RESEARCH DESIGN

Jasvin Kaur, Research Scholar, University School of Management

In this chapter, we will learn

 Meaning of research design
 Need for research design
 Characteristics of research design
 Concepts in Research design
 Various research designs
 Principles of experimental designs

5.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design fundamentally is composed of two elements: Research methods and the techniques
selected by the researcher that forms the basis or foundation of the Research Study. This design lays a
pathway for the researcher to define the type of research, i.e. and the sub-type, like. Therefore, it can be
said that design can be qualitative, quantitative or even mixed based on the type of research included in
the study.

There are various components in research design, for example, Research techniques, methodology,
analysis, objectives, timeline, cost, Purpose, measurement tools, probable outcomes, responsibility et
cetera, and research design strategically integrates all these elements of the study in a more logical,
analytical and coherent fashion. This approach offers an add-on advantage of effectively addressing the
research problem (from collecting data, measuring it and analyzing the same) and therefore, helping in
choosing the right research design as a blueprint for the research problem under study.

Thus, (Stevenson & Spring, 2007) can also be considered a planner or a master plan that determines not
only the objectives of the research project but also lays out guidelines for how and what is to be done to
fulfil the parameters of those objectives.

Planning facets of Research study like, what is to be done, reasons for doing it, where it will be
conducted, type of data needed, when and which time framework to be focused, how, who will do it,
why, and by what means, calibrating sample design, data collection and styling the report contents etc
are all encapsulated in the research design.

So, it gives an outline of the research work to be done in the time ahead. It gives a trailer, a preview or
acts as a model of how particular research will be conducted.

That is one reason that research design follows a structured format to be written in that form and must
be legible, simple but clear and prominent enough to give out main highlights of all the major
information about the research study laid down in advance.
About the above-mentioned information, the research design gives an overall picture of the work
undertaken by the researcher who then mentions 2 significant aspects of the study: one hypothesis (Cric
& Clark, 1994), and second, its functional or operational relevance (Van Ackere, 1993) to that of the
subject area for its final data analysis.

Fig 01: The Elements of Research Design

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

a. Research design fundamentally aids in steering clear through various hurdles of research
effectively and efficiently with hands-on information gathered already at the time of its
execution. It further helps in saving a lot of time, money and effort and subsequently obtaining
significant results with minimal to zero error possible.
b. Research design allocates the major areas and ideas to expedite the research project by following
a systematic procedure procured beforehand.
c. It effectively puts down the ‘purpose’ and ‘need’ for the study by meaningfully defining its
execution in the right direction and supporting it with facts and figures thereafter.
d. The design helps to puts in place various components in a frame like the need for study,
objectives, problem, data collection, analysis and outcome etc.
e. Formulating research and working upon pre-set guidelines enables a researcher to reach
conclusions and correct decisions taken upon based on the study.
f. Economically, thoughtful design renders an overview of the Research budget as well as the
financial investment that will be needed in an organized manner detailing the administrative cost,
transportation cost, equipment and supplies (experimental research/ scientific research/laboratory
research), cost for technology devices like computers, software, hardware, electronics like
smartphones, the cost for field trips/ travel cost like accommodation, staffing and related
incentives so on and so forth.
g. It provides a road map for only relevant data collection and extraction to be used for future
analysis by the researcher. Therefore, decisions about the geographical location of
samples/population, sample size, items to be taken for analysis, sampling method, etc. are
gathered in advance.
h. Subjectively (theoretical framework) and objectively (conceptual framework), a good research
design aims to be result-oriented that is both biased and error-free. Therefore, sound research
design helps in discarding or at least minimizing inaccuracies, marginal errors, and extraneous
variance and improving or maximizing systematic variance, validation, efficiency, reliability,
and expertise.
i. A well-configured design will also render optimization decisions like how much of the material
will be required, resources, tools, etc. Therefore, it ensures there is no wastage of men, materials,
machines and money.
j. It ensures Data Quality. For instance, at various logistic points of research, several different
people are allocated their responsibilities that can increase the margin of error due to manual
interpretation and distinct judgments. Therefore, research design also corroborates the quality of
the data reproducibility like the number of people who will be measuring and recording data,
data to be entered into the computer by whom and by how much, and who will be responsible for
maintaining records of original and copies of data sheets and logs registered in soft copy files,
concerned person who will analyze data etc. Although this detailed aspect does not necessarily
go into the written format but howsoever is thought upon at such stage.
k. As a logical study, it also mandates conducting research that can –
 Locate research gaps in both knowledge and understanding
 Frame such gaps and reasonably call-in questions and problems
 Working out these challenges with systematic, methodological and sensible ways of
exploring such gaps.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
To comprehend, the research design is based upon 4 main factors: consistency, dependability, stability
and reliability.

