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    5th Unit of Power Electronics

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    Uday Kumar

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    UNIT he A.C voltage regulators are domestic heating, ed control of 1 and 3 IM, on-load transformer TRIAC and S.C.Rs which are connected in antiparallel, tors. TRIAC is used for the low and medium power € used for the high power application. Since the supply and triacs are line commutated and hence, no complex cucuitry is required. The advantages of using these devices over the earlier devices are high efficiency, flexibility in control, compact in size, and lese maintenance. A.C voltage regulators are used in closed loop control system. The basic circuit diagram of A.C voltage regulator is as shown in Fig. 3.1(a) 3.2. Types oF Power Controi For power transfer, two types of controls are normally used '. On-off control (Integral cycle control). 2. Phase angle control. static V.A.R Compensators, spe tap changing etc. Generally, forms A.C voltage regulat applications and S.C.Rs ar voltage is A.C, the S.C.Rs In on-off control, thyristor switches connect the load to the ac source for a few Cycles of I/P voltage and disconnect it for another few cycles. 'n phase control, thyristor switches connect the load to the ac source for a Portion of each cycle of the input voltage 3.2 Power Electronics + % x 7 st f R Fo E,=E,sin ot Figure 3-1 (a) 3.2.1 Integral cycle control firing, Zero voltage switching, Cycle ff control, Burst ation. In industries, we hanical time constant or # It is also known as on-o selection or cycle syncop applications in which mec! order of several seconds. observe that there are several hermal time constant is of the drives or thermal time constant for speed control plications, no variation Toads is quite high. For such ap 4 if the regulation is achieved by connecting eisad to source for some “on cycles” and by disconnecting the load for some ‘off " This form of controlling the power is called Integral cycle control i. cycles” Integral cycle consists of switching on the supply to load for some integral no. of ycles. cycles and then switching off the supply to load for another no. of integral ¢: This principle may be explained as below for resistive load in Fig 3.1(a)- For eg: Mechanical time constant for most of the heating in speed or temperature will be observe t eqitscEnsinot - ot ot ——* ot “orR Figure. 3.1(b) ee PELL ALLE LEE AC Voltage Regulators 3.3 From the above explanation, itis observed that even though the thyristors are triggered for less no. of times, speed control ne the devices doesnot change as their time constant is marginally high, From the fig. 3.1b, we observe that the load is Connected to supply voltage for ‘a’ no. of cycles and Io: from supply for *b' no, of cycles, Be Eorms may be obtained for sinusoidal 1 ad is disconnected 1. RMS output volt P as follows 1 2n Fora“ Periodicity | [E2, Sin?otd(ot) for the first on cycle + oO 2x JER, Sin2otd(ot) for the second on cycle + .... 0 an . fe, Sin?@td(ot) for the n' on ont] 0 For ‘a no. of on eycles and ‘b’ no. of off eyeles, periodicity becomes (a+b) 2x rad. a Qn a 5 4 Eorms = Taeay J Fmsn ot d(ot) ~0-——— +. 2n-0 > 2 ak? | sin4x _ sin0® ake 4n(a+b) 2 Qn - en Jt-cos 20) us] 4n(a+b) é or - *n Fo = 3 VK Where K = nt is the duty cycle of AC voltae contioller + 3.4 Power Electronics _ Fores. RMS load current isle = v a] ke arb]7"R RMS value of load currents Tors 3, Power deliv ered to load 4. RMS value of I/P current, I VP Volt ampere rus IsrMs =E. Eorus aos forms ~ PsrMs~ R = Esrs Isrts Power delivered to load = I/P VA * PF EorMs. x pF or £8 Foams, or UP PF = R E, Eorms Foams or VP PF Problem 1 1. AC voltage controller has a resistive load of R = 5Q, and RMS i/p volt is E, = 80 volts at power frequency. The thyristor switch is on fora cycles and it is off for b = 75 cycles. Determine, 7 a. The RMS O/P voltage (Eorms) b. The ifp power factor (cos 9) J ce. Avg and RMS currents of thyristors a Solution a. The RMS value of O/P voltage (E,) is given by (Rorms)= By JK ats 7 = 80 100 80 = 40 volts a A.C Voltage Regulators 3.5 . E “othe formula is log = ORMS R 40 RMS load current Ions = J =8 Amps py, Load power Porms =I?R Porms =8?x5 Porms =320w VP current is same as load current i.e. Ip = I, VP volt amperes = VA = E,1, = E, I, = 80 (8) = 640 VA Power factor c. Peak thyristor current is 1 im 80v2 Avg current of thyristor is layg 22.62x0.5 2 Power delivered to load (P,) i/p Volt— Amperes 1 a & « acai 162 = 22.62 Amps = 5.65 Amps ——— tll y+ 3.6 Power Electronics 3.3. Furr Wave AC VotTace REGULATOR gurations of 19 A.C voltage regulators. They are There are three possible confi Using two thyristors connected i anitparallel as shown in Fig. 3.2(a). And a thyristor as shown in Fig. 3.2(0). 