life. The character of soil depends on the nature of rock from which it is formed.

It also depends on the

climate and on the relative "age" of the soil. Immature soils are little more than broken rock fragments.
Over time, immature soil develops into mature soil, which contains quantities of humus, formed from
decayed plant matter. Mature soil is darker, richer in microscopic life, and more conducive to plant
growth.

8. The first paragraph primarily describes

(A) the process by which rocks are broken down
(B) the weathering of igneous rocks
(C) gradual changes in the earth's weather patterns
9. The main topic of the second paragraph is
(A) a description of immature soil
(B) the growth of plants
(C) the evolution of soil
10. The main idea of the entire passage is that
(A) weathering breaks down rocks and leads to the development of soil
(B) soils may be classified as mature or immature
(C) the process of soil development is more important to humans than that of weathering
(D) the Earth's crust is constantly changing

Questions 11-15
The first Dutch outpost in New Netherlands was made at Fort Orange (now Albany) in 1624; it
became a depot of the fur trade. But the most important settlement was at the southern tip of
Manhattan, commanding the great harbor at the mouth of the Hudson River. Peter Minuit, first
governor-general of New Netherlands, "purchased" title to the island from the Canarsie Indians for the
equivalent of twenty-four dollars worth of trinkets. However, the Canarsie Indians might be described
as tourists from Brooklyn; Minuit had to make a later payment to the group that was actually resident
there.
In 1626 engineers from Holland arrived in Manhattan to construct FortAmsterdam. Within its
rectangular walls, permanent houses were built, replacing the thatched dwellings of the original
Manhattanites. The fort became the nucleus of the town of New Amsterdam. Soon Manhattan had its
first skyline: the solid outline of the fort, the flagstaff, the silhouette of a giant windmill, and the masts
of trading ships.
The Dutch West India company established dairy farms in the vicinity of New Amsterdam.
Each morning, the cattle were driven to the "Bouwerie" (now the Bowery), a large open common in
the city. Just southwest of the Bouwerie was the Bowling Green, a level area where the burghers
played ninepins, the ancestor of modern bowling. The Bowling Green became the site of a cattle fair
where livestock were marketed; beer and sausage was available from booths; cheese, lace, and linen
were sold by farmers' wives; and Indian women sold baskets and other handicrafts. These colorful
gatherings and other aspects of everyday life in New Amsterdam are described in Washington Irving's
rollicking book, Diedrich Knickerbocker's History o/New York.
The last and most powerful governor-general of New Netherlands was Peter Stuyvesant.
Famous for his temper and his wooden leg. He annexed the Swedish colony of Delaware and ordered
the streets of new Amsterdam laid out in an orderly manner and numbered. He did his best to obtain
military and financial aid from Holland against the British. When the British sent emissaries
demanding the surrender of the colony, he wanted to fight.

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