Fig 01A: The Features of Research Design

A. NATURALLY
In a basic framework of devising the plan for the research project, the researcher may be deemed to
make certain assumptions, also in form of hypothetical scenarios and data collection while the results or
the outcomes projected may not be in the line with those pre-conceived ideas. Therefore, a researcher
needs to be neutral in furnishing the details and results from error and biased free.

B. RELIABILITY
Most likely, the research study is affected by several factors like variance, environmental defects,
equipment, manual error etc. The researcher is undoubtedly required to calibrate the responses or results.
However, in this process the researcher must ensure that each time the research is conducted and results
are rendered, the latter must be in compliance with the research problems designed and that is only
possible when the research design formulated is reliable. Given the circumstances with a research design
using the same tools, sample and method, it bears the same outcome, then a research design is believed
to be sufficiently reliable. So, no matter how many times the same research is being carried out in a
specified time frame, it must induce similar results.

C. VALIDITY
To perceive and procure the accuracy of the outcomes, the researcher is required to include the right
measurement tools and check their adherence to the objectives of the study. Therefore, ensuring self-
consistency or we can also say, the absence of self-contradiction. By conforming to the rules and
guidelines of correct reasoning, the researcher can obtain valid reasoning. In this way, this feature also
verifies the sole integrity of the conclusions borne out of the research work. Validity can be performed
in various forms like measurement validity, the external and internal validity of data and that of tools,
etc.

D. GENERALIZATION
Generalization of the design means that the research design must not fabricate the result based on a
section of the sample studied but rather be applied to the entire population. A confined sample can be
rather considered inaccurate. Therefore, there should be general application to a large group population
of which the sample is drawn. Two related functions, that is, reproducibility and replicability of findings
are achieved and ignoring settings and measures' variance respectively.

E. OBJECTIVITY
This salient feature establishes the fact that the data that is collected and the related method used for data
collection and the responses encountered must be appropriate to satisfy the need for findings to be
objective. For this purpose, the researcher can seek objectivity in the procedure by way of determining it
as there is a degree of agreement between the final score assigned to various individuals by more than
one independent observer. If this degree of agreement is more among observers, higher would be the
objectivity of the observation, recording and evaluation of the responses. Hence, design needs to be both
accurate and objective.

This constituent also refers to non-manipulated data as per the need of the study or intention of the
researcher. For instance, to produce objectivity in the final result, the researcher cannot by force ask the
respondent to fill in details or give responses as per his/her result-based need. This imposition is
considered to be one of the failures of the research work leading to malpractice derived to achieve so-
called 'correct responses'.

F. REPLICABILITY
A researcher is expected to explain properly their procedures to conform to the research design results.
This is replicating the research design which is necessary to imitate following the same design and
results of the research.
5.3 CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN

Concepts: Also known as 'building blocks of theory

Ideas are developed formally and logically about the classes of the phenomenon as the researcher aspires to
study.

