western Desert Oases (and Libyan tribesmen):
• Probable contact and trade with the oases & desert tribes: natron, etc.
Eastern Desert and Red Sea coast:
• Stone quarries (for construction, statuary, containers, and tools).
• Galena, copper, gold mines (for cosmetics, jewellery, tools, weaponry, etc.)
• Red Sea shells (for jewellery)
i.e., All areas outside Nile flood plain = “foreign lands” (friendly to hostile).

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ANT 309:

Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids

Aha Djer Djet Merneith Adjib?

Qa‘a? Peribsen Khasekhemwy

Large mastaba superstructure No surviving superstructures

Mastaba tomb not specific to Superstructure type unknown

Small substructure (burial rm.) Same/larger substructure (burial)

Subsidiary burials outside tomb Subsidiary burials in two tombs,+

Some boat burials (private) Fleet of boat burials: “W. Mastaba”

1 hidden mound (Qn.Her-neith) Subterranean mounds (+ surf. Mound?)

NO restrictions on the quantity Umm el-Qaab burial ground

North Saqqara mastabas

Two niches on Eastern side (perhaps emulating king’s twin stelae)

The “short coffin” (for contracted/flexed burials)

Some wealthy tombs at Helwan

- Traces of linen reveal that

- Body flexed on right side.

Palace façade: initially represents a timber

Very large elite /

Hierakonpolis: Buto: Early Dyn. shrine.

Dyn.1: “Two Ladies” title

Temple of Horus of Nekhen

- animal & human figures

- stone & ivory figurines

- scorpion & scorpion tails

- Plaques with animal heads

Finished products: e.g.,

**Chalcolithic = much of the Predynastic period in Egypt

*EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

EB II = Early Bronze Age II in Syria-Palestine

Chalcolithic = much of Predynastic.

EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

EB II = Early Bronze Age II (late Dyn.1 – Dyn.2)

Chalcolithic = much of Predynastic.

EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

EB II = Early Bronze Age II (late Dyn.1 – Dyn.2)

Chalcolithic = much of Predynastic.

EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

EB II = Early Bronze Age II (late Dyn.1 – Dyn.2)

Chalcolithic = much of Predynastic.

EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

EB II = Early Bronze Age II (late Dyn.1 – Dyn.2)

• Lapis lazuli as inlay in 5th millennium BC+

Egyptian mastaba: Sumer (Uruk 4ab) Sumer (Susa):

Mid-Late A-Group, Cemetery at Sayala

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