McMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources Chapter 2 Instituting the Development Project Chapter Summary: This chapter examines how the idea and practice of development emerged during the colonial era Colonialism disorganized non-European societies by seconstructing labor systems around specialized and ecologically degrading export production and disorganizing the social psychology of subjects. Exposure to European liberal discourse on rights fueled anti-colonial movements for independence The political independence of nation-states from colonialism gave rise to the development projeet, a plan for national political-economic development, The development project was also intended to secure Colé War perimeters and make the “fiee world” safe for business In development, Westernization was promoted in polities, economics and culture, As the non-European ‘world emulated Europe, sovereignty aud diversity were limited. Chapter Outline: TL. What is development? a, Themerged during the colonial era b. 19% Century Europeans saw development as specifically European, but over time it eame to be viewed as a universal necessity The social engineering impulse framed European colonization i, Extraction of colonial resources facilitated European industrialization ii Europeans took on “white man’s burden” of managing subject populations that were adjusting to extractive economy and monocultures, administering colonial rule for their zasters, and experiencing physical andlor psyehie displacement 4. Non-European cultures were irrevocably changed through colonialism, and the post-colonial context was founded on inequality. fe. This chapter examines the emergence of an unequal international framework not of the making of newly independent states but through which their governments acquired politica legitimacy 1 Colontatism Definition: The subjugstion by physical and psychological foree of one culture by another—a colonizing power—through military conquest of territory and stereotyping the relation between the two cultures. i. Predates the era of European expansion (1S ro 20 centuries) and extends 10 Japanese colonialism in the 20% cenrury and, most recently, Chinese colonization of Tibet ii, Two main forms: 1. Colonies of settlement, which often eliminate indigenous people (such as Spanish destruction of Aztec and loca civilizations in the Americas) 2. Colonies of rule, where colonial administrators reorganize existing cultures by imposing new inequalities to facilitate thei exploitation (such as British creation of local landlords, zamingars, to rule parts of India; the confiscation of personal and common land for cash cropping: depriving women of their customary resources: and the elevation of ethnoracial differences (such as privileging certain castes or tibes inthe exercise of colonial rule) fii, Outcomes of colonialisea 1. Cultural genocide or marginalization of indigenous people 2. Introduction of new tensions around class, gender, race, and caste that continue to disrupt postcolonial societies 3. Extraction of labor, cultural treasures, and resources to enrich the colonial power 4. The elaboration of ideologies justifying colonial rule, including notions of racism, and backwardness 5. Various responses by colonial subjects, ranging from death to submission and internalization of inferiority toa varity of resistances-—irom everyday forms 10 sporadic uprisings to mass politcal mobilization iv. Misinterprettion of Europeaa cultural superiority:McMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources 1, The assumption that colonial subjects were “backward” resulted from comparing non-Europeans to Europeans through the lens of Europe's powerful missionary and military-industrial apparatus. Europeans saw difference as “progress,” which they could impart to subjects. Europeans devalued indigenous cultures 8, Saw native Americans and Australian Aborigines as people who did not “work” the land and believed they had no right of “property"—a European concept in which property is private and alienable b. Saw African peoples as static and only occupying, not “improving” the land) ©. Viewed themselves as “bearing civilization” 4. Europeans compromised spiritual life of non-Europeans, ruptured the unity of the human and natural world (characterizing non-European cultures) a, Nou-Europeans lost coutrol of their land b. Converted land, water, plaats and food into economic categories ©, Post-colonial African saying: “When the white man came he had the Bible and we had the land. When the white man left, we had the Bible and he had the land.” 5. Development came to be seen as destiny; non-European scientific, ecological, and moral achievements, and legacies in European culture, were ignored b. Characteristies of pre-colonial cultures, i, All had own was of satisfying material and spisitual needs ii, Cultures varied by differentiation among members according to ecological endowments and contact with other cultures 1. Subsistence producers, such as some aboriginal cultures of Australia or the Amazon 8. Organized by kin relations Subdivided social tasks between men and women Skilled in resource management and production Did not produce a surplus beyond their immediate needs Organized cooperatively, not according to leadership hierarchies ‘Were not prepared for self-defense and often wiped out by colonizers 2. Extensive kingdoms or states, such as the complex hierarchical Mogul empire in 17% century India 8, Organized in local chiefdoms bb. Surpluses (monetary taxes and produce) delivered to central court and “high culture” ©. Village and urban artisans produced goods Caste distinctions corresponded to divisions of labor ©. Colonizers adapted social and political hierarchies to their own