Lecture 4: EEE521 Power Systems I

Mulungushi University
School of Science, Engineering and Technology,
Engineering Department

October 2021 For internal use only

Content – Disturbance of normal operating condition
1. Fault analysis and types of faults
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
3. The one-line diagram
4. Per unit system
5. Balanced three phase faults at full load
6. Application of current limiting reactors
1. Fault analysis and types of faults
• A fault in a power system or circuit is a failure which interferes with the normal flow of current .
• Faults are associated with abnormal change in current, voltage and frequency of the power system .
• In general faults occur in power system networks due to insulation failure of equipment, flashover of lines
initiated by a lightning stroke, or due to accidental faulty operation.
• When the fault occur in a part of power system, heavy current flows in that part of circuit which may cause
permanent damage to the equipment.
• The selection of protection devices such as circuit breaker depends on the current flowing immediately after
the fault occurs.
• The estimation of these currents for various types of faults at various locations in the system is called fault
calculation.
• The data obtained from fault calculations are also used to determine the settings of the relay which control
the circuit breakers .
• The faults can be broadly classified into: -
a) Shunt faults (short circuit)
b) Series faults (open conductors)
1. Fault analysis and types of faults
• The shunt type of faults involves short circuit between conductor and ground or short circuit between two
or more conductors. The shunt faults are characterized by increase in current and fall in voltage and
frequency.
• The series faults may occur with one or two broken conductors which creates open circuits. The series faults
are characterized by increase in voltage and frequency and fall in current in the faulty phase.
• For purposes of fault studies, generator behavior can be divided into three different periods: (i) the sub-
transient period, lasting only for the first few cycles; (ii) the transient period, covering a relatively longer time
and (ii) steady state period, where the amplitude of the fault current is constant.

Explain with the aid of a labeled diagram the difference

between sub-transient, transient and steady-state periods for
short circuit currents [4 Marks]
1. Fault analysis and types of faults

Classify all the types of faults possible in a power system under series and shunt fault types. [4 Marks]
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
• The various components of a power system like Alternators, Transformers, Induction Motors etc., have their
voltage, power, current and impedance ratings in KV, KVA, KA and KΩ respectively.
• It will be convenient for analysis of power system networks if the voltage, power, current and impedance
ratings of components of power system are expressed with reference to a common value called base value.
• For analysis purpose, a base value is chosen for voltage, power, current and impedance.
• Hence, All the Voltage, Power, Current and Impedance ratings of the components are expressed as a
percentage or per unit of the base value.
• Per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value to the chosen base value in the same
unit.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
• Normally, the impedances are specified on the rating of the equipment. Hence, there is a need to change
the p.u values from the base of the equipment rating (old value) to that of the chosen system base (new
value).
• When MVA base is changed from (MVA)b,old to (MVA)b,new and KV base is changed from (KV)b,old to
(KV)b,new the per unit impedance from the above equation is:

• Similarly, we can also write:

2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
• The quantities voltage (V), current (I), apparent power (KVA), impedance (Z) are often expressed as
percentage or per unit quantities to simplify calculations.
• Per unit quantities are calculated as follows:
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Advantages of p.u. system
1. Calculations are simplified
2. For circuits connected by transformers, per unit system is particularly suitable. By choosing suitable bas
KV’s for the circuit, the per unit reactance of the transformer remains the same referred to either side of
the transformer.
3. Machine reactances given in per unit, provide a basis for comparison. Micro-machines are built to
represent actual machines for research purposes. They have nearly the same per unit reactances as their
parent machines. Thus, per unit system gives a method for comparison.