1. Dependent and Independent Variables

 The concept may be based on different Quantitative values which are further of two types:
Discrete variable (individual item or value) like height, weight, number, income, integer and
Continuous variable (continuous or non-finite values) like distance, ratio, Volume, age.
 Continuous variables, this aspect will be taking into consideration the values quantitatively
by assuming the values in their decimal points also. However, these variables are not
required to be continuous.
 Discrete variables are also known as non-continuous variables that are expressed only as
integer values.

For instance, an example of a continuous variable is distance but as far as a non-continuous variable is
concerned it may be the number of population or number of children or the number of sheep (that cannot
be in decimal value)

 In case there is a change or modification in one variable and it is directly caused by the change in
other variables, it is then called a dependent variable (Trice & Treacy, 1988) or also an
endogenous variable
 Similarly, the variable that has been made to cause this change in that dependent variable will be
now called an independent variable or also an exogenous variable.

For instance, in the classic 'demand and supply curve, demand is dependent on the price of a good or
commodity, by convention demand is a dependent variable as it is liable to change when the
independent variable (price here) or will change. And there can be more than one independent variable.
Like demand can be dependent upon price as well as the income and price of the substitute commodity.

2. Extraneous Variables

The independent variables that are not directly related to the purpose of the study but still affect the
dependent variables are known as extraneous variables. For example, if a researcher wants to study the
relationship between the employee's performance and their loyalty. In this case, the latter is an
independent variable while the former is a dependent variable. In this case, the experience and
knowledge of the employee can also affect their performance. But it is not taken directly under the study
by the researcher, that's why they would be called extraneous variables.
There is a certain influence cast by extraneous variables on the dependent variables and that is referred
to as “experimental error” (Shing & Mahin, 1987).

Therefore, the impact or influence of these extraneous variables on the dependent variables should
always be controlled during the research work.

3. Control

It refers to handling and minimizing the effect of extraneous variable(s). That is the ‘Control’ factor
here. That is not allowing such variables to impart their effect on and during the conditions of the
experiment.

4. Confounded Relationship

The extraneous variable is believed to lead to a confounded relationship between an independent and the
dependent variable and that happens when usually that dependent variable is not considered free from
the effect of that extraneous variable.

5. Research Hypothesis

When scientific methods are used to test a predictive or hypothesized statement then it is known as a
research hypothesis. It's a predictive statement that relates both to the dependent as well as the
independent variable. It must include at least one of each, i.e. dependent variable one and independent
variable also should be at least one. Also called a "conditional statement” that is logically consistent
with a theory and can be tested with empirical observations.

In case there are relationships assumed but are not tested, then it should be considered as a hypothesis as
they cannot be verified objectively.

6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research

 In case the objective of the research is to test the hypothesis of the research or Research
hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-testing research.
 The nature of this research is either experimental or non-experimental design.
 When there is the manipulation of the independent variable, the research is then known as
'experimental hypothesis-testing research’
 When there is no manipulation of the independent variable, the research is then called ' non-
experimental hypothesis-testing research’.

For instance, let’s say that a researcher wants to study if the dual income of the employee and
his/her partner affects the performance of the employee among a group of employees. This will
be done with the help of the calculation of the correlation coefficient between the above said 2
variables. In this case, the 'dual income' is an independent variable that is non-manipulative.
Therefore, it sets an example of a 'non-experimental hypothesis- testing research'.
 However, let us suppose, the researcher selects a group of 100 employees from a group of
employees who invest in the company stocks quite regularly and then classifies them based on 2
groups: Group A constituting randomly selected 50 employees, who have dual-income and
employee who invests regularly and Group B, who does not have a dual income and do not
invest regularly. In the end, let us assume that the researcher also conducts a test on each of the
above-mentioned groups to examine the impact of dual-income on the interest and willingness of
the employee to invest in the company. So such a study is referred to as experimental hypothesis-
testing research and that is so because here the independent variable is taken to be a dual-income
of the employee that is aimed to be manipulated.