1 2. Using 4 diodes 3 as shown in Fig. 3.2() Triac based ac voltage regulator Figure 3.2(c) 34 AC Voutace ReGutator with Resistive LoaD oa description: Its circuit diagram is as shown in fig. 3.3a. It consists of two pyristors connected in antiparallel to each other. Here, the load considered is of purely resistive. Soe : i Its operation may be explained in wo different modes. Mode - 1: (0 < ot estan ot @S) ht iL { jeer fo [- Figure 3.3(a) = A.C Voltage Regulators 3.7 puring the positive half cycle of the supply volt forward biased condition whereas thyristor *T, isin whenever gate signal has been given to thyristor," ind load current follows the path age, thyristor ‘T," is in the he reverse biased condition, alot = a, it starts conducting as shown in fig, 3.3(a). The circuit completes its path as Eg = Ty - load ~ During this positive half cycle of supply voltage, the power gets delivered to Joad from source during the period a to x, At nt, both E, & I, falls to zero. At this instant, T, is subjected to reverse bias and therefore it gets turned off naturally, | Mode - 2: (1 < ot < 2n) During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, thyristor T, is in the forward biased condition and T, is in the reverse biased condition. Now, whenever gate signal has been given to thyristor T, at ot = n+ a immediately it gets turned on and hence conducts from (mt + a) to 2n. T, is subjected to a reverse bias at ot = 2nand it is therefore line commutated at this instant. Its associated wave forms are as shown in Fig. 3.3b. Derivation of avg O/P voltage 17. Eoavg = In JE, sinat (dot) a E - ee [-cos wt] E = ood [- cos x + cos a] En, : 2E =a + = al S Gq [I + 00s a] = 5 [1 + cos a] (Ej, > maximum value of source voltage) From 0 to a, T, is forward biased, Therefore, ET, = E, From a to x, T, conducts and therefore Ey, is about 1 volt-practically. ML. After x, T, is reverse biased by source voltage and hence, Ey, =-E, froma ton+a, From 0 to a, T; is in the reverse biased condition and therefore, E tT \ From o to x, Ex, = Ivolt-practically. { 3.8 Power Electronics | E, = E,sinot| | vat Q LS je tot rid : cee: | : ; rT, @ sr Pasa Java Voltage across T; sot é, Voltage across T, Figure 3.3(b) er A.C Voltage Regulators 3.9 . RMS output voltage tion of peri 2 Eorms = | 3 aes Ys £2 sin? ER sin’ ot dat y En i 1-c0s 2ot) 2 7 2 @ 2 ia (} (n-a)- 545 (in 2005 i RMS load current may be given as — Forms Tors =—R EA ii Power delivered to the load = ~ORMS. i power delivered to load \. UP power factor (cos 4) oe pparent power E,1, cody EI, cos > EL “7 eos 4 = 1 for resistive load 3.10 lL. Power Electronics or cos = 1 cos b= z [-- arfsin2a| Problem 2 ‘4230 V, 1 kW electric heater is fed through an A.C voltage regulator from 230 V, 50 Hz source. Find the load power for a firing angle delay “of 70° Solution Vy Given: i/p voltage = 230 V; Power = 1 kW \ le 2 Eorms = af [ce-0)+ Ssin2a] 230 q [314-1 2240.32) j 2 Power = —s Power Load power =713.80Q Problem 3 I 4 19 ac voltage controller has resistive load of R = 10 Q and the iP voltage E, = 120 V, 6042, The delay angle of thyristor T, ix a = 1/2 Determine i RMS value of the O/P voltage (E.,) i/p power factor A.C Voltage Regulators 3.44 solution RMS value of O/P voltage (Eps) is 2 A yY Eorms = [asta a 2 120 * Fare B.14-1.57+0)% 120 = Faig 1.252] = 84.85 volts E, _ 84.85 RMS value of load current = rr wns 8.485 A b. Input power factor (cos 6) 1 \ cos $= Te 1 - aa [3.14—1.57]/2 = 0.707 lag Problem 4 |. The 19 full wave ac voltage controller has a resistive load of R = 5Q and the i/p voltage E, = 120 v (RMS) 60 Hz. The delay angles of thyristors T) and T, are equal i.e., @, = @y =2n/3 . Determine, The RMS output voltage (Eonys) The i/p power factor PF The avg current of thyristors The RMS current of thyristors Ross RMS output voltage (Eos) may be given as Eorms= 120 Vv a aa [3.14 - 2.09-0.0075] 2 = 69.14 volts 3.12 b. Input power factor (PF) Ww c Power Electronics 1 sin 20 cos O= ae [r+ 2 | . wa [3.14- 2.09 0.00752 = 0.57 lag given as Avg thyristor current may be Le v2 E, sin ot (dot) @ = 2nR lavg v2 anh E,( + cos a) y2x120 -— 120° Iara (1 *°°* ) =2.702 Amps 4. RMS current of thyristor may be given as [x-e+ X% 