What is It

Matter, the “stuff” of which the universe is composed, has two

characteristics: it has mass and it occupies space. Matter comes in a great variety of
forms: the stars, the air that you are breathing, the gasoline that you put in your car,
the chair on which you are sitting, the meat in the sandwich you may have had for
lunch, the tissues in your brain that enable you to read and comprehend this
sentence, and so on. To try to understand the nature of matter, we classify it in
various ways. For example, wood, bone, and steel share certain characteristics.
These things are all rigid; they have definite shapes that are difficult to change. On
the other hand, water and gasoline, for example, take the shape of any container
into which they are poured.
The substances we have just described illustrate the three states of matter:
solid, liquid, and gas. The state of a given sample of matter depends on the strength
of the forces among the particles contained in the matter; the stronger these forces,
the more rigid the matter.

Table 1.1. The Three States of Matter

Figure 1.1. Phase Changes of Matter

Physical and Chemical Properties and Changes
When you see a friend, you immediately respond and call him or her by
name. We can recognize a friend because each person has unique characteristics or
properties. The person may be thin and tall, may have black hair and brown eyes,
and so on. The characteristics just mentioned are examples of physical properties.
Substances also have physical properties. Typical physical properties of a substance
include odor, color, volume, state (gas, liquid, or solid), density, melting point, and
boiling point. We can also describe a pure substance in terms of its chemical
properties, which refer to its ability to form new substances. An example of a
chemical change is wood burning, giving off heat and gases and leaving a residue of
ashes. In this process, the wood is changed to several new substances. Other
examples of chemical changes include the rusting of the steel, the digestion of food
in our stomachs, and the growth of grass in our gardens. In a chemical change a
given substance changes to a fundamentally different substance or substances.

Matter can undergo changes in both its physical and its chemical properties.
To illustrate the fundamental differences between physical and chemical changes,
we will consider water. A sample of water contains a very large number of
individual units (called molecules), each made up of two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen—the familiar H2O. This molecule can be represented as

where the letters stand for atoms and the lines show attachments (called bonds)
between atoms, and the molecular model (on the right) represents water in a more
three-dimensional fashion. What is really occurring when water undergoes the
following changes?

When ice melts, the rigid solid becomes a mobile liquid that takes the
shape of its container. Continued heating brings the liquid to a boil, and
the water becomes a gas or vapor that seems to disappear into “thin air.” The
changes that occur as the substance goes from
solid to liquid to gas are represented in Figure
1.2. In ice the water molecules are locked into
fixed positions (although they are vibrating). In
the liquid the molecules are still very close
together, but some motion is occurring; the
positions of the molecules
are no longer fixed as they are in ice. In the
gaseous state the molecules are
much farther apart and move randomly, hitting
each other and the walls of
the container. Figure 1.2. States of water
 The most important thing about all these changes is that the water molecules
are still intact. The motions of individual molecules and the distances between them
change, but H2O molecules are still present. These changes of state are physical
changes because they do not affect the composition of the substance. In each state
we still have water (H2O), not some other substance.

Now suppose we run an electric current

through water (electrolysis) as illustrated in Figure
1.3. Something very different happens. The water
disappears and is replaced by two new gaseous
substances, hydrogen and oxygen. An electric
current actually causes the water molecules to come
apart—the water decomposes to hydrogen and
oxygen. We can represent this process as follows:

Figure 1.3. Electrolysis

This is a chemical change because water (consisting of H 2O molecules) has

changed into different substances: hydrogen (containing H 2 molecules) and oxygen
(containing O2 molecules). Thus in this process, the H 2O molecules have been
replaced by O2 and H2 molecules.

Elements and Compounds

As we examine the chemical changes of matter, we encounter a series of
fundamental substances called elements. Elements cannot be broken down into
other substances by chemical means. Examples of elements are iron, aluminum,
oxygen, and hydrogen. All of the matter in the world around us
contains elements. The elements sometimes are found in an isolated state,
but more often they are combined with other elements. Most substances contain
several elements combined together.
The atoms of certain elements have special affinities for each other. They bind
together in special ways to form compounds, substances that have the same
composition no matter where we find them. Because compounds are made of
elements, they can be broken down into elements through chemical changes:

Water is an example of a compound. Pure water always has the same

composition (the same relative amounts of hydrogen and oxygen) because it consists
of H2O molecules. Water can be broken down into the elements hydrogen and oxygen
by chemical means, such as by the use of an electric current.
 Each element is made up of a particular kind of atom: a pure sample of the
element aluminum contains only aluminum atoms, elemental copper contains only
copper atoms, and so on. Thus an element contains only one kind of atom; a sample
of iron contains many atoms, but they are all iron atoms. Samples of certain pure
elements do contain molecules; for example, hydrogen gas contains H - H (usually
written H2) molecules, and oxygen gas contains O - O (O 2) molecules. However, any
pure sample of an element contains only atoms of that element, never any atoms of
any other element.
A compound always contains atoms of different elements. For example,
water contains hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms, and there are always exactly twice
as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms because water consists of H-O-H
molecules. A different compound, carbon dioxide, consists of CO 2 molecules and so
contains carbon atoms and oxygen atoms (always in
the ratio 1:2).
A compound, although it contains more than one type of atom, always
has the same composition—that is, the same combination of atoms. The properties of
a compound are typically very different from those of the elements it contains. For
example, the properties of water are quite different from the properties of pure
hydrogen and pure oxygen.

