BIOCHEMISTRY

MIDTERMS

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

LIPIDS Monounsaturated

Lipids
- Are organic substances made up of fatty acids
and their naturally existing compounds and
derivatives
- Fats and other molecules that are insoluble in
water
Properties that must be met:
- The substance must be insoluble in water
- The substance must be soluble in nonpolar
solvents Polyunsaturated
- The substance must be found in biological
system
Importance of Lipids:
- it serves as an efficient source of energy
- it serves as insulators
- they are cellular constituent
- they are involved in the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) Properties of Fatty Acids
- lipoproteins are carriers of triglycerides, - Saturated fatty acids
cholesterol, phospholipids - are solids at room temperature.
- Melting point and boiling point of SFA
Building Blocks of Lipids increase with increasing length.
Fatty Acid - Unsaturated fatty acids
- Carboxylic acids that typically contain between - are liquids at room temperature.
12 and 20 carbon atoms - The more unsaturated a fatty acid, the
Glycerol lower their melting and boiling points.
- Simplest tri-hydric alcohol

Classification of Lipids
- Simple Lipids
- Are esters of fatty acids with various
alcohol
- Fats and oils
Classification of Fatty Acids - Complex Lipids
- Are composed of fatty acids, alcohol
Fatty acids have different chemical properties due to the
and additional group
number of hydrogens that are attached to chain of
- Phospholipids and glycolipids
carbons
- Precursor and Derived Lipids
- Saturated Fatty Acid if the maximum number of
- Lipids that are derived from other
hydrogens are attached
substance
- Unsaturated Fatty Acid if there are fewer than
- Steroids and eicosanoids
the maximum attached
Simple Lipids
- Waxes
- Esters produced by combining fatty
acids with long chain alcohols

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- Typically the fatty acid residue in a wax Important Reactions of Triglycerides

has between 14 to 36 carbon atoms and - Catalytic hydrogenation
the alcohol residue has between 16 to - catalytic reduction reaction; double
30 carbon atoms. bonds are removed by adding hydrogen
with a presence of catalyst

- Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils

- Also known as triglycerides
- Three fatty acid residues are joined to a
glycerol residue by ester bonds
- Usually contain two or three different
fatty acid residues - Oxidation
- Classification is dependent on the fatty - reaction with oxygen; double bonds can
acid residues in its structure be broken to produce small organic
molecules that have unpleasant odors

- Saponification
- also known as soap making; hydrolysis
of ester groups in the presence of OH-

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Simple Lipids
- Are also known as compound lipids
- These are lipids that are composed of fatty
acids, alcohol and an additional group, the
prosthetic group.
- Phospholipids
- Phospholipids get their name from the
fact that phosphate ion is one of its
components. The two classes of
phospholipids are: glycerophospholipids
and sphingolipids

Glycerophospholipids

- Steroids

Sphingolipids

- Glycolipids
- are lipids that contain a sugar residue
- Simple sugars (consisting of only one
ring), like glucose, are used to produce
the glycolipids called cerebrosides.
Gangliosides are made using a chain of
simple sugars

Derived Lipids
- Steroids are derived from cholesterol
- Eicosanoids are derived from arachidonic acids

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- Eicosanoid

- Each nucleotide has three (3) parts:

- A pentose
- A phosphate group
- An organic nitrogen-containing base
- There are five different types of nucleotides
- Information is encoded in the nucleic acid by
different sequences of these nucleotide

The Structure of Nucleotide:

NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic Acids
- Biologically occurring polynucleotides in which
the nucleotide residues are linked in a specific
sequence by phosphodiester bonds
- Nucleic acids are very long polymers that store
information
- Monomeric Unit: Nucleotide

Properties
- High molecular weight
- Made up of CHONP
- Upon hydrolysis, nucleic acids yield nucleotides
- Further hydrolysis yields phosphoric acid and
nucleosides

Functions of Nucleic Acids

- Serving as energy stores for future use in
phosphate transfer reactions
- Forming a portion of several important
coenzymes
- NAD+, NADP+, FAD, Coenzyme-A
- Serving as mediators of numerous important
cellular processes

Nucleotide
- Phosphorylated Nucleoside
- Nucleoside is a base covalently linked to
a pentose

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Building Blocks of Nucleotide

- A pentose
- A phosphate group
- An organic nitrogen-containing base

Monosaccharide:

Phosphoric Acid:

URINE

Base: The kidney is one of the important organs

involved in the elimination of water, salts, and other
waste products of metabolism.