120 = Bra) [3.14-2.09-0.0075}/2 E, VaR Ip = = 13.82 Amps Harmonic analysis ‘rom 0 te 10 @ and x to 7 + a, no S.C.R will conduct. During these periods, the OP voltage is zero. Th i a eioe ¢ voltage waveform is not purely sinusoidal, since it contains in addition to the fundamental voltage. , « x Xan sinn ot + SB, cosn wt where n= 2 : n=1,3,5,7.... (an odd integer) 5 The output voltage wav Hoc ave form is symmetric. ‘nN harmoni netrical about X-axis, a Be then form ics where, only odd harmonics are nen and hence there 8 are present in the wave Ae A.C Voltage Regulators 3.13 Ag By coefficients are calculated as follows: 2+ Ba (Ay) = al- dn [£60 sinn ot dary (fox) = a 1 Qn “7 JE, sinnot dot) a an ~ JEn sin ot sinn ot dat) a where E,=0,0 7, load current becomes zero and hence thyristor T, gets turned off, which is already in-reverse biased condition. B is known as extinction angle. Now a voltage of magnitude E,, sin B appears as reverse bias across the thyristor T,, and as forward bias across the thyristor T. From B to « +a, no current exists .. both the thyristors are in the off state. Mode 2: During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, thyristor T, is in the reverse biased condition and thyristor T, is in the forward biased condition. When gate signal is given to the thyristor T,, it gets turned on and load current follows the path as shown. EB,t-L-R-T,-E, _ This load current traces the negative half cycle of the supply voltage. At the 'nstant «ot = 2n, thyristor T, must be turned off as the supply voltage, load voltage $Zero and as it gets reverse biased at wt = 27, But it does not get turned off due ‘othe presence of inductance in the load ckt, At (x +a +), ip, = O and T, gets ‘ured off as it is already in the reverse biased condition. AU this instant, E,, sin (n + a + 7) appears as a forward bias voltage across cree aS a reverse biased voltage across T). From (x + a + y) to (2m + a) no At exists in the power circuit as both the thyristors are in off state. Again at wave T, is turned on and current starts building up as before. Its associated ‘orm are as shown in Fig. 3.4c. Power Electronics 3.16 —_A Figure 3.4(c) For a > ¢ for discontinuous conduction mode A.C Voltage Regulators 3.17 continuous conduction mode: (a > 6) i i 8 i560" sion for the load current i, and ‘B* can be obtained as follows: phe exP . . a voltage drop across T, during on state, which may be neglected) ; _ dio E,, sin ot= Rig + LP The solution of the above equation is given as isin (ot- 9) + A.e- Q2) = tan! (=) R The value of the constant ‘A’ can be found from the initial conditions: Where the value of z= [R? +x? At ot=a,i,=0 Substituting the condition (3) in (2) sin(a-g)+Ae | fromthis, A = FH sin (a - 4) * bt) 3.18 Power Electronics substituting the value of ‘A’ in equation (2) gives, “| mM! sin(ont ~ ) sina ~ 9.60! At ot =B,ig=0 =. sub in equation (2) gives r/{ xb sin (B — 6) = sin (a - 9) * oo 7 ) ‘on, since @, a are known we can obtain ‘B" By the solution of above equatit Knowing the value of ‘B’, *y’ can be known y=B-a (7 conduction angle, ‘B’ — extinction angle, ‘a’ = firing angle) RMS O/P voltage * B, Jez sin2ot dot + f Ej, sin? ot dot +a, _ £08 2ot a -n- B+ Boma a _sin2p + sin 2 2 . EORMS a sin2a _ sin2p 4 4 a aN a2 _— EOrms = Forms ~ [iw ays taza 1028 7 " 4 4 Avg. O/P voltage may be derived ay follows 6 [ Egy = q flim sin wt(dont) =~] (w9s a cos 1) a A.C Voltage Regulators 3.19 V2E = —~* (cos a-cos f) = BALL sin (3) sin (a+2) nT T 2 2 RMS value of thyristor current Ioauyg may be obtained as ua, 4 lors = zz) Redon a Ro, iy = Fn sin (at-)-sinta-9 Ls ' 4 2 Em Norms =| 35,2 2 B a J ee ees ' dot @ 14). (2) ; A f sin(wt-$)-sin(a-o)e’ 4° JS dot E. ae } As the RMS O/P current is obtained by combining the RMS current of each thyristor, we get 5 2 z= 1, = Vlams +Iems) = V2 Irus- Average value of thyristor current may be given as. 1 A elaor Jiotdoo fo E R/(% 8 R(t ile J—® |sin(or—9)-sin(a-g) e AE Hdoot mm A 3.20 Power Electronics load AC voltage regulator with RE rot Ip conducts s t aso” Figure 3.4(d) Whena<@ orks as follows. Under steady state condition, when a = @ ac voltage regulator w' Thyristor T; conducts from 0 to @ and thyristor T, conducts from @ to +o and so on. Whenever ais decreased to a value less than $ and thyristor T, is triggered it does not get turned on due to the reverse bias voltage applied across it by the thyristor T>. Thyristor T is conducting in this period whose value may be give? as iy, T, gets turned on at a = 4, only when iy) and