Mixture and Pure Substances

Virtually all of the matter around us consists of mixtures of substances. For
example, if you closely observe a sample of soil, you will see that it has many types
of components, including tiny grains of sand and remnants of plants. The air we
breathe is a complex mixture of such gases as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and
water vapor. Even the sparkling water from a drinking fountain contains many
substances besides water.

A mixture can be defined as something that has variable composition.

For example, wood is a mixture (its composition varies greatly depending on
the tree from which it originates); wine is a mixture (it can be red or pale yellow,
sweet or dry); coffee is a mixture (it can be strong, weak, or bitter); and, although it
looks very pure, water pumped from deep in the earth is a mixture (it contains
dissolved minerals and gases).
A pure substance, on the other hand, will always have the same
composition. Pure substances are either elements or compounds. For example, pure
water is a compound containing individual H 2O molecules. However, as we find it in
nature, liquid water always contains other substances in addition to pure water—it
is a mixture. This is obvious from the different tastes, smells, and colors of water
samples obtained from various locations. However, if we take great pains to purify
samples of water from various sources (such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and the earth’s
interior), we always end up with the same pure substance—water, which is made up
only of H2O molecules. Pure water always has the same physical and chemical
properties and is always made of molecules containing hydrogen and oxygen in
exactly the same proportions, regardless of the original source of the water.
The properties of a pure substance make it possible to identify that substance
conclusively. Mixtures can be separated into pure substances: elements and/or
compounds.

For example, the mixture known as air can be separated into oxygen (element),
nitrogen (element), water (compound), carbon dioxide (compound), argon (element),
and other pure substances.
Mixtures can be classified as either
homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous
mixture is the same throughout. For example, when we
dissolve some salt in water and stir well, all regions of
the resulting mixture have the same properties. A
homogeneous mixture is also called a solution. Of
course, different amounts of salt and water can be
mixed to form various solutions, but a homogeneous
mixture (a solution) does not vary
in composition from one region to another. Figure 1.4 Air Components

The air around you is a solution. It is a homogeneous mixture of gases.

Solid solutions also exist. Brass is a homogeneous mixture of the metals copper and
zinc. A heterogeneous mixture contains regions that have different properties from
those of other regions. For example, when we pour sand into water, the resulting
mixture has one region containing water and another, very different region
containing mostly sand.
 What is It

The following table shows some of the very common chemicals in our
surroundings with their corresponding chemical names and chemical formulas.

Table 1.2 Common Chemical Substances (Compounds)

Common Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula
Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3
Borax Sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 •10H2O
decahydrate
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Chalk Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Marble Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Plaster of Paris Calcium sulfate CaSO4
Quick lime Calcium oxide CaO
Table salt Sodium chloride NaCl
Table sugar Sucrose C12H22O11
Vetsin / MSG Monosodium glutamate C5H8NO4Na

Some compounds are always referred to by their common names. The two best
examples are water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3). Many of these substances are
combined to form mixtures.

Formation of Mixtures

Mixtures are physical combinations of two or more pure substances. In

physical combination, substances do not change into other substances when they
became part of a mixture. An example is when copper sulfate powder is added to
water, a mixture (solution) of copper sulfate and water is formed. The
components look different, but no new substance is formed.

Figure 1.5 The formation of a mixture is a physical process.

(Images: Benjah-bmm27, Cjp24, LHcheM; Wikimedia Commons)

Separation of Mixtures

Since they are formed by physically combining the substances, mixtures can
be physically separated. For example, if a copper sulfate solution is boiled, the
water evaporates away and the copper sulfate powder remains.

Figure 1.6 The formation of a mixture is a physically reversible process.

(Images: LHcheM, Benjah-bmm27, Cjp24; Wikimedia Commons)

Separation Techniques

There are many different techniques for separating mixtures into their
components. The most appropriate technique depends on the type of mixture and
the physical properties of the components. It also depends on whether you want
to retrieve all of the components or not.

For example, if we had a solution of salt water, the most appropriate

separation technique would depend on whether we wanted to recover both the salt
and water, or just the salt.

Physical Properties of Mixture Components

Separation techniques take advantage of differing physical properties of the

components of a mixture. For example, by evaporating the water from a copper
sulfate solution, we are taking advantage of the fact that water has a lower
boiling point than copper sulfate. In fact, water boils long before copper sulfate
even melts.

However, if we heated a solution of ethanol and water, the ethanol would boil
and evaporate before the water, as ethanol has a lower boiling point than water.
We would therefore need to use a different separation technique to remove water
from an ethanol-water solution.

There are other physical properties of components, besides melting

and boiling point, that can be utilized when separating mixtures, including:
size, solubility, density, magnetism and other forms of attraction.
 Figure 1.7 What are some differences in physical properties that could be
used to separate these mixtures?