7. Experimental and Control Groups

 Towards the experimental hypothesis-testing research conditions, the Control group aspect is
generally exposed.
 Experimental groups are those that are exposed to new or special conditions.

In the aforementioned example, Group A is considered to be the Control Group while Group B is known
as the experimental group.

In case both the groups are exposed to some special features or conditions, then both groups will be
termed 'experimental groups'

There can be both experimental groups or one experimental and another control group in the research
design.

8. Treatment(s)

It refers to a distinct set of conditions or situations or factors or circumstances. The control or the
experimental groups are generally subjected to these sets of treatments or conditions during the study.

For instance, two treatments are employees with and without dual income.

Similarly if in another study researcher wants to study the effect of 4 or 5 varieties of insecticides used
for crop growth, then those 4 or 5 types of insecticides will be referred to like 4 or 5 treatments or
conditions.

9. Experiment
 Catering to a research problem, when the researcher tries to subject the study process to
cross-checking and verifying the facts of research or the hypothesis of the study then the
condition is known as 'Experiment'.

To mention, let's assume the researcher wants to study the impact of music on the concentration of
adults. In this case, an experiment can be of two types: absolute or comparative experiment.
  In one case the researcher aims at studying only the 'light music' factor on the adult's
concentration, then it is deemed to be an absolute experiment, however, if he wants to determine
a comparison of the impact of light music to that of spiritual and rock music on their
concentration, then it will be considered as a comparative experiment.

10. Experimental Unit(s)

They are plots determined ahead of experiment/characteristics/specific blocks to which various

treatments are subjected.

VARIOUS RESEARCH DESIGNS

a. Sampling Design: It relates to the process of determining components for their discovery under
research.

b. Observational Design: It relates to the conditions and specifications under which considerations are
produced.

c. Statistical Design: It is affiliated with the topic of several components to consider and delineate the
process of data collection and the information so gathered to be analyzed in a peculiar and standardized
manner.

d. Operational Design: It is linked with the process or method of sampling, the tactic used for statistical
analysis and the manner or fashion in which the designs observed and investigated are put to use.

Another way of categorizing the Research Design can be as follows:

a. Research Design in case of exploratory research
b. Research Design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research
c. Research Design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies

a. Research Design in the case of Exploratory Research.

 Three methods are used in such a research design:
 Survey concerning Literature
 Experience survey
 ‘Insight-stimulating’ analysis with examples
 The survey of concerning literature aids in mapping out problems catering to research or in
developing the predictive statement or facts.
 The Experience survey concerns with surveying the target population who has gone through
a real experience with a related problem like the one being examined. The principal focus is
to acquire a discernment or factual intuition about the relationship between the occurring
elements or the variables and plans originating thereof while investigating the research
problem. Investigator interviews carefully selected respondents. A well-aligned schedule of
the interview must be prepared for the investigation of the system by the researcher. The
interview must be conducted flexibly in a way that the respondent feels comfortable to freely
ask queries or raise issues, in case not considered otherwise by the investigator. As a gesture
of desirability, a copy of such questionnaire must be sent to the respondent in advance for
him to get well-acquainted with it. This ensures acceptance by the respondent that the
opportunity of advanced thinking over can be presented. This method can further offer
possibilities of doing a different type of research by the information entailed by the survey.

 An example of insight-stimulating analysis is recommending assumptions or predictions for

investigation. Within a purview of short-sighted experience, the insight-stimulating technique
comprises of in-depth evaluation and interpretation of selected elements of the situation
under the process of its examination.