ends, incubating tensions that have been inherited by posteolonial states IIL The Colonial Division of Labor a, From 16% Century on, European colonial powers ~ Spain, Portugal, Holland, France and Britain ~ and their merchant companies, exchanged manufactured goods for slaves, raw materials and ‘primary products, and in the process, reorganized the world i, Colonies forced to specialize in procuction and extraction of raw materials and primary commodity unavailable in Europe ii, These products fueled European manufacturing as industrial inputs and foodstuffs for its industrial labor force, iii, Ona world seale, this specialization between European economies and their colonies came to be termed the colonial division of labor iv. This specialization transformed social and environmental relationships: unequal ecological exchange, in which colonies exported sustainability b. Non-European eultures and ecologies were exposed to profound disorganization |. Mixed farming systems were converted to specialized export monoculturesMcMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources 1. Local farmers produced a single erop, such as peanuts or coffee, for export 2. Plantations (sugar, cotton, tea, rubber, bananas) were imposed on land appropriated from those who became plantation laborers 3, Systems of export agriculture intezupted centuries-old patteras of diet and cultivation and ezeated a commercial food economy ii, Local handcraft were deliberately destroyed 1. Example: Through tariffs of 70 to 80 percent against Indian finished goods British traders used industrial technology (textile machinery and steam engine) ‘with political power to undermine India’s export lnsury cotton clo production so that India Would export raw cotton to Manchester's mulls 2. Inturn, British traders flooded India with cheap cloth manufactures in Manchester, undermining a time-honored craft ©. Social Reorganization Under Colonialism i, European development was realized through aracilized global relationship, “underdeveloping” colonial cultures ii, While native industries declined, local farming cultures lost thei best lands to specialized commercial export agriculture 1. Legacy today: For example, Mali (anked 160* out of 169 on the UN Human, Development Index) derives half of its export revenves from cotton, with 40 perceat of its population depending on this crop for ther livelihoods iii, Colonies lost resources and craft traditions as colonial subjects were forced to work in amines, fields and plantations ~ as slave, convict or indentured laborers ~ to sustain, European factories iv. Colonialism created new gender inequalities with men's entry ino cash cropping and the displacement of women’s customary land user rights that circumscribed food production by new private property systems v. Food security was destroyed: while production of commercial ops grew, local food cxop production declined 1. In India, grain became an export commodity feeding Londoners, undermining village-level grain reserves, a shift that spvead hunger, famine, and social uavest vi, In India, the “commons” were tamed into private property o state monopolies, rupturing “the ancient ecological interdependence of pastoralists and farmers" and age-old practices of extensive crop rotation and long fallow, to replenish soils 1. Indigenous iigaton systems displaced with canals, blocking natural drainage, exacerbating water salinity and pooling water in swamps, as host for the dreaded malarial anopheline mosquito. vil. As European industrial society matured, exploding urban populations demanded increasing imports of sugar, coffee tea, tobacce and vegetable oils from colonies and the expanding factories demanded increasing raw materials (cotton, timber, rubber, and jute). ‘More subjects were forced to work in eash-cropping through enslavement, taxation, land ‘grabbing and recruitment for indentured labor contracts vill, As the African slave trade subsided, Europeans created new schemes of force, or indentured, labor eating most notably Afican, Indian and Chinese Diasporas. ix, Colonial racialized rule contradicted the secular-modemist ideal of the state 1. Produced resistances among subject populations that fed the politis of| decolonization x. Summary statement: “We focus bere on the colonial division of labor because it isolates a key issue in the development puzzle. Unless we see the interdependence created through this division of world labor, iis easy to take our unequal world at face value and view it as a natural continvum, with an advanced Exuopeaa segion showing the way for a backward, non-European region. But viewing world inequality as relational (interdependent) rather than as sequential (catch-up), calls the conventional modern ‘understanding of “development” into question... development historically depended o2 the unequal relationships of colonialism, whieh included an unequal division of labor a ‘unequal ecological exchanges—both of which produced a legacy of “underdevelopment” Jn the colonial and postcolonial worlds.”McMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources WL Decolonization a. Colonial subjects engaged the European paradox ~ a discourse of rights and soversignty _justaposed against their own subjugation. 'b. The late 1S cennury Haitian “Black Jacobin" revolt tumed the shetoric of the French Revolution, successfully against French colonialism. As the first successful independence movement, Haiti's slave revolution sent temots throughout the slaveholding lands of the New World €. Resistance to colonialism evolved from the early 19* century independence of Latin American ‘republics tothe dismantling of South African apartheid in the early 1990s. Decolonization peaked as World War Il sapped the power of the French, Dute, British, and Belgian states to withstand anticolonial struggles. 