ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

PRELIMINARY

- Slow -acting control system

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY - Glands produce hormones that
regulate growth, reproduction,
Anatomy metabolism, etc.
- part/structure 6. Circulatory
a. Organs
Physiology - Heart, blood vessels, capillaries
and blood
- Function
b. Functions
- Carries o2 nutrients, hormones,
Systems of the Body & other substances to and from
1. Integumentary tissue cells
a. Organs - White blood cells protect against
- Skin bacteria, toxins, tumors
b. Functions 7. Lymphatic
- Waterproofs, cushions, protects a. Organs
deeper tissue - Lymphatic vessels, lymph
- Excretes salts & urea; pain, nodes, spleen, tonsils
pressure b. Functions
- Regulates body temp; - Complements circulatory
synthesize vitamin D system by returning leaked fluid
2. Skeletal back to blood vessels
a. Organs - Cleanses the blood; involved in
- Bones, cartilages, ligaments, immunity
joints 8. Respiratory
b. Functions a. Organs
- Protects & supports body - Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
organs trachea, bronchi, & lungs
- Framework for muscles & b. Functions
movement - Keeps blood supplied with O2 &
- Hematopoiesis; store minerals removes CO2
3. Muscular - Carries out gas exchanges
a. Organs through air sacs in lungs
- Skeletal muscle (attached to 9. Digestive
bone) a. Organs
b. Functions - Oral cavity, esophagus,
- Contraction & mobility stomach, small intestine, large
(locomotion) intestine, rectum, anus (liver &
- Facial expression, posture pancreas)
- Produce body heat b. Functions
4. Nervous - Breaks food down into
a. Organs absorbable units that enter the
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & blood; indigestible food
sensory receptors eliminated as feces
b. Functions 10. Urinary (Excretory)
- Fast-acting central control a. Organs
system - Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder,
- Responds to external/internal urethra
stimuli via nerve impulses b. Functions
(electrical messages) - Eliminates nitrogenous waste
5. Endocrine from the body (urea & uric acid)
a. Organs - Regulates water, electrolytes, &
- Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, acid-base balance of the blood
adrenals, thymus, pancreas, 11. Reproductive
pineal, ovaries, testes…..etc. a. Organs
b. Functions - Male

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 1

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

➢ Seminal vesicles, Dissection

prostate, penis, vas I. Regional
deferens, testis, - All structures of a region are
scrotum studied together
- Female II. Systemic
➢ Ovaries, mammary - All structures with related
glands, uterus, vagina, functions are studied together
uterine tube
b. Functions Microscopic anatomy (cytology, histology)
- Primary function for both sexes - the study of very small structures, where a
is to produce offspring magnifying lens or microscope is needed.
➢ Male – testes produce Histology
sperm & male sex - Structures can only be seen with a microscope
hormones - Cells and cell parts
➢ Female – ovaries
produce eggs & female Physiology
sex hormones; - the study of how the body and its parts work or
mammary glands for function
nourishment - physio = nature , ology = the study of
- Like anatomy , physiology has many
Some definitions subdivisions. For example, neurophysiology
1. Morphology explains the working of the nervous system ,
and cardiac physiology studies the function of
- form that structures take on.
the heart.
- Morphology affects function
2. Structure ANATOMICAL TERMS
- a part of the body. Can either be
microscopic (small) or macroscopic Anatomical Axes
(large). - axes are like skewers which pass through the body.
3. Function They are used to describe axes about which rotation
- refers to physical behavior. What a movements take place - very similar to the pin in a
structure does. door hinge. The door moves in a plane around an axis
- the plane is determined by the orientation of the pin
- Function is related to structures =
in the hinge.
Functional Morphology

Structure defines and restricts function.

- certain joints can only move in one direction.
For example a hinge joint can only have motion
perpendicular to the axis of the joint. The knee
joint (hinge) cannot have motion in the lateral
direction because that goes against the axis.

Anatomy
- the study of the structure and shape of the body
and body parts & their relationships to one
another.
- The term anatomy comes from the Greek words
meaning to cut (tomy) apart ( ana).
Gross anatomy (macroscopic anatomy)
- the study of large, easily observable structures
(by naked eye), such as the heart or bone.
Surface Anatomy
- Study of shapes and landmarks on the surface
of the body
Anatomical Position
- This is a reference position that allows for the use of
consistent directional terminology.
- All descriptions of location are made from within
anatomical position.
- Subject is facing forward with palms forward, thumbs
facing to the sides.
- This is the position from which all directions and
descriptions are made.
- The person is standing erect, palms facing anteriorly,
feet together and facing forward.