b. Descriptive and diagnostic research in Research Design

 Descriptive Research: focuses on those performance works that aim at delineating the
features of a specific individual or group of individuals. They have particular assumptions,
where some facts are narrated and situations rendering properties to that of individuals or
groups as a suitable example for descriptive research studies.
 Diagnostic Research is concerned with determining the incidence and repetition of a
happening or is associated further with something else. There are some elements involved in
the study that is linked with diagnostic research.
 Figure 3: Research Design for two types of study
Source: https://www.gnits.ac.in/sites/default/files/pics/ece/econtent/rmipr/Module2-ResearchDesign.pdf

c. Research Design in case of hypothesis-testing research/ Experimental studies

 Within the cause and effect relationship, the research design is framed in a way that
researcher verifies and confirms the hypothesis of the variables.
 The experimental studies are deemed to use the strategy where the happening of business is
curtailed and elevates the result's reliability
Another way of categorizing the type of designs is as follows:

Fig 04: Types of Research Design

Another way of categorizing the type of designs is:

Table 01: Theoretical v/s Experimental Research

FIXED VS FLEXIBLE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE

As per the fixed design, before the defined stage
in data collection design of the study is affixed
beforehand. Because they are theory-driven
normally that is why it is possible in advance to
know about the variables. The variables can be
managed to be controlled in a certain way to be
measured further quantitatively.
RESEARCH
In quantitative research, a particular event or
situation is subjected to several measurements in
diversified ranks/ ranges/ values.
Qualitative research needs just the Boolean
estimation.

In flexible designs, there is more flexibility

during the data collection phase. The basic motive
behind this is that the variables are not measured
quantitatively and the examples are culture,
values, beliefs etc.

CONFIRMATORY VS EXPLORATORY EXPERIMENTAL VS NON-

RESEARCH EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The confirmatory research tests a priori In experimental design, it is of utmost

hypotheses: Before the phase of measurement is importance to bring variables under the
reached, the predictions of the final result are operational aspect for them to be measured more
augmented. This kind originated from the effectively. Then consider, how these variables
conclusions of previously defined studies. will be measured. And then deciding relevant
methods to be used for each research question so
The exploratory research on the flip side, a developed appropriately. To know the statistical
hypothesis named 'a posterior wherein the data approach that the study demands and what will be
sets are assessed for their probable association the outcome of the same after its analysis. Last
between several variables. This function offers an but not the least, practical limitations are
edge over the other functions as this research is developed by the researcher
used to build new learning in the field of
experimental research and so the restrictions of In non-experimental design, there is no situation
the methods are likely to bear less rigidity. And manipulation or the volunteers.
researcher never wants to skip a potentially
interesting relation and focuses on reducing and It is of three types:
narrowing the likelihood of rejection of some real
 Relational designs: The gamut of
repercussion. Hence, the term (Beta) is used to variables is measured. Also known as
refer to this probability. co-relational studies. The possibility of
causation is not incorporated in the
Nutshell- In case of the absence of any specific function of correlation but the element
predictive issue or hypothesis beforehand, the of dependence is identified of one
experimental study is accepted as exploratory, variable on the other. It foresees the
meanwhile considering the variables in question prevalence of co-existing natural
at the same time, it can be confirmatory for groups ranging from more than one
another population group. group.
 Comparative research: It means to
compare 2 or more comparing groups
on several different variables for
example effect of gender on employee
performance.
 Longitudinal design: It examines
variables like satisfaction, growth, and
performance presented by group or
groups over a length of time.

PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Prof. Fisher has enunciated 3 principles
 The Principle of Replication
 The Principle of Randomization
 The Principle of Local Control

a. Principle of Replication
  The experiment should be repeated several times.
 For this purpose, the conditions or the treatments are applied to various experimental units
instead of their application to only one kind of experimental unit.
 When such a pattern is followed, it greatly increases the numerical and mathematical validity
of the demonstration.
 E.g., to examine the impact of two types of qualities of milk; make two groups of dairy or
farm animals. Milk was obtained from one group of buffaloes while another group from
another group of buffaloes. Comparison can be done by which conclusions can finally be
drawn.
 In an application of the Replication principle, we require making several groups of buffaloes
and then studying for the above-mentioned qualities of milk from different groups. Data is
gathered from two different qualities and a conclusion is drawn based on the comparison.
There is more reliability in the results if the principle is applied.
 For superior outcomes and results, the experiment can be done again and again under this
principle.