Urine
- is the waste product of the kidney. - It contains
95% water and 5% nitrogenous
- wastes and inorganic salts. A person with an
average diet excretes

A person with an average diet excretes in the

urine both organic and inorganic constituents, which can
be a basis of an individual's physiological and
pathological conditions

Nucleosides

The body takes nutrients from food and converts

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them to energy. After the body has taken the food that it tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder.
needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter
in the blood. muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder
The urinary system keeps the chemicals and through the urethra. When all the signals occur
water in balance by removing a type of waste, called in the correct order, normal urination occurs.
urea, from the blood Urea is produced when foods
containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain
vegetables are broken down in the body. Urea is carried
in the bloodstream to the kidneys

Urinary system parts and their functions:

1. Two kidneys
- a pair of purplish-brown organs located below
the ribs toward the middle of the back. Their
function is to;
1. remove liquid waste from the blood in
the form of urine.
2. keep a stable balance of salts and other
substances in the blood.
3. produce erythropoietin, a hormone that
aids the formation of red blood cells.
Physical Properties of Urine
The kidneys remove urea from the blood 1. Volume
through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each - average adult output in 24 hours is 1000-1500
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood ml.
capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called - Factors affecting the volume:
a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste 1. nature of food and the amount of fluid
substances, forms urine as it passes through the intake
nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney. 2. temperature and humidity
3. mental excitement
2. Two kidneys 4. diarrhea and excessive vomiting
- the renal tubules of the kidney. Two ureters- 5. pathological condition: diabetes
narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to 2. Color
the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls - normally has an amber yellow color
continually tighten and relax forcing urine - Factors affecting the color:
downward, away from the kidneys If urine backs 1. Food
up. or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection 2. Drugs
can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, 3. Odor
small amounts of urine are emptied into the - aromatic odor
bladder from the ureters. 4. Specific Gravity
3. Urinary Bladder - ranges from 1.015-1.025
- a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the - Factors affecting/influencing the specific gravity:
lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments 1. amount of solid and fluid intake
that are attached to other organs and the pelvic 2. time of the day
bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to 3. pathological condition: diabetes
store urine and contract and flatten to empty 5. Transparency
urine through the urethra. The typical healthy - normal urine is clear and transparent
adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine 6. pH
for two to five hours. - 4,8-8, average pH is 6
4. Two sphincter muscles
- circular muscles that help keep urine from Physical Properties of Urine
leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band 1. Water
around the opening of the bladder. 2. Nitrogenous organic compounds
5. Nerves in the bladder 1. urea
- alert a person when it is time to urinate or empty 2. uric acid
the bladder. 3. Creatine
6. Urethra 4. creatinine
- the tube that allows urine to pass outside the 5. ammonia
body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to

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6. hippuric
7. Indican
3. Non-nitrogenous organic compounds
4. Inorganic salts
1. Chlorides
2. Phosphates
3. Na and K
4. Mg and Ca

Pathological Constituents of Urine

1. Proteinuria
- also known as albuminuria, presence of too
much protein or albumin in urine; normal urine
does not have persistent protein in significant
quantities
2. Glucosuria
- glucose in the urine, seen most frequently in
individuals suffering from diabetes mellitus
3. Ketonuria
- presence of ketone bodies
4. Hematuria
- red blood cells in the urine
5. Pyuria
- leukocytes in the urine
6. Bacteriuria
- bacteria in the urine; counts of 5000 or more per
mL of urine indicates urinary tract infection

Test for Kidney Efficiency

1. Water output test
2. Concentration test
3. Urea clearance test
4. Phenolsulfophthalein

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