reverse bias due to the voltage drop across it becomes zero, Now T, conducts from a to x +9. When T is triggered at an angle (m + @) <(n + §) voltage drop across T, applies a revels bias across T, and hence it does not get turned on. In this period, Thyristor T, is in the conduction state whose conducting curren T, conducts only when the reverse bias voltage applied across it gets zero and the current through the thyristor iy, becomes zero. THE shows that load voltage and current waveforms will not change from what theY are at a ~ >. Thus, when the firing angle ‘a’ is reduced below ¢, it is not possible to control the load voltage and load current y = m. When a < ¢ then the conto! range of firing angle may be given as @ < a < 180°. Its associated waveforms are as shown in fig, 3.4d. - value may be given as i, > A.C Voltage Regulators 3.24 problem 1 hase ac switch is A single P' h is connected betw 530%, 50 Hz supply and inductive load. Ifthe maninuon hata eh “50 amperes and the load power factor is 0.75 laggin iad the lead power average and RMS thyristor current and the sere ee ring angle of the thyristors also, cae erenene + be En oe Solution Given: Imax = 50A E, = 230 volts P.F= 0.75 lagging 230 50x 0.75 load power (Po) = —J5— = 6098.79 watts tae = 3°. ave 7 3.1 =15.92A Tams = 7254 ~ PIV = JZ * 230 = 325.26V = cos! (0.75) = 41.40 deg Power factor angle © V- 3.22 Power Electronics = 41.40 deg jso° +41 40. 221.40 deg Firing angle of thyristor Ty Firing angle of thyristor T) In general, a, = 360n +0 = 180 (2n+1)+ where n=0, 1, 2,.. Problem & e static switch operates between a supply of 230V, SOH: 8. A single phas 8 kw and pf = 0.75 lagging. Find : and a load of powe! i. The peak inverse voltage ii, The peak current of the thyristors ji, The average current of the thyristors iv. The RMS current of the thyristors. Solution Given: E, = 230V f =50 Hz P, = 8kw P.f=0.75 lag i PIV= Jp * 230 = 325.26 V v2:Py) _ J2(8000) ii, Imax = E,(PF) ~ 230(0.75) = 65.58 A 65.58 cm Sig 720.884 6 iv. Ips = —g— = 32.79 Problem 9 1. A single phase AC f pie uae ae ear h is connected between an ae voltage source power fy 25 kw ut ln tive load as shown in fig (a). If the 104 era hw at a power factor of 0.75 lagging, determine ji, RMS current of the thyristors iii, peak current of thyristors iv. average current of the thyristors, v.__ peak inverse voltage AC Voltage Regulators 3.23 SOHz Figure (a) 30V 0 Hz 25 kw PF= 0.75 lag i RMS line current Po 25000 1. = Y2E,@H ~ J2@30)075 = 10247A ii, RMS current of the thyristors 102.47 Iau "Jp = 72468 iii Peak current of the thyristors Imax = V2 102.47 =144.91A . Average current of the thyristors = —— =46.15A 3.14 aon Vv. Peak inverse voltage = /2 * 230 = 325.26 volts. 3.6 Brvirectronat TRIODE THYRISTOR (TRIAC) Introduction nthe case of Conventional thyristor, power can flow from anode to cathode and " Prevents th © power flow from cathode to anode as it has reverse blocking aracteristics, There are certain applications where bi-directional conduction is teuited. Under such circumstances two SCRs connected in anti parallel serves ange UPOse. The disadvantages of using two thyristors connected in antiparallel i § C&St of the thyristors become high €at sinks Tequired will be more. 3.24 Power Electronics two antiparallel thyristors AC. TRIAC is the worg and AC. TRIAC can be ‘CRs can be used for Instead of placing two SCRs in inverse parallel, the can be integrated into a single device known as rRIODE derived by combining the letters from the word er a used for low id mod fications high power applic RIAC isa five layer d derate power app. ec terminals and three junctions vice having thr r oi hode are not applicable as the TRIAC ths ca TTRIAC the terms anode an ‘ In the ease of Te ither directions. Its terminals 27° usually designated as MT,, Sean is nearer to MT). MT, is always te terminal (Gr power cat @ any voltage or curr MT, and g used as art with reference to MT, ¢ ate terminals. The ga Ci eanidbilonie eference terminal wher erminal. Power flow — —— MT, MT, Gate Figure 3.5(a) Figure 3.5(b) Cross sectional view of TRIAC tional view showing (b). TRIAC is also a ind negative hat should e For understanding the operation of TRIAC, its cross sect \ athe layers and junctions are sketched as shown in Fig. 3.5 controlled switch like conventional SCR. It will block both the positive a! AZ bait cycles when gate signal is not applied. The value of the voltage be applied to the TRIAC should be less than the forward break over voltage. Visor