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 2

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

In muscles…
Origin
- attachment of muscle on a fixed point,
closest to midline
Insertion
- attachment of muscle that is moveable,
farthest from midline.

In four legged animals, the head is ANTERIOR to the

tail. In two legged animals, the head is SUPERIOR to
the tail.
Directional terms In four legged animals, the region toward the head is
Superior (cranial or cephalad) CRANIAL. The region toward the tail is CAUDAL.
- toward the head end or upper part of a
structure or body; above Medial vs. Median
Inferior (caudal) - A median structure is one which is in the median
- away from the head end or toward the (midline) plane of the body (such as the
lower part of a structure or body; below sternum, the umbilicus and the symphysis
Anterior (ventral) pubis).
- toward or at the front of the body; in - The term medial is a relative term and must be
front of used to compare two structures; one structure
Posterior (dorsal) being medial or closer to the median plane of
- toward or at the backside of the body; the body than the other structure.
behind
Medial Hands and Feet:
- toward or at the midline of the body; on Palmar or Volar
the inner side of - means the anterior surface or palm of
Lateral the hand.
- away from the midline of the body; on Plantar
the outer side of - means the inferior surface or sole of the
foot.
Dorsum
- of the hand and foot refers to the
superior surface of the foot and
posterior surface of the hand.

Ipsilateral and Contralateral refer to the same or

opposite sides of the body, respectively.
Ipsilateral
- refers to the same side of the body
Contralateral
- refers to opposite sides of the body

Proximal Body planes and sections

- close to the origin of the body part or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body
trunk.
Distal
- farther from the origin of a body or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body
trunk.
Superficial (external)
- toward or at the body surface.
Deep (internal)
- away from the body surface; more
internal.
Imaginary lines drawn through the body at various parts
to separate the body into sections:
Sagittal
- cut made along the lengthwise or longitudinal
plane of the body dividing it into left and right
parts
Midsagittal (median) plane
- right and left parts are of equal size
Coronal (Frontal) plane
- cut made along a lengthwise plane that divides
the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse plane (cross section)
- cut made along a horizontal plane dividing the
body or organ into superior and inferior parts

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 3

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

Oblique plane - right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper

- can be at any angle other than horizontal or quadrant (LUQ),
vertical - right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower
quadrant (LLQ).

Abdominal Regions

Umbilical region
- is the centermost region deep to and
Regional terms surrounding the umbilicus (navel).
There are many visible landmarks on the surface of the Epigastric region
body: - is located superior to the umbilical region (epi =
- Anterior body landmarks upon, above; gastri = belly).
- Posterior body landmarks Hypogastric (pubic) region
- is located inferior to the umbilical region (hypo =
below).
Right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions (ing′gwĭ-nal)
- are located lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac
= superior part of the hip bone).
Right and left lumbar regions
- lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus = loin).
Right and left hypochondriac regions
- flank the epigastric region laterally (chondro =
cartilage).

Abdominal Quadrants

Axial Region
- The main axis of the body
Appendicular Region
- The limbs

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

- Because the abdominopelvic cavity is large and
contains several organs, it helps to divide it into
smaller areas for study.
- One division method, used primarily by
anatomists, uses two transverse and two
parasagittal planes. These planes, divide the
cavity into nine regions
- A simpler scheme to localize the abdominopelvic
cavity organs is to imagine one transverse and
one median sagittal plane passing through the
umbilicus at right angles. The resulting
quadrants are named according to their
positions from the subject’s point of view:

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 4

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

- 2 divisions
1. thoracic cavity
a. Pleural cavity
b. Mediastinum
c. Pericardium
2. Abdominal cavity
a. Abdomen
b. Pelvis
Serous Cavities
- 2 layers
1. parietal layer - outer walls of the
cavity
2. visceral layer – inner layer covers the
visceral organs
water between the membranes is a watery fluid

