FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

PRINCIPLES IN TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

FACTORS
 Cognitive & Metacognitive
 Motivational & Affective
 Individual Difference
 Developmental & Social

Cognitive & Metacognitive

1. Nature of Learning Process – Constructing meaning from an info.
2. Goals of Learning Process – With support and guidance.
3. Construction of Knowledge – Link new information.
4. Strategic Thinking – Use a repertoire of thinking.
5. Thinking about Thinking – Set reasonable learning.
6. Context of Learning – Environmental-cultural influenced.

Motivational & Affective

1. Motivational & Emotional Influences on Learning – Enhances or interfere.
2. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn – Optimal novelty & difficulty.
3. Effects of Motivation on Effort – Demands the investment.

Individual Difference
1. Learning & Diversity – The same basic principles.
2. Standards & Assessment – Provides info to both teachers & learner.
3. Individual Differences in Learning – Examine their learning principles.

Developmental & Social

1. Developmental Influences on Learning – When material is appropriate
2. Social Influences on Learning – Opportunity to interact & cooperate.
METACOGNITION
: Intentional thinking about how you learn.

2. Cognition – Thinking activity and process.

: Developing appropriate &helpful thinking strategies awareness of one’s knowledge “John
Flavell” (1979)

1. Cognitive Strategies – Basic mental abilities.

2. Metacognitive Strategies – Used to ensure that an overarching learning goal has been reached.
3. Metacognitive Knowledge – What individual know as cognitive processors.
4. Metacognitive Regulation – Adjustments Categories:
5. Expert Learner – Application of Metacognition
6. Novice Learner – Do not use Metacognition

1. Metacognitive Knowledge – Refers to acquire knowledge about cognitive process, knowledge

that can be used to control cognitive process.
 Personal Variable – This refers to knowledge about how human being learn and
process information as well as individual knowledge of one’s own learning process.
 Task Variable – Includes knowledge about the nature of task as well as the type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual.
 Strategy Variable – The strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether
this strategy is effective.

1. Meta-attention – The awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task on hand.
2. Meta-memory – “Socratic Awareness”. It is your awareness memory strategies that work best
for you

1. FANG & COX – Showed metacognition awareness was evident in preschoolers and in
students as your as eight years old.

 TQLR – Tune in, Question, Listen, Remember (Primary Grades)

 PQ4R – Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review (Older Grades)

1. Novice Learners – Someone who has no specific knowledge about the topic.
2. Expert Learners – Has a wealth of knowledge in a specific field or domain.

SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

: A way of describing people’s education, income, and type of job.

1. Learning/Thinking Style – The preferred way an individual processes information. Learned

better by seeing, listening or manipulating somethings.
2. Exceptionalities – Physical/Mental/Emotional conditions which require individualized
instruction and/or other educational support or services.
STUDENT DIVERSITY

(Suzzane Moore) – “Public Space” is the classroom

(Clyde Kluckhohn) – American anthropologist / human quote

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES/LEARNING STYLE

Visual Learners – See teacher’s facial expression.

 Visual Iconic – More interested in visual imagery such as films, pictures.
 Visual Symbolic – Abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae.
Auditory Learners – Verbal lectures, discussion, talking.
 Listeners
 Talkers
Tactile/Kinesthetic – Hand approach, exploring the physical world around them.
Global-Analytic Continuum
 Analytic Thinkers – “Tree seers”. Tend toward the linear
 Global Thinkers – “Forest seers”. Tend toward the non - linear

ROGER SPERRY’S MODEL

- Left brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear
- Right brained person is the one who is viewed as global, non-linear and holistic in
thought preferences.

 Left-brained – Prefer to learn in a step-by-step sequential format. (Linear)

 Right-brained – Prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then going to
the specifics.
 Successive Processor – Left Brain
 Simultaneous Processor – Right Brain

MULTIPLE INTELEGENCES (Howard Gardener 1983)

: An ability that allows a person solve a problem that is valued in one or more cultures.

1. Visual/Spatial – Pictures
2. Verbal/Linguistic – Words; language
3. Mathematical/Logical – Number, reasoning
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic – Body movements
5. Musical – Patterns, music
6. Intrapersonal – Within the self
7. Interpersonal – Social
8. Naturalist – Classification,
9. Existential – Understanding & application

LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

Disability – Measurable impairment or Ormrod’s Educational Psychology (2002)

1. Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
 Learning Disabilities
 Attention - ADHD
 Speech & Communication Disorder
2. Social/Emotional & Behavioral Difficulties
 Autism
 Mental Retardations
 Emotional/Conduct Disorder

PHISICAL DISABILITIES AND HEALTH IMPROVEMENTS

1. Limited energy and strength
2. Reduce mental alertness, and/or
3. Limited muscle control

1. Severe and Multiple Disabilities – This refers to the presence of two or more different types
of disability, at times at a profound level.
2. Sensory Impairments
 Visual Impairments – These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or
optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with the corrective lenses.
 Hearing Impairments – These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.
3. Giftedness – This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

PEOPLE FIRST LANGUAGE

Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting the person first, not the
disability.

LEARNING THEORIES
LEARNING THEORIES

1. Behaviorist Perspective – Concerned with how environmental factors (stimuli) affect

observable behavior (response).
 Classical Conditioning
 Connectionism – Thorndike Primary Laws (Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise and
Law of Effect)
 Operant Conditioning – B.F Skinner Reinforcement & Shaping of behavior

Classical Conditioning – Unconscious/automatic associations of unconditioned stimulus & a

neutral stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov – bell, dog and meat experiment. Russian Psychologist.
 Stimulus Generalization – Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the
bell, it will salivate at other similar sound.
 Extinction – If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salvation will eventually cease
in response to bell.
 Spontaneous Recovery – Extinguished response can be recovered after an elapsed
time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
 Discrimination – The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimulus)
and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
 Higher-Order Conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food.