OF Visor: Ls 3.7 Triccerinc Moves or TRIAC TRIAC can be turned on with positive or negative gate current keeping the MT terminal at positive or negative potential. There are 4 important triggering modes of TRIAC. Mode I: MT, positive and gate current positive. Mode 2: M17 positive and gate current negative. Mode 3: MT) negative and pate current positive Mode 4: MT, negative and gate current negative. F NSE AC Voltage Regulators 3.25 +1 Positive m1 = Negative MTC), 14 MT 41), 1,049 Man] oma Matt MTA), 4) mv MTL), 1-4 Figure 3.6(a) Static V-I char of TRIAC Figure 3.6(b) Mode I: When MT» is positive with res ae forward biased and junction N, — gate signal with respect to MT, gate ci pect to MT}, Junctions Py ~ Ny, P, —N. P, is reverse biased, By applying the positive urrent mainly flows through P, — No junction. When the gate current has injected sufficient charge into P, layer, P, layer is flooded with more electrons. These electrons tries to penetrate into the reverse biased junction and junction breaks down because of the avalanche phenomena, Under these conditions, TRIAC will operate in the first quadrant. The gate current required to turn on a TRIAC is more than that ofa conventional SCR as TRIAC ‘slightly doped when compared to that of SCR at a particular voltage. TRIAC is sensitive in first quadrant. Whenever a conduction is required, give the positive fate signal and positive voltage with respect to reference terminal, { ik | | G MT, (-ve) Noe, 1, oP, a p, 1 MT, (+ve) Figure 3,6(c) MT, +ve and gate current is also +ve y 3.26 Power Electronics ate current negative: When MT) is positive and gay, ic Mode 2: MT) is positive, x ate current ‘starts flowing current is negative with respect to terminal MT), & through the junction Py — Nj. Initially, TRIAC starts conductingrthrough Py PN; auniliary structure. As the power flow is in the direction PLN, Py Nyithe voltage drop across P) Ny falls because it is in conduction but P) Ny layer's potential rises towards the anode potential of MT, terminal. Here, right hand portion of P, is clamped at the cathode potential of MT, hence, there exists. potential gradient across P3 layer. Left hand region of P; layer is at higher potentia| and right hand region of P) layer is ‘at lower potential which results in the current flow from higher potential to lower potential. Thus, the pilot structure P, N, P, N; starts conducting which is the normal structure used to conduct the external current. Here, triac operates in second quadrant which is less sensitive when hat of first quadrant. compared to t MT, (-ve) Initial conduction (P;N,P2Nz) }—- Final conduction (P,N,P2N2) Py \ Ut, (+ve) 7 Figure 3.6(d) MT, positive but gate current negative Mode 3: MT, is negative with positive gate current : When MT) is negative and Ieage terminal MT, is positive, triac may be turned on by giving a positive vo! between gate and terminal MT, The external gate current forward biases P2%2 uch more positive than MT, terminal. Layer Np injects electrons Land junction as gate ism into P; layer as shown by dotted lines which is termed as remote gate control 2 he junction P; Nj. The main structure whic r ate. The these electrons are collected by t leads to turn on the device is Py Nj Py Ny where No acts as af excess electrons liberated fiom N, are collected by P, N, junction wh an increase in the current flow through the junction Py Ny. P2 rele : which diffuses through N, and reaches Py layer where a positive space charge builds up in this P, region. More electrons from Ny layer diffuses into Py i" onder ai uiraize the positive space charge. These electrons finally arrives at which produces or creates a negative space charge in N, region resulting 's being injected from Py layer into N,. This regenerative proces emote §: nich cause® ases holes t" junction Jy more hole: A.C Voltage Regulators N z u a Final conduction ™ Jy (Pa Ny Py Ng) Py 4 N MT, e) Figure 3.6(e) MT, is negative but gate current is positive Mode 4: MT) negative with negative gate current : Here, when MT, is negative and terminal MT, is positive, triac may be turned on by giving negative gate Current. The main structure that leads to turn on the triac is Py N, P Ng with N, acting as a remote gate. External gate current I, forward biases P, N; junction. Layer N; injects electrons into P, as shown by dotted lines and these are collected bythe junction P, Ny which causes an increase of current through junction P, Ni. Now, P) releases holes which diffuses through N, and