Human Body Plan
Vertebrates Have Some Common Features
1. Tube within a tube body plan
- inner tube
- mouth to anus
- respiratory organs
- digestive organs
- outer tube
- axial skeleton
- axial musculature
2. Bilateral Symmetry
- left half of the body is a mirror image of
the right half.
- structures in the median plane are
unpaired, but have identical left and
right sides.
3. Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- develops into the brain and spinal cord.
4. Notochord
- stiff rod just deep to the spinal cord.
- present in the embryo, but is replaced
by the vertebrae later in development.
5. Segmentation
- repeating units of similar structures
running along the length of the trunk.
- examples include the ribs and
intercostal muscles and the vertebral
column.
6. Pharyngeal Pouches
- pharynx – outpouchings called pouches
that correspond to the clefts between
the gills of a fish.
- present in the embryo only.
Body Cavities and Membranes
- There are two sets of internal body cavities
called the dorsal and ventral body cavities.
These cavities are closed to the outside.
Dorsal Body Cavity
- cranial cavity
- vertebral cavity
Ventral Body Cavity
- contains the viscera
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Life is organized into different levels based upon size
(from small to large)
Organization of the Human Body
- The body is organized from the smallest part to
the largest part.
1. Chemical Level
- atoms, molecules
- carbohydrates, lipids, fats, proteins,
nucleic acids
2. Cellular Level
- simplest structural unit
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
- smallest unit that can live on its own
- Cells are specialized by size and shape
for the job they do.
3. Tissue Level
- a group of cells with common origin,
structure, and function.
- cells within a tissue all work toward a
common goal (i.e.: movement, nutrition,
etc.)
- Example: Humans have four kinds of
tissue in their bodies: Epithelia, Muscle,
Connective, and Nerve.
4. Organ Level
- a group of tissues that have a common
function.
5. Organ System Level
- a group of organs with a special
function.
- Digestive System, Nervous System,
etc…
6. Organismal Level
- A group of organ systems that at some
point in time is capable of sustaining life.
- All cells, tissues, organs and organ
systems work together in an organism.

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 5

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

CELL STRUCTURES Plasma Membrane

Body Cavities and Membranes
- 1665: Robert Hooke
- observed cork cells (dead) and named
the “cell”.
- 1675: Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first to describe
living cells seen through a simple microscope.
- Compound light microscope: series of lenses
that magnify objects.
- 1665: Hooke observed cork cells (dead) and
named the “cell”.
- Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow are the
authors of the Cell Theory
Cell Theory
1. The CELL is the basic functional and structural
unit of all life .
2. All LIVING THINGS are composed of cells, cell
parts, or cell products.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
- This phospholipid bi-layer membrane acts as a
selectively permeable gateway for the passage
of substances into and out of the cell!
- Boundary between cell and environment.
- Controls materials that enter and exit the cell.
- Example: oxygen & nutrients IN - wastes OUT
- The membrane also contains proteins
embedded within its phospholipid layers that act
to encourage molecular movement, or as
recognition molecules.
Cell Structures - Cytoplasm
- Jelly-like substance that surrounds organelles.
- Makes up 1/2 of the volume of animal cells.
- Many important chemical reactions occur here.

1940’s - Electron Microscopes

- Aims a beam of electrons through a magnetic
field, then over the surface of the specimen.
- Uses electromagnets.
- Most specimens must be dead and in a vacuum.
- Projects onto a screen or monitor.

Electron Microscopes
1. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
- ion coated surface shows 3-D picture
2. Transmission Electron (TEM)
- Microscopic-slice stained with metal
ions.
ORGANELLES
3. Scanning Tunneling Electron Microscope-
The Nucleus
Creates a 3-D surface image of a “Living cell”.
- The nucleus is the command center of the cell.
- Surrounded by a nuclear envelope - double
Two Cell Types
membraned, 4 layers thick.
1. Prokaryotic cells
- Pores in the nuclear envelope allow chemical
- have no membrane bound nucleus nor
messages to move in and out of the nucleus.
membrane bound organelles.
- Contains DNA - made up of long strands called
- Most are single-celled.
chromatin threads.
- Examples are bacteria and
- The nucleolus (inside the nucleus) produces
cyanobacteria
ribosomes.
2. Eukaryotic cells
Ribosomes
- have a membrane bound nucleus and
- The protein synthesis factories (make proteins
membrane bound organelles.
and enzymes).
- Either single-celled or multicellular
- Composed of RNA.
- Organelles are separated by
- Non-membrane structures
membranes so several processes can
- Directed by DNA.
be going on at once.
Mitochondria
- Lynn Marguli’s hypothesis suggests that
- Known as the powerhouse of the cell.
eukaryote cells come from prokaryote
- Site of aerobic respiration. These organelles
cells.
capture glucose and use oxygen to release
energy for the cell.
- Foldings within the mitochondria are called
cristae.
- O2 + C6H12O6 +Mito –> E + H2O +CO2