4. The nation-state offered formal political independence, although the sovereignty of independent states was shaped by cultural and economic legacies of colonialism. Colonial Liberation a, Freedom required colonists and colonized to overcome social-psychological scars of colonialism, including legacy of racism b. In The Colonrzer and the Colonized (1967), Tunisian philosopher Albert Memmi deseribed the ‘unchanging nature of colonial racism cc. Inrespouse, West Indian psychiatrist Franz Fanon wrote The Wretched of the Earth, a manifesto calling people of former colonies (the Third World) to transcend the mentality of enslavement and forge a new path for humanity. 4. Decolonization was rooted in a lberatory upsurge, expressed in mass political resistance movements i. In Algeria, the independence movement struck at the French. Colonizers and colonized used terror. See Gillo Pontecorvo's film The Battle of Aigters ii, Militarized national liberation struggles in Portuguese African Colonies, French Indo: China’ iii, Colonial labor unrest in West Indian and African colonies in 1930s 2. Development was a pragmatic effort to preserve colonies by improving material conditions; colonial subjects demanded development as an entitlement. £ Anew world order was in the making: the era of development 4, 105 new states joined the United Nations from 1945 to 1981, swelling UN ranks from 51 t0 156 ii, Political sovereignty extended to millions of noa-Europeans (more than half of humanity) fii, Tdealism: First and Third World governments and people coordinated efforts to stimulate economic growth, social improvements and promote political citizenship iv. Leaders of new nation-states appropriated idealism and proclaimed equality as a domestic and international goal, informed by the 1948 UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1. Fnadamental human rights of freedom, equality, life, liberty, and security to all, ‘without distinetion by race, color, sex, language, religion, political opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status, 2. Citizenship rights—thar is citizens" rights to the social contract Decolonization and Development a. Decolonization gave development new meaning i, Linked to ideal of sovereignty ii, Possibility of converting subjects iii, Economic development for social justice b. Influence of French and U.S. ideologies of liberal-nationalism (nation building via national education systems, national languages and currencies, and modern armies and voting citizens) i, On Latin American republies (independent as of 1820s) i, On20 century decolonization movements in Africa and Asia cc. Enger to reconstruct post-World War IT world to expand markets and flow of raw materials, the United States led an intemational project that viewed development as a national enterprise 6. The USS. development model proposed an ideal division of labor to citizensMcMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources i, More “inner-directed” than the “outer-directed” British imperial model 1. Division of labor between agricultural and industrial sectors internalized ii, Topsoil was consumed unsustainably and reached ecological limits in 1930s “dustbow!” crisis when the U.S, begau to promote publicly supported agro-industrialization, commodity stabilization programs, and industrial inputs (such as chemical fertilizers) iii, U.S. export of capital-intensive industrial farming has defined agricultural modernization, with global ecological consequence. VIL Postwar Decolonization and the Rise of the Third World a. Inera of decolonization, after World War Il (1939-1944) durin subdivided into three geopolitical sezments: i. First World — capitalist, Western ii, Second World ~ communist, Soviet bloc iii, Third World — postcolonial bloc. most still food-growing rural dwellers, impoverished iv. Considerable inequality across and within these subdivisions, as well as within theie national units b. Economic disparity between First and Third Worlds i. First World had 65% of world income with only 20% of world’s population ii, Third World had 67% of world population with only 18% of its income ¢. Vision of development would energize political and business elites in each world i, President Harry S. Truman's 1949 speech proclaimed development program calling for ‘helping the least fortunate” 1. Suggested a new paradigm: the division of humanity into developed and undeveloped regions 2. Development/ modernity became the discursive benchmark 3. Gustavo Esteva: On this day, “two billion people became underdevelope ii, Development required restoring capitalist world markets to sustain First World wealth through access to strategie natural resources and opportunity for Third World nations to cennilate First World civilization and living standards 4d. The Development Project i, The power of this new paradigm was in its ability to present itself as universal, natural and uacontentious: obliterated its colonial roots ii, Third World states could nor repeat the European experience of development by exploiting labor and resources of other societies iii, The inevitability of development devalued non-European cultures and discounted what the West leamed from the non-European world the Cold War, the world VILL Ingredients of the Development Project 8. A political and intellectual response to world conditions at time of decolonization; understood social change as economic (reductionist) b. Development could be universalized as a market culture common to all, driven by the nation-state and economic growth cc. The Natiou-State was the framework of the development project i, Nation-states were terrtorially defined political