reaches P, layer Where a positive space charge builds up in this region. More electrons from Ny <3¢* diffuses into P, which neutralizes the positive space charge. These electrons finally arrives at the junction Jy which creates a negative space charge in N, ‘elon resulting more holes being injected from P2 layer into N,. This regenerative Process takes place until the structure P) Ny Py Ng gets turned ON and conducts TH" which may be limited by external load, The device is more sensitive in 's mode where the triac operates in fourth Quadrant. in ¢ above four ope! r c switched in ve fe perating modes, it is clear that triac can be sw! 0 it is more sensitive ite the on-state by either positive or negative gate current, but iti a el sitive cu nein ; and negative currents re MT) is positive ’ When M nt is injected when MT) is p MT is positive. 3.28 Power Electronics MT,(-ve) Figure 3.6(f) MT, is negative and gate current is negative AC witn R Loap . ne Seer mis as shown in figure 3.7(a). During the positive half cycle of MT is positive wi G The circuit diagra the ac supply voltage, th respect to MT). + © Es Ensin ot ot Figure 3.7(a) TRIAC a. The Mode 1: (0 < ot <7) ‘At at = a, give the gate signal (positive gate signal) with respect to MT). can be brought into the conduction state after giving the gate pulse at @t~ load current follows the path Et - MT, - MT, - P - Load - S - E,- At wt = x, the source voltage becomes zero, at that instant the load oP voltage and load current becomes zero. So, the current flowing through tia less than the holding current. Hence, the TRIAC gets commutated. Mode 2: (x < wt < 2n) During the negative half cycle of the ac supply voltage, MT. respect to MT). At ot = 1 + a, give the gate signal (positive. te signal) »1 respect to MT. TRIAC can be brought into the conduction Baiee y applying the positive gate signal. The load current follows the path “_ load - P~ MT, ~ MT, e with s negativ 3.29 A.C Voltage Regulators #3 £82 B20 zeg eS se B22 ees gee ges us 2&0 ges me gE B25 2£2¢ ete ges SES a ast a . Here, the curr 2n, the source voltage and load current becomes zero. holding current which results the com: atot= instant, load than the veformS are as shown in Fig 3.7(b) 7 qRIAC with R-load (E,)=Eq sin ot Figure 3.7(b)_ Triac with R Load 3.30 Power Electronics Derivation of RMS load voltane 5 : Ez sin? at dot EGrMS 2" a x sin 2ot| eel sinde,sn2a] ne? 2 = Eorms power delivered to load = iup power factor = Fol cose cos ¢ = 1 for resistive load, and (1, = 1) Ess or i/p power factor (cos $y) = \ sin 2a or cos oy yom | 24 A.C Voltage Regulators 3.34 TRIAC with RL Loap rac with RL load circuit digram fs a shown in igure 3.8(a T Figure 3.8(a) Its operation may be explained in different modes. Mode 1: (0 < ot < B) During the positive half cycle ot the supply voltage, triac is in the forward biased condition. Whenever gate signal is given to the triac T,, it conducts. Power flows from source to load. The load current traces the path as follows: Et - MT; -MT, - P-R-L-S- Ee zm, the source voltage and load voltage becomes zero. But, zero at At the instant ot = due to the presence of load inductance, the load current does not become this instant, At the instant B > m, load current becomes zero and hence the triac gets turned off. From B to x + a, no current flows as the triac is in the off state. Inthis mode, MT, is more positive with respect to MT. Mode 2 : (B < wt < 2n) it is in the forward biased condition in the As the triac is a bidirectional device, ignal is given, it conducts Negative cycle of the supply voltage also. Whenever gate si and the power flows from load to source. Hence, the load current follows the Path as shown. B,*-S-L-R-P MT, - MT) - 3.32 Power Eloctronics Triac with RL load fat, Is ve wit MT oot vat wt ol mY ; 3m Figure 3.8(b) o/p voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous conduction oe At the instant ot = 2x, the source voltage and load voltage becomes 2° Load current does not become zero due to the presence of inductance in the 10" circuit. At the instant m + a + 7, triac gets turned off, In this mode, MT, is ™° positive with respect to MT). In this way, the trac with RL load oper associated waveformS are as shown in Fig. 3.8 (b) and 3.8(c) respective discontinuous and continuous conduction modes, ates. 16 Ly fo! ; A.C Voltage Regulators 3.33 Eqs 1 1S positive: ith respect | toMy: | Ty Is Figure 3.8(c) a < Output voltage and current for contineous conduction mode 3.10 Comparison Between SCRs ano TRIACS Artriac is equivalent to pair of anti parallel connected S.C.Rs. SCR TRIAC 1, For the triggering 1. TRIAC can be triggered by of SCRs positive gate signal is using either positive or required negative gate signal. 