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 6

 TRANSES: ANAPHY
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Bilayer of lipids used for transport within the cell.
- 2 TYPES:
- Smooth E.R. does not have ribosomes
attached and are known to produce
lipids.
- Rough E.R. have ribosomes attached
and are known for both protein
synthesis and lipid synthesis and
transport.
Golgi Apparatus
- “Packaging Factory”
- A series of flattened, closely stacked
membranous sacs near the nucleus that coats
enzymes
Lysosomes
- “stomachs” of the cell
- bud off from the golgi bodies as the cell needs.
- Digest worn out cell parts, food particles and
viruses or bacteria.
- These small “suicide sacs” are filled with
digestive enzymes used to breakdown
molecules within the cell.
- As complex molecules enter the cell lysosomes
surround food and digest it.
Centrioles
- Centrioles are only found in animal cells.
- These are two small bundles of cytoskeleton
arranged at right angles to one another &
surrounded by dense cytoplasm.
- Centrioles aid in cell division in animal cells.
Vacuoles
- Vacuoles are storage vessels found within the
cell.
- Plant cells usually have large vacuoles while
animals have vacuoles that are small or even
absent.
- Vacuoles can store food, water, or waste
products.
- A contractile vacuole is a specialized vacuole
to remove excess water from unicellular aquatic
organisms.
Chloroplasts
- Only found in plant cells.
- Filled with the green pigment chlorophyll. These
organelles function to transform light energy into
stored energy (glucose and starch).
- Grana: stacked membranous sacs.
- Stroma: fluid that surrounds grana.
Cell Walls
- Cell walls in plants are protective dead layers of
thick cellulose
- Bulk of fiber in diet.
- In fungi - cell walls are made out of a
carbohydrate called chitin.
Movement And Support
Cell Walls
- Fibrous, provides support for organelles.
- Maintains cell shape.
IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE
- Composed of: Microtubules and Microfilaments
- Assist organelles to move from place to place.
Cilia And Flagella
- Cilia
- Short, numerous, hairlike
- Beat in a “wave”. Example: lungs
- Flagella
- Longer, 1-2 per cell.
- Move in a whip-like motion.
- Example: sperm cells
- Single-celled organisms usually depend on cilia
or flagella to move.
- Multicellular organisms use cilia on cells to move
fluids over the surface of tissues.
Why can’t cells grow to a Ginormous SIZE?
- The ability of the cell membrane to absorb and
release substances prevents them from growing
large.
- One way to explain this is to say the surface
area to volume ratio demonstrates that there is
not enough surface area to absorb nutrients
quickly enough to keep the cell alive as it grows
larger. Thus, the cell must divide.
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The organs of the integumentary system include
the skin and its accessory structures including hair, nails,
and glands, as well as blood vessels, muscles and
nerves
Dermatology is the medical specialty for the
diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the
integumentary system.
Structure of the Skin
- The skin (cutaneous membrane) covers the
body and is the largest organ of the body by
surface area and weight
- Its area is about 2 square meters (22 square
feet) and weighs 4.5-5kg (10-11 lb), about 16%
of body weight
- It is 0.5 – 4 mm thick, thinnest on the eyelids,
thickest on the heels; the average thickness is 1
– 2 mm
- It consists of two major layers:
- outer, thinner layer called the
epidermis, consists of epithelial tissue
- inner, thicker layer called the dermis
- Beneath the dermis is a subcutaneous (subQ)
layer (also called hypodermis) which attaches
the skin to the underlying tissues and organs.
7
 TRANSES: ANAPHY
Components of the Integumentary System
Dermis
Structure of the Skin
Epidermis
- is composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium
- it contains four major types of cells:
- Keratinocytes (90% of the cells)
produce keratin which is a tough fibrous
protein that provides protection
- Melanocytes which produce the
pigment melanin that protects against
damage by ultraviolet radiation
- Langerhans cells involved in immune
responses, arise from red bone marrow
- Merkel cells which function in the
sensation of touch along with the
adjacent tactile discs
- The epidermis contains four major layers (thin
skin) or five major layers (thick skin)
- Stratum basale (deepest layer) or
stratum germinativum, where
continuous cell division occurs which
produces all the other layers
- Stratum spinosum, 8-10 layers of
keratinocytes
- Stratum granulosum, which includes