b. Principle of Randomization
 To avoid the unnecessary impact of extraneous variables while experimenting, this principle
protects the researcher by randomization.
 The researcher should outline, and construct experiment in a way that he/she can categorize
all the extraneous variables under a single term "chance"
 For instance, we want to check the yield and quality of cow milk. But ignore factors like pure
cows, bred cows, hybrid cows, and genetically modified cows, then the experiment will be
challenged with many irregular factors rising and our results would not realistic.
 Therefore with the help of the random sampling technique, the principle of randomization
can be sorted and applied to protect the experimental results and conclusions unaffected by
the possibility of extraneous factors (different types of cows).
 Not only better result, but this principle also helps in providing us with a refined evaluation
of error under experiment.

c. Principle of Local Control

 The source of variability is known under this principle as extraneous factors are intentionally
stretched to a range that is as wide as possible. The extending of factors to a particular range
is done in such a way the final variability is calculated upon measurement and eliminated
from the experimental error.
 So, a 2-way analysis of variance is performed under set experimental conditions which are
planned.
 The final net variance of data can be further fractionalized into 3 sub-elements i.e. the
treatments (milk diversity here), the extraneous factor (types of cows) and experimental
error.
  That said, as per this principle, cows are divided into groups on basis of homogeneity (or
homogenous parts or groups). These groups are technically called blocks.
 The act of splitting up different types of extraneous factors (cows here) into several
homogenous parts is called "blocking"
 Generally, the blocks are deemed to be at the foot where extraneous factors are affixed to
measure their impact subjected to net data variance using 2-way variance analysis.

 Therefore, a prime reason for using this principle aims at escalating the research design
efficiency and at the same lowering or removing or eliminate the possibility of experimental
error. The blocks, therefore, act like replicates themselves in that sense. However, there is a huge
difference between "local control" and "control". While the "control" term is linked with
treatments, "local control" means the total proportion of the balancing, aggregating the net
blocking followed by grouping the elements of the experiment.
 Also, this principle holds an upheaval advantage as the principle of randomization and
replication are not adequate in removing the extraneous sources of variation.

CONCLUSION

No matter there is a myriad of options and a range of research designs available to a researcher as per
the need of the study, it is, however, imperative to understand and recognize the most appropriate and
relevant set or sets of designs to carry out research objectively to keep resources under the hook.
Pertinent factors like the type of population study, sample size, area of study, and resources available to
a researcher, make the whole framework of designing the research possible. Research is applied to a
range of fields like medicine, artificial intelligence, science, biotechnology, food, agriculture,
management so on and so forth. Some require specimen studies while others may just be based on data
collected from respondents. However, in both cases to make research effective and successful for the
future alliance, implementation and correct decision making is to bridge the gap between one's study in
another and create substantial tactics, tools and techniques for the methodology. A good research design
simply covers a well-written research problem, hypotheses, the method to be used, data collection,
analytical tools, sampling and tentative result (foreseeable) followed by its conclusion.

A well-explained research design not only helps in creating a clear and vivid understanding of the
research problem but also carries out reasoning by eliminating of the issue under study which is also
referred to as critical analysis or the logical thinking of the 'solving issue'

For the potentially driven researchers, an effective research design sets out a competitive field to search
for answers and seek the suitability of the rendered information in their respective field of interest.

Research design is the ladder to solving research problems based on the notes developed in outlining the
research project, contemplating upon the questions and decisions and carrying it out in a conducive
environment. From strategizing to formulation (just before actual execution in the field or lab), each
stage remains to be critical for the researcher to bridge gaps carefully between the past studies and future
amendments.