2. Number of heat sinks required 2. TRIAC requires a single heat in the case of SCRs (connected in antiparallel) is high. But the heat Sinks are slightly smaller in size as Compared to that of triac, SCRs are available in larger 3 Fatings when compared to TRIAC sink of larger size. . TRIACS are having smaller ratings because of the commutation problem dv dy SCRs have & rating comparatively 4. TRIACS have low (> rating high when compared to triac’s dy G Mating, compared to SCRs ~L 3.34 Power Electronics 5, Reliability is high (the instant 5, Reliability is low. at which the SCR should be triggered ata given firing angle @) 6 6. It requires two fuses It requires a single fuse for protection 3.11 TRIAC FIRING CIRCUITS ‘A triac may be fired with the help of a. Diac b. UIT c Triggering cireuit using Ne: egering of Triae by using D ative supply line and npn transistor inc (Bidirectional diode) 3.11 a. Tri Circuit description: Its circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 3.9(a) toad MT, T MT, Figure 3.9 (a) Ir consists of three resistors namely, Ry, R and Rp. R, is aconstant resistor which is used to protect the diac (D) and triac gate, 80 henever R value is Zero. jac to the triae i R, 1 that they may not be subjected to full supply voltage w1 ii. Ry is a resistor which limits the current flowing from the di gate whenever diac is in operating mode. il. cae value ofc and R are selected such that they give a fir nge of about 0° to 180°, But practically, a range of about 15° t ing angle fo 160° 18 ‘\ only possible. iv. Variable resistor ‘R? aire euRiceny the charging time of capacitor and hence, the fit bee cline erence all, charging time constant is equal 10 (Ry +R)C ee i ee Therefore, source voltage charges capacitor *C’ age earlier and firing angle for triac | e . acelin le ac becomes 51 ye SAME y When the value of R is large, firit 7 becomes small. In the St" angle of triac also becomes large: Operati Operat eo may be explained in two different modes Mae ree »: rng the positive half cycle of supply voltage, caps harges to a Voltage of about the bre rear tyes ea with upper plate positive and lower Gene votage of a. yt ha itor of the diac. As a result, capacitor of dischar Sea Pe sie eae geeanelcenlotipuleetacrossinelriaeioate rapidly applies the capacitor volta’ ‘ pulse across the tae pate which ann on the tenn, When (38 - A.C Voltage Regulators 3.35 med On at the firing angle a, source volta 18 sitive half cycle, for i gen the positive yele, 4 period of about ( zi eaten T ~ a) radians. Wh oes zero at ol = 7, trac gets turned off, Here, Triac is naturally een ‘ 2n): i : oe ninco “ 2}: During the Negative half cycle of supply voltage, capacitor Hes charged with lower plate positive and upper plate negative to a breakdown diac which results in the turn on Process of triac by the capacitor fe instant n + a, source le for a period of (n - a) ke E, is appeared across the load joltage OF f pul ' sche 8 the form of pulse as described above, At th rae E, appeats across load during negative half eye Wyans. At Ot = 27, tTiae turns off again naturally Atthe instant @t = 2% + a, the positive half cycle of Supply voltage appears where the above process gets repeated, 3.11 (b) TRIGGERING OF TrrAc BY USING UJT By using UJT as a triggering device, the phase control may be obtained where the control circuit is isolated from the main circuit. Its circuit diagram is as shown in figure 3.9(b). Circuit description Itconsists of transformer Tj, resistor Ry, a diode rectifier bridge and the zener diode Zp. The purpose of the zener diode is to provide voltage pulse of magnitude about 10 to 12V, consisting of fairly fast edges synchronized with mains. Operation principle Capacitor C, gets charged through R2 and R, at the rate determined by the setting of Ry. It gets charged until the voltage of the emitter of UJT reaches a peak point value of the discharging capacitor C,. As a result, pulse may be given tothe triac through transformer T, and the current limiting resistor Rg. The setting of R, determines the instant at which the triac switches and the amount of power delivered to the load during each half cycle. The typical range of capacitor in order to suit the gate characteristics of the triac is given as 100nf to Ipf. Figure 3.9(b) fahalfcy