systems based on the government-citizen selationship that emerged in 19% century Europe 1. Colonialism exported this political model (with its military shell), framing the polities of the decolonization movement, even where national boundaries made litle sense ii, In spite of efforts of African anti-colonialists who advocated pan-A ican federalism, colonial powers insisted on the nation-state as the only appropriate political outcome of decolonization iii, Borders were arbitrarily drawn, separating peoples and ereating states divided by conflict, suggesting foresight of pan-Adficanism 4. Economie Growh: instirutionalized through a uai development sal quantifiable measure of nationalMcMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources i, Objective of UN Charter of 1945 was “rising standard of living,” measured by gross national product (GNP) or national average of per capita income ii, Wester economists believed development required “jump start” in Third World to overcome “traditional obstacles” such as wealth sharing and cooperative labor. fii, Solution was to introduce marker system based on private property and accumnlation of wealth, Required introduction of banking, accounting, education, stock markets, legal systems, and public infrastructure. iv. Using economic growth as measure of development is problematic 1. Average indices of per capita income obscure inequalities among social groups and classes 2. Aggregate indices such as rising consumption measures do not reflect improvement in quality of life Rising consumption includes environmentally harmful activities 4, Economic eriteria marginalize other criteria for evaluating quality of life ané discount social wealth of nonmaterial activities IX, Framing the Development Project a. Both Cold War blocs understood development as destiny i, West identified free-enterprise capitalism as tbe endpoint of development, based on Jetemy Bentham’s utilitarian philosophy of common good arising fiom pursuit of individual self-interest ii, Communist bloc orthodoxy identified the abolition of private property and ceatral planning as the goal of social development, deriving fom Kar! Marx's collectivist dictum: “fiom each according to their ability, and to each according to their needs.” fii, Both blocs shared the same modernist paradigm and saw national industialization as vehicle of development 'b. National Inéustrialization: Ideal and Reality 4. Assumed that agrarian civilization would be displaced by urban-industial society Policies deliberately transferred people and resources from agrarian sectors with the idea that Industral growth would ideally feed back and technify agricultuce ji, Also assumed a linear direction for development ~ catch-up with the West, Jil, Developmeat isnot just a goal it is a method of rule Economie Nationals i. Is the effort of Thiré World governments to build development states to organize national economic growth by mobilizing money and people, using individual and corporate taxes, export and sales taxes to finance transportation systems and state enterprises ii, Sought to reverse the colonial division of labor by protecting domestic industialization With tariffs and public subsidies and reducing dependence on primary exports iii, Was associated with Raul Prebiseh, adviser to the Argentine military goveroment in the 1930s and executive secretary of the UN Economie Commission on Latin America. jv. Import Substitution Tndustialization (IST) was the framework forthe inital economic development strategies inthe Third World as governments subsidized “infant industries.” ‘The goal was a cunmlative process of domestic industralization +. Ironically, IT resulted in encouraging direc foreign investment. 1. Brazil redistributed private investment fiom export sectors to domestic production. 2. By contrast, South Korea centralized control of national development, relied less on foreign investment and more on export markets for the countzy's growing range of manvfactured goods, carried out land reform and distribute wealth among urban classes and between urban and rural populations Vi. To secure an expanding industrial base, Third World governments constructed political coalitions among ¢iffereat social groups to support rapid industialization—such as the Latin American development alliance. vii, Latin American development alliance 1 Social constituency included commercial farmers. public employees, wrbaa, industrialists, merchants, and organized industrial workersMcMichael ~ Development and Social Change, Se ~ Instructor's Resources Was a vehicle of political patronage for governments to manipulate electoral support 3. Example: Mexico’s Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) created corporatist instiutions to channel patronage downward and loyalty upward X. Summary 3. Idea of development emerged during , and within the terms of, the colonial era b. Colonialism disorganized non-European societies by reconstructing labor systems around specialized and ecologically degrading export production and disorganizing the social psychology of subjects. Exposure to European liberal discourse on rights fueled anti-colonial movements for independence Political independence from colonialism gave rise to the development project, a plan for national political-economic development as well as a “protection racket” to secure Cold War perimeters and make the “free world” safe for business 4. In development, Westernization was promoted in polities, economies and culture, As the non- European world emulated Europe, sovereignty and diversity were limited It also rejected the pan- “African insight into alternative political organization, Both of these ideas have re-emerged recenily, and they have a growing audience