Edward L. Thorndike - Gave us the S-R Framework (S – Stimuli & R – Responses)

Three Primary Laws
 Law of Effect – The connection between a stimulus and response strengthened when
the consequence is positive, and when it weakened the consequence is negative.
 Law of Exercise – The more S-R bond is practiced the stronger it will become.
 Law of Readiness – The more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus the
stronger will be the bond between them.
John Watson – The first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s idea
Burrhus Frederick Skinner –
 Operant Conditioning – is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in
overt behavior.
 Positive Reinforcement – Any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
 Negative Reinforcement – Stimulus that results in the increased frequency.

1. Implications of Operant Conditioning – Practice should take the form of questions (stimulus)-
answer(response) frame which expose the students to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – Behavior that is positively
reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.
NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN & BANDURA

Neo Behaviorism – Is a psychological perspective that emerged in response to classical

behaviorism.
Edward Tolman Purposive Behaviorism and Albert Bandura Learning Theory.

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism – It may begin to respond with trial and error (behavioristic),
but later on your responses become more internally driven (cognitive perspective)
- Referred to as “Sign Learning Theory”
- Learning is cognitive process.
- Learning Is acquired through behavior.

1. Cognitive Maps – Organism or individual to be exactly learn to the location.

2. Latent Learning – Learning that remains or stay with the individual until needed.
3. Interviewing Variables – Variables are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – Called as observational learning

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING EFFECTS

1. Inhibition – A model is being observed refrains from behaving in that way or does something
different from what is intendent to be done.
2. Disinhibition – To exhibit that is usually disapproved by most people in fact that a model does
that same without being punished.
3. Facilitation – To be promoted to do something that is not ordinarily done because of
insufficient motivation.
4. Observational Learning – To learn a new behavior pattern by watching and imitate others.

FOUR CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE MODELING

1. Attention – The person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention – The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed.
3. Motor Reproduction – The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrate.
4. Motivation – The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur motivation.

GESALT PSYCHOLOGY
- Was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasizes the importance of
sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception.

3 PSYCHOLOGISTS
1. Max Wertheimer
2. Kurt Koffka
3. Wolfgang Kohler

GESALT PRINCIPLES
1. Law of Proximity – Elements that are closer together will be perceived as coherent object.
2. Law of Similarity – Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.
3. Law of Closure – We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceived.
4. Law of Good Continuation – Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever
the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction.
5. Law of Good Pragnanz – The stimulus will be organized into as good figure as possible.
6. Law of Figure/Ground – We need to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first.

LIFE SPACE (LEWIN)

Kurt Lewin – His theory focusing on “Life Space” adhered to gestalt psychology.
Inner Forces – Includes his own motivations, attitudes and feelings.
Outer Forces – Includes the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates.

INNFORMATION PROCESSING
- Is a cognitive framework that focuses on how or knowledge enters and is stored in and
is retrieved from our memory.

TYPE OF KNOWLEDGE
1. General vs Specific – Knowledge useful in many tasks or in only.
2. Declarative – Factual knowledge.
3. Procedural – Knowledge on how to do things.
4. Episodic – Memories of life events.
5. Conditional – “Knowing when and why” to declarative or procedural strategies.

STAGES IN IPT
1. Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2. Storage – Information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time.
3. Retrieval – Information is brought back or reactivated for use in.

SHORT TERM MEMORY - The memory system in the brain involved in remembering pieces
of information for a short period of time, often up to 18 seconds or less.
LONG TERM MEMORY - Is the permanent storing house for memory information. It holds
the stored information until needed again.
GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

Robert Mills Gagne – Educational Psychologist.

GAGNE’S PRINCIPLES
1. “Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes”
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning/

FIVE LEARNING CATEGORIES

1. Verbal Information – Any communication that uses words to share information with others.
2. Intellectual Skills – The ways of thinking and problem solving used by professionals in a
field.
3. Cognitive Strategies – Type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn more
successfully.
4. Motor Skills – Developing smoothness of action, precision and timing.
5. Attitudes – Capabilities that influence an individual’s choice about the kind of action to take

GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

1. Gain attention
2. Inform the learner of the objectives
3. Stimulate the recall of prior knowledge
4. Present the stimulus material
5. Provide learning guidance
6. Elicit performance
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention transfer to new situations
AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING/SUBSUMPTION
THEORY

David Paul Ausubel – An American psychologist

FOCUS ON AUSUBEL’S THEORY

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quality, clarity and organization of the
learner’s present knowledge.
2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to
ideas that the learner already possess.

TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZER

1. Expository – Describe the new content
2. Narrative – Presents the new information in the form of a story to students
3. Slimming – Is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview
4. Graphic Organizer – Visual to set up or outline the new information. This may include
pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps.

BRUNER’S MAIN CONCEPT

1. Predisposition to learn – Burner introduces the ideas of readiness for leaning, Burner believed
that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child’s
cognitive abilities.
2. Structure of knowledge – This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.
3. Effective Sequencing – No one sequencing will fit every learner, but is general, the lesson can
be presented in increasing difficulty sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more
difficult.
4. Reinforcement – Rewards or punishments should be selected and paced appropriately.

CATEGORIZATION
1. Identity Categories – Categories include objects based on their attributes or features.
2. Equivalent Categories – Can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects
equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions.
3. Coding Systems – Categories that serves to recognize sensory input.