ime constant (Ry + Rq)C, must exceed the time period of a half eye ‘0 vary the firing angle upto 180°. tein The ti Order 3.36 Power Electronics For 50 Hz mains, t = C, (Ry + Ry) > loms Resistor Ry should limit the current value such that, the conductio: . of | even after the discharge of capacitor may be eliminated aa RR man ie, R)> where ly = valley current of Usy Wnin Range of R, may be given as 100 Q to 1IKQ which provides a measure compensation of temperature at a point where UJT gets fired Rg value may be so selected that it helps the circuit to be less sensitive thermal changes. Its value is usually below 1009. The phasing of the pulse transformer (T) must provide negative pulse iggering of triac. the t 3.11. (c) TRIGGERING OF TRIAC BY USING NEGATIVE Suppiy Line anp NPN TRANSISTOR Its circuit diagram is as shown in figure 3.9(c) Since triac is a sensitive device, in order to ensure safe operation, triac must be triggered carefully. There are so many types of triggering methods. (i) A.C triggering (ii) D.C triggering (iii) Pulse triggering. In this method, D.C triggering is used. In order to regulate a large ac power, low voltage control system either digital or analog is used. For the reliable operation of the triac, the triggering signal (pulse) must rise rapidly. A rise time of about 1 usec must be attained, where the triggering point in this circuit is independent of the mains voltage. The collector load resistance R, of the drivea transistor should not be too large, since sufficient gate current must be received by the triac. . Toad! conto, YAP OY @ cireuit L R < 'Grmax At the same time, the collector load resistance must not be too small as th? allowable gate power dissipation should not be exceeded. Hence, Mecmay = Vor, Remn Voimax $ Py The condition for the triac to remain in off position when the drive fe tras 8 obtained from the collector of TR, is A.C Vol "999 Regulators 3.47 Va>v ‘s n> Vere “GT min R cc > Vie min — ree ats tringered w ‘ Triac gets triggered whenever it sat _ Satisfies the folt lowin £ condition | Va < Voc - V, Ig “GT max R BE max ~ HEE min } |3.12 CYCLOCONVERTERS | opjectives “To understand the cycloconverter | Types of cycloconverter i Principle of cycloconverter operation | Applications of cycloconverter. | Introduction | A device which converts input power at one frequency to the output power at a | different frequency with one stage conversion is called a cycloconverter. A cycloconverter requires one stage frequency conversion. i Cycloconverters are of two types: 1. Step up cycloconverter 2. Step down cycloconverter In step up cycloconverter, the output frequency (f,) is greater than supply | frequency (f,). i.e. fy > fy In step down-eycloconverter, the output frequency (f4) i 1s than supply frequency (f,). i.e., fy < fy s. They are i i erter: Depending upon phases, there are three types of cycloconvert |. 16-16 cycloconverter b. 36 ~ 16 cycloconverter ©. 3h - 3 cycloconverter in evel 1 of step up and step down 6 asic principle of operatio The basic principle of opera ae with 16 - 16 connection is being studied sy awortypes THY a . » are mainly (We a According to the type of connections there a meunly a. Mid point type cycloconverter- b. Bridge type cycloconverter Va" yy 3.38 Power Electronics 3.13 19 - 16 Step uP CycLoconverTER MIDPOINT TypE “ CyctoconverTeR with R Loap e 1-0 \ (50 Hz) A.c €,&9 Toad $s supply P, E,=E,, sin wt} r oe Np Figure 3.10(a) Its circuit diagram is as shown in fig 3.10(a). Step up cycloconverter requirs forced commutation. The forced commutation elements are generally inductor and capacitor which are energy storage elements. The basic principle of step up device, is described here for mid point and bridge type cycloconverter. Lost taken is of purely resistive type. Circuit description It consists of 1 — 6 transformer with polarities as shown in figure. 3.10(a). 4 tapping is being taken exactly at the mid point of the secondary winding of the transformer, so it is called as mid point type. In this type, four SCRs are beiné employed where P,, P2 constitute positive group and Nj, Nz constitute negative group. Load is connected between the secondary winding mid point ‘o” and terminal “s. Positive direction for the output voltage ‘E,” and output current ‘I,’ are sho¥" in figure. Output voltage and current directions are reversed in the negative half cycle. ‘The operation is explained in two different modes. Mode I: (0 < ot

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