keratohyalin and lamellar granules
- Stratum lucidum is present only in thick
skin (the skin of the fingertips, palms,
and soles)
- Stratum corneum composed of many
sublayers of flat, dead keratinocytes
called corneocytes or squames that
are continuously shed and replaced by
cells from deeper strata; constant
friction can stimulate formation of a
callus.
IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE
- Keratinization, the accumulation of
more and more protective keratin,
occurs as cells move from the deepest
layer to the surface layer
- Dandruff - an excess of keratinized
cells shed from the scalp
- is composed of connective tissue containing
collagen and elastic fibers
- contains two layers
- the outer papillary region consists of
areolar connective tissue containing thin
collagen and elastic fibers, dermal
papillae (including capillary loops),
corpuscles of touch and free nerve
endings
- The deeper reticular region consists of
dense irregular connective tissue
containing collagen and elastic fibers
adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves,
sebaceous (oil) glands, and
sudoriferous (sweat) glands
- Striae or stretch marks can appear if the skin is
stretched too much
- Lines of cleavage - “tension lines” in the skin
indicate the predominant direction of underlying
collagen fibers
- Epidermal ridges reflect contours of the
underlying dermal papillae and form the basis
for fingerprints (and footprints); their function is
to increase firmness of grip by increasing
friction.
- Dermatoglyphics - the study of the pattern of
epidermal ridges
Structural Basis of Skin Color
Variations in skin color arise from variations in
the amounts of three pigments: melanin,
carotene, and hemoglobin
Melanin
- a yellow-red or brown-black pigment
produced by melanocytes (located
mostly in the epidermis, where it
absorbs UV radiation)
8
 TRANSES: ANAPHY
- The amount of melanin causes the
skin’s color to vary from pale yellow to
red to tan to black
- The number of melanocytes are about
the same in all people; differences in
skin color is due to the amount of
pigment produced
- A benign localized overgrowth of
melanocytes is a nevus or mole
- Albinism is an inherited inability to
produce melanin - vitiligo is a condition
in which there is a partial or complete
loss of melanocytes from patches of
skin
Carotene
- yellow-orange pigment (found in the
stratum corneum, dermis, and
subcutaneous layer)
Hemoglobin
- red color (located in erythrocytes flowing
through dermal capillaries)
Subcutaneous Layer
- SubQ layer (also called hypodermis) is not part
of the skin but, among its functions, it attaches
the skin to the underlying tissues and organs;
this layer (and sometimes the dermis) contains
lamellated (pacinian) corpuscles which detect
external pressure applied to the skin.
Accessory Structures of the Skin
Hairs (pili)
- have a number of important functions:
- Protection
- reduction of heat loss
- sensing light touch
- Hair is composed of dead, keratinized epidermal
cells
- Hair consists of:
- shaft which mostly projects above the
surface of the skin
- root which penetrates into the dermis
- hair follicle
- epithelial root sheath (Internal)
- dermal root sheath (External)
IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE
- There are different types of hairs including
lanugo, vellus hairs and terminal hairs
- Hair color is determined by the amount and
type of melanin, carotene, and blood
- Sebaceous (oil) glands are connected to hair
follicles
Skin Glands
Sebaceous glands
- secrete an oily substance called sebum
which prevents dehydration of hair and
skin, and inhibits growth of certain
bacteria
Sudoriferous (sweat) glands (2 Types)
- Eccrine or Merocrine sweat glands
- Numerous eccrine (or
merocrine) sweat glands helps
to cool the body by evaporating,
and also eliminates small
amounts of wastes
- Apocrine sweat glands
- located mainly in the skin of the
axilla, groin, areolae, and
bearded facial regions of adult
males.
- their excretory ducts
open into hair follicles-
this sweat is secreted
during emotional stress
and sexual excitement.
Ceruminous Glands
- Modified sweat glands located in the ear
canal
- Along with nearby sebaceous glands,
they are involved in producing a waxy
secretion called cerumen (earwax)
which provides a sticky barrier that
prevents entry of foreign bodies into the
ear canal.
Nails
- Nails are composed of hard, keratinized
epidermal cells located over the dorsal surfaces
of the ends of fingers and toes
- Each nail consists of:
- free edge
- transparent nail body (plate) with a
whitish lunula at its base
- nail root embedded in a fold of skin
9
 TRANSES: ANAPHY