Therefore, it is believed that a research design is effective when it entails every minor to major detail
about the research topic quite constructively. The domains of timeline, expenditure, personnel and
administration are practically possible to be arranged beforehand to save time and effort for the
researcher. However, it is significant to understand that Research Design is not the stage in the Research
Process where there is the actual collection of data or application of statistical and analytical tools. In
principle, it just makes quotes of reference points and experimentation ideology for the jury or experts or
the respective organization for its acceptance or so.

The focal point of research design is to narrow down the possibility of error in conducting research and
eliminate wrongful or unnecessary variances so they do not interfere with the actual data for its analysis.
It also ensures that the evidence collected will scientifically solve the research problem at hand or future
scope of the same based on theory testing, identifying results of hypothetical situations and predictions
made at the beginning of the research process. Research design is therefore vital in playing the role of
identifying the structured way of finding the evidence as well as proving the opinion empirically by
supporting the idea and preferred explanation.

Chapter Summary
Research design is composed of two elements: Research methods and the techniques selected by the
researcher that forms the basis or foundation of the Research Study. This design lays a pathway for the
researcher to define the type of research, i.e. and the sub-type, like. It can be considered as a planner or a
master plan that determines not only objectives but also lays out guidelines for how and what is to be
done. Research is applied to a range of fields like medicine, artificial intelligence, science,
biotechnology, food, agriculture, management so on and so forth. A good research design simply covers
a well-written research problem, hypotheses, the method to be used, data collection, analytical tools,
sampling and tentative result (foreseeable) followed by its conclusion. From strategizing to formulation
(just before actual execution in the field or lab), each stage remains to be critical for the researcher to
bridge gaps carefully between the past studies and future amendments. Research Design is not the stage
in the Research Process where there is the actual collection of data or application of statistical and
analytical tools. In principle, it just makes quotes of reference points and experimentation ideology for
the jury or experts or the respective organization for its acceptance or so. The focal point of research
design is to narrow down the possibility of error in conducting research and eliminate wrongful or
unnecessary variances so they do not interfere with the actual data for its analysis.
Key terms
Research design: The research design is the overarching plan that selects to combine the many study
components in a logical and cogent manner, so assuring that will successfully answer the research topic.
It serves as the guide for data collecting, measurement, and analysis.

Experimental Error: The discrepancy between a measured value and its real value is known as
experimental error. In other words, the error or inaccuracies are what prevent us from perceiving a
measurement that is 100 per cent accurate. Every measurement has some degree of experimental error,
which is fairly frequent.

Conditional statement: A statement having a hypothesis and a conclusion is known as a conditional

statement. "If this happens, then that will happen" is another approach to defining a conditional
statement. The initial clause, or "if," of a conditional statement is the hypothesis.

Research hypotheses: A precise, explicit, testable, and falsifiable assertion regarding the predicted
relationship between variables or the explanation of an event is known as a research hypothesis (or
scientific hypothesis).

Comparative experiment: Comparative experiments are intended to establish the differences between
various treatment modalities. Two or more different treatment types are present in a comparison
experiment. For instance, researchers may already be aware that medication A helps mice with their
short-term memory.

Experience survey: A customer experience survey is a questionnaire designed to learn more about the
CX by getting the opinions of consumers. A company often uses it to assess its performance and identify
areas for improvement to attain or maintain an excellent customer experience.

Questions:
1. What is a research design question?
2. How do you write a research design question?
3. What are the different types of research questions?
4. How do you select a research design?
5. What is a qualitative research question?
6. What is an example of a quantitative research question?

References:
Cric, F., & Clark, J. (1994). The astonishing hypothesis. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 1 (1), 10--16.
Shing, P.-S. B., & Mahin, S. A. (1987). Cumulative experimental errors in pseudo-dynamic tests.
Earthquake engineering \& structural dynamics, 15 (4), 409--424.

Stevenson, M., & Spring, M. (2007). Flexibility from a supply chain perspective: definition and review.
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