(Images: PublicDomainPictures, Pixabay; Jan-Mallander, *Pixabay*; Kallol Mustafa, Wikimedia

Commons)

Separating Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures

Separation techniques can generally be divided into the separation of

heterogeneous mixtures and the separation of homogeneous mixtures.

Some of the main separation techniques are shown in the table below.

Table 1.3 Some Separation Techniques

Techniques for Separating Techniques for Separating
Heterogeneous Mixtures Homogeneous Mixtures
Decanting Evaporation
Sieving Distillation
Filtration Chromatography
Separating Funnel
Centrifugation
Magnetic Separation

Decanting

Decanting involves separating a dense, insoluble substance from a

heterogeneous mixture. For example, if we mixed sand with water in a beaker, the
sand would not dissolve, but would settle to the bottom, forming a sediment layer.
By gently pouring off the water (the supernatant), we could separate the sand from
it. In the laboratory, using a glass rod can assist the decanting process, as it
minimizes the amount of splashing and reduces the risk of pouring off some of the
sediment. Decanting is only a useful method if the solid particles readily settle to the
bottom. It would not be useful, for example, in separating fine silt particles from
water, as they often remain suspended in the water.
 Figure 1.8 Decanting

Sieving

Sieving involves separating a mixture based on different sizes of

components. For example, small rocks can be separated from sand by sieving the
mixture. The smaller sand grains will pass through the holes in the sieve, whereas
the rocks will not pass through. Sieving can also be used to separate solids from
liquids, assuming the solid pieces are larger than the holes in the sieve. For
example, straining cooked rice is a form of sieving.

Figure 1.9 Sieving

Filtration

Filtration is a special form of sieving that separates very fine solid particles
from liquid or gas mixtures. Filter paper (or a similar substance with very fine
pores) is used as a sieve. For example, air and water filters are used in a variety of
applications to keep air and water free from minute dust and other particles. In a
laboratory, filtration is often carried out by placing filter paper in a funnel, pouring
the mixture into the funnel and collecting the filtered liquid in a beaker. The liquid
that passes through the filter is called the filtrate and the solid that gets trapped in
the filter is called the residue.
 Figure 1.9 Filtration

Separating Funnel
A separating funnel can be used to separate a mixture of two non-miscible
liquids – that is, liquids that do not mix together to form a homogeneous solution.
When such a mixture is allowed to settle, the less dense liquid will form a layer on
top of the more dense liquid. A tap attached to the separating funnel allows the
bottom liquid layer to be drained, while the top liquid layer remains in the flask and
can be drained separately. This technique is mostly used to separate liquids that are
miscible in water from liquids that are non-miscible in water. An oil-water mixture
would be an example of this.

Figure 1.10 Separating Funnel

 Centrifugation

Centrifugation involves spinning tubes of heterogeneous mixtures at very high

speeds, which forces part of the mixture to settle at the bottom of the tube. It can
be used for separating solid particles from liquids, or for separating non-miscible
liquids. After centrifugation, the top liquid layer can be carefully removed using a
pipette. Examples include the separation of fat from milk and the separation of
different components in blood (red blood cells, white blood cells and plasma).

Figure 1.11 Centrifugation

Centrifugation can also be combined with sieving for separating liquids from
solids. For example, washing machines and salad spinners combine centrifuging
and sieving to remove excess water from clothes and salad greens.

Magnetic Separation

Magnetic separation is a specialized method specifically used for separating

magnetic materials, such as iron, from non-magnetic materials, such as soil and
plastic. It is commonly used in the mining and recycling industries.

Figure 1.12 Magnetic Separation

Evaporation

Evaporation is used for recovering dissolved solids from solutions. The

solution is either boiled or simply left uncovered, resulting in the evaporation of water
and the crystallization of solutes. For example, sea salt is recovered by the
evaporation of sea water.

Figure 1.13 Evaporation

Distillation

Distillation is similar to evaporation, except that the evaporated substance,

known as the distillate, is collected. The evaporated substance is passed through a
tube known as a condenser, which is surrounded by cold water. The evaporated
substance is cooled, causing it to condense back to a liquid so that it can be
collected. Distillation can be used to separate liquids based on their differing
boiling point. It is commonly used in producing petrol, alcohol and perfumes.
Distillation can also be used to remove dissolved impurities from substances, such
as in the purification of water.

Figure 1.14 Distillation

Chromatography

Chromatography is used to separate liquid or gas mixtures. It uses very small

quantities as its purpose is primarily for identifying and analyzing substances
within a mixture, rather than separating mixtures to recover large amounts of their
components. Some examples include drug testing of urine and blood samples,
testing water samples for pollutants, and comparing a suspect’s sample with
evidence found at a crime scene. Chromatography uses the principle of different
affinities (attraction) of substances within a mixture to two separating
substances, known as the stationary phase and the mobile phase
(https://www.goodscience.com.au/year- 7-chemistry/separation-of-mixtures/).

Figure 1.15 Chromatography