Types of Skin
There are two major types of skin:
Thin (hairy) skin
- covers all body regions except the palms,
palmar surfaces of digits, and soles
Thick (hairless) skin
- covers the palms, palmar surfaces of digits, and
soles

Types of Skin
- regulation of body temperature
- blood reservoir
- protection
- cutaneous sensations
- excretion and absorption
- synthesis of vitamin D

Epidermal Wound Healing

Aging and the Integumentary System
Effects:
- wrinkling
- decrease of skin’s immune responsiveness
- dehydration and cracking of the skin
- decreased sweat production
- decreased numbers of functional melanocytes
resulting in gray hair and atypical skin
Epidermal Wound Healing pigmentation
- loss of subcutaneous fat
- a general decrease in skin thickness
- an increased susceptibility to pathological
conditions
- Growth of hair and nails decreases; nails may
also become more brittle with age.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Development of the Integumentary System

- The epidermis develops from the ectoderm;
nails, hair, and skin glands are epidermal
derivatives - the epidermis of a fetus is protected
by a fatty substance called vernix caseosa
- The dermis develops from the mesoderm

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 10

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 11

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

Function of Muscles
- Produce movement
- Maintain posture
- Stabilize joints
- Generate heat

The Muscular System

- Muscles are responsible for all types of body
movement
- Three basic muscle types are found in the body
- Skeletal muscle
- Cardiac muscle
- Smooth muscle

Characteristics of Muscles
- Muscle cells are elongated
(muscle cell = muscle fiber)
- Contraction of muscles is due to the movement
of microfilaments
- All muscles share some terminology
- Prefix myo refers to muscle
- Prefix mys refers to muscle

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 12

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

- Prefix sarco refers to flesh Cardiac Muscle Characteristics

- Has striations
Skeletal Muscle Characteristics - Usually has a single nucleus
- Most are attached by tendons to bones - Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated
- Cells are multinucleated disc
- Striated – have visible banding - Involuntary
- Voluntary – subject to conscious control - Found only in the heart
- Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective
tissue

Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle

- Endomysium – around single muscle fiber
- Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of
fibers
- Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal muscle
- Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium

Naming of Skeletal Muscles

- Direction of muscle fibers
- Example: rectus (straight)
- Relative size of the muscle
- Example: maximus (largest)

Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle

- Epimysium blends into a connective tissue
attachment
- Tendon – cord-like structure
- Aponeuroses – sheet-like structure
- Sites of muscle attachment
- Bones
- Location of the muscle
- Cartilages
- Example: many muscles are named for
- Connective tissue coverings
bones (e.g., temporalis)
- Number of origins
Smooth Muscle Characteristics
- Example: triceps (three heads)
- Has no striations
- Origin: attachment to bone that does
- Spindle-shaped cells
NOT move
- Single nucleus
- Insertion: attachment to bone that
- Involuntary – no conscious control
MOVES
- Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs

- Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion

- Example: sterno (on the sternum)
- Shape of the muscle
- Example: deltoid (triangular)

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 13

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

- Trapezius (trapezoid shaped) - Myosin filaments have heads

- Action of the muscle (extensions, or cross bridges)
- Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or - Myosin and actin overlap somewhat
extends a bone) - At rest, there is a bare zone that lacks
actin filaments
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) – for
storage of calcium

Properties of Skeletal Muscle Activity

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle - Irritability – ability to receive and respond to a
- Cells are multinucleated stimulus
- Nuclei are just beneath the sarcolemma - Contractility – ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received

Nerve Stimulus to Muscles

- Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a nerve
to contract
- Motor unit
- One neuron
- Muscle cells stimulated by that neuron
Sarcolemma
- specialized plasma membrane
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum – specialized smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
Myofibril
- Bundles of myofilaments
- Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands
- I band = light band
- A band = dark band

- Neuromuscular junctions – association site of

nerve and muscle
Sarcomere
- Contractile unit of a muscle fiber
- Organization of the sarcomere
- Thick filaments = myosin filaments
- Composed of the protein myosin
- Has ATPase enzymes
- Thin filaments = actin filaments
- Composed of the protein actin

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 14

 TRANSES: ANAPHY

- Synaptic cleft – gap between nerve and muscle

- Nerve and muscle do not make contact
- Area between nerve and muscle is filled
with interstitial fluid

Nerve Stimulus to Muscles

- Neurotransmitter – chemical released by nerve
upon arrival of nerve impulse
- The neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle
is acetylcholine
- Neurotransmitter attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma
- Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium
(Na+)
- Sodium rushing into the cell generates an action
potential
- Once started, muscle contraction cannot be
stopped

The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction

- Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(crossbridges) to attach to binding sites on the
thin filament
- Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the
thin filament
- This continued action causes a sliding of the
myosin along the actin
- The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted)

IGANO, CIENNA CHARRISE 15