Example 1: For a single phase system, selected bases are as follows: Base current = 10 A; Base voltage 200 V.
(i) Find the base impedance.
(ii) Express the following quantities in per unit form: 20A, 0.2A, 50V, 1000V, 2Ohm and 0.5 Ohm.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Example 2: An 11KV, 15,000KVA generator has a reactance of 0.15 p.u. referred to its ratings base. The new
bases chosen for calculations are 110KV and 30,000KVA. Calculate the new p.u. reactance.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
• The various sections of power system works at different voltage levels and the voltage conversion is achieved
by means of Transformers.
• For a Transformer, primary side of Base KV of power system should be converted to secondary side of Base
KV as per the Transformation Ration of the Transformer.
• Steps for calculating symmetrical faults:
(i.) Draw a single line diagram of the complete network indicating the rating, voltage and p.u. reactances of
each element of the network
(ii.) Select system base MVA
(iii.) Draw a reactance diagram showing one of the system phases and the neutral with every reactance
expressed to an appropriate base voltage and MVA
(iv.) Thevenise the network up to the fault point.
(v.) Determine the p.u. current flowing into the fault impedance
(vi.) Convert the p.u. short circuit current to S.I. unit system.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Fault level calculation
• In a power system, the maximum the fault current (or fault MVA) that can flow into a zero impedance fault is
necessary to be known for switch gear solution. This can either be the balanced three phase value or the
value at an asymmetrical condition. The Fault Level defines the value for the symmetrical condition. The
fault level is usually expressed in MVA (or corresponding per-unit value), with the maximum fault current
value being converted using the nominal voltage rating.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Fault level calculation

• The Short circuit capacity (SCC) of a busbar is the fault level of the busbar. The strength of a busbar (or the
ability to maintain its voltage) is directly proportional to its SCC. An infinitely strong bus (or Infinite bus bar)
has an infinite SCC, with a zero equivalent impedance and will maintain its voltage under all conditions.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
• Magnitude of short circuit current is time dependant due to synchronous generators. It is initially at its largest
value and decreasing to steady value. These higher fault levels tax Circuit Breakers adversely so that current
limiting reactors are sometimes used.
• The Short circuit MVA is a better indicator of the stress on CBs than the short circuit current as CB has to
withstand recovery voltage across breaker following arc interruption. The currents flowing during a fault is
determined by the internal emfs of machines in the network, by the impedances of the machines, and by the
impedances between the machines and the fault.
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Example 3: Given a 3-phase transmission line operating at 66kV and connected through a 1000 kVA
transformer with 5% reactance to a generating station bus-bar. The generator is rated 2500kVA with a
reactance of 10%. Suppose a short-circuit fault between three phases occurs at the high voltage terminals of
the transformer. Find the level of fault current and MVA.

Solutions to be provided in class (STPIC)

2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Example 4: The figure below shows a single line diagram of a 3-phase system. The percentage reactance of
each alternator is based on its own capacity. Find the short-circuit current that will flow into a complete 3-
phase short-circuit at F.

(STPIC)
2. Balanced three phase faults at no load
Example 5: Two generators G1 and G2 are rated 15 MVA, 11kV and 10 MVA, 11kV, respectively. The generators
are connected to a transformer as shown below. Calculate the sub-transient current in each generator when a
fault occurs on the high voltage side of the transformer.

(STPIC)
3. Balanced three phase faults on full load
Example 6: A synchronous generator and a synchronous motor each rated 20 MVA, 12.66 KV having 15% sub-
transient reactance are connected through transformers and a line as shown below. The transformers are rated
20 MVA, 12.66/66 KV and 66/12.66 kV with leakage reactance of 10% each. The line has a reactance of 8% on a
base of 20 MVA, 66kV. The motor is drawing 10MW at 0.80 leading power factor and a terminal voltage 11 kV
when a symmetrical fault occurs at the motor terminals. Determine the generator and motor currents, pre-
fault. Also determine the fault current and MVA.

(STPIC)
2. Application of current limiting reactors
• Short circuit currents are typically large enough to do considerable damage mechanically and thermally. The
interrupting capacities of circuit breakers to handle such current would be very large. To reduce this high
fault current, artificial reactances are sometimes connected in series with generators, between bus sections,
and at the beginning of feeders, among others.
• These current limiting reactors usually consist of insulated copper strip embedded in concrete formers. This
is necessary to withstand the high mechanical forces produced by the current in the neighbouring
conductors.

Air-core current limiting reactors

2. Application of current limiting reactors
4. Application of current limiting reactors
Example 7: Two generators of ratings 1000KVA and 1500KVA and a voltage of 3.3kV have percentage
reactances of 10 and 20 percent, respectively. These are connected to a bus-bar. Determine the value of
reactance ‘r’ you would connect in series to the first generator to limit short circuit current kVA of the bus-bar
to 10,000KVA.

(STPIC)