IV. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Part 1

Republic of the Philippines
MARINDUQUE STATE COLLEGE

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Tanza, Boac, Marinduque
Lecture Course Material

NASC 1 - Chemistry for Engineers
1st Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Part I – Isotopes and Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear chemistry deals with the study of nuclear reactions and its effects on biological systems. It is generally
applied in determining reaction mechanisms, biological tracing, as well as artefact dating.
Atoms are made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. The neutrons and protons are found in the nucleus and are
also called nucleons.
Recall:
A
Z X
Where:
X – element
A – mass number of the element
Z – atomic number of the element
Keep in mind that

A = # of protons (p+) + # of neutrons (n0)
Z = # of protons (p+) = # of electrons (e-)
Isotopes
Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass numbers
Examples
Some Isotopes of Carbon
Symbol No. of Protons No. of Neutrons Mass No.
11
6 C
6 5 11
12
6 C
6 6 12
13
6 C
6 7 13
14
6 C
6 8 14
Some Isotopes of Neon

Symbol No. of Protons No. of Neutrons Mass No.
20
10 Ne
10 10 20
21
10 Ne
10 11 21
22
10 Ne
10 12 22
These isotopes are present with different abundances as well as stabilities. Take Uranium for example; the naturally
occurring isotopes of Uranium are 23492U, 23592U, and 23892U.
Isotopes Abundance
234
92U trace amounts
235
92 U 0.7 %
238
92U 99.3%
Terms to remember:
 Radioisotope - isotope that contains an unstable nuclide
 Nuclide - unstable nucleus of an isotope
 Radioactive nuclides (Radionuclides)

- unstable and spontaneously emit particles and electromagnetic radiation
- this release is one way in which an unstable nucleus transforms into a more
stable one with less energy
- emitted radiation is the carrier of excess energy
This spontaneous emission is called radioactive decay, and is represented by nuclear reactions
Example
A: 238 = 234 + 4
238 234 4
→
92 U 90 Th He
+
2
Z: 92 = 90 + 2
Keep in mind that the sums of both A and Z remain unchanged when balancing nuclear reactions.
Part II – Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable nucleus spontaneously disintegrates and gives off radiation.
Radiation are rays which consists of the particles emitted by radioactive nuclei
Particles involved in radioactive decay

Particle Symbol Properties
Most massive particle

Most potential to interact with and damage
4 4 molecules
Alpha (α) Particle
2 α or 2 He Highest ionizing power
Lowest penetrating power (can be stopped by
sheet of paper, clothing, or air)
Less massive than α-paricles

0 0 Low ionizing power
Beta (ß)-particle / electron
-1 ß or -1 e High penetrating power (can be stopped by
metal sheet or thick piece of wood)
0 Similar to ß-particle in terms of ionizing

Positron
+1 e power and penetrating power
1 1
Proton
1 p or 1 H Nuclei of hydrogen atoms
1 Particles with approximately same mass with

Neutron
0 n the proton but with no charge
Lowest ionizing power

Highest penetrating power (can be stopped
0 by several inches of lead or thick concrete
Gamma (γ) Particle / Photon
0 γ slabs)
Pure gamma emitters are rare (accompanies
most alpha and beta radiation)
Modes of Radioactive Decay

Part III – Half-Life

Half-life is the time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay. The following equation relates the mass of the
sample relative to the rate of decay and time.
Equation 4.1
Where:
No is the initial mass of the sample
N is the mass of the sample after a given time, t
k is the rate constant
If we substitute N by ½ No, and isolate t, we get
- Equation 4.2
Since –ln ½ = ln2, we arrive at the equation for half-life, t1/2
⁄ Equation 4.3
Nuclides with shorter half-lives or larger rate constants are considered very active. These isotopes are usually used
in medicine. On the other hand, nuclides with longer half-lives are less active; this is exhibited usually by naturally
occurring isotopes.
The most common use of half-life is Radiocarbon Dating or Carbon-14 Dating. Here, the age of an organic material
is determined based on the decay of Carbon-14. Carbon-14 ha a half-life of 5730 years and is used for dating objects
less than 50,000 years old.
Carbon-14 is produced continuously in the upper atmosphere as nitrogen atoms capture cosmic-ray neutrons.
14 1 14 1
N n → C 1 H
+ +
7 0 6
14
Carbon 14 reacts with oxygen to form CO2 which is taken up by plants and introduced to the food chain through
photosynthesis. The ratio of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12 is constant in any living matter. This becomes the basis for
dating. When the carbon-based organism (plant or animal) dies, the intake of 14C also stops then decays via ß-
emission; with this, the ratio of 14C to 12C slowly decreases. By measuring the given ratio, archaeologists can
determine how long ago the organism died.
The following nuclides are used in the diagnosis and treatment of various illnesses. They are also called radiotracers
and are highly useful since they are highly sensitive while being non-invasive.
Part IV – Nuclear Fission and Energy

Fusion is the process of combining the two light nuclei to form a heavier and more stable nucleus. Fission on the
other hand is the process of splitting heavy nucleus into two nuclei with smaller mass numbers. In both processes,
involved species goes from a less stable state to a more stable state, therefore releasing energy, and is therefore
exothermic. Since there is large binding energy involved in holding the nucleus together, both processes release
energy in a much greater magnitude than chemical reactions.
The figure above illustrates the process of nuclear fission where a chain reaction is observed. For this to occur, there
should be at least one neutron from each fission event to split another nucleus.
If
1. Less than 1 neutron causes another fission event, the process dies out and the reaction is subcritical
2. Exactly 1 neutron causes another fission event, the process is sustained and is called critical
3. More than 1 neutron causes another fission event, the process escalates and the heat buildup causes a violent
explosion and is said to be super critical
To achieve the critical state, we need a certain amount of fissionable material. For a critical condition, the mass
needed to achieve this is called critical mass.
As seen in the figure, if the sample is too small, too many neutrons escape, while a bigger sample traps the neutrons
which in turn interact with the nuclides, allowing for a more violent release of energy. An example where this is
used is in developing weapons.
A more practical use of fission is through the generation of energy through the use of nuclear reactors. A nuclear
reactor produces power via the fission of uranium and plutonium in a controlled environment where the fissionable
materials are contained to avoid explosions.
In the given figures, fission occurs in the reactor while heat is being emitted and is absorbed by the coolant. The
coolant heats up the water in a reservoir and generates steam. The steam is directed to a steam turbine converting
mechanical energy to electrical energy. The steam passing through the steam turbine then passes through a
condenser, turning it back into water and is pumped back to the system.
As for the reactor itself, control rods are in place to regulate the power level of the reactor. These are designed such
that if malfunctions occur, then the control rods are in place to stop the reaction. The concentration of uranium is not
enough to develop into supercritical mass, but failure in the cooling system can lead to temperatures high enough to
melt the core. To prevent this, the housing of the reactor should be able to contain that temperature.
As for the energy released during nuclear reactions, this has been mathematically determined by Einstein’s equation
from the theory of relativity of mass and energy:
E = mc2
Where
E is the energy produce
m is for mass
c is the speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s)
Sample Problems
Since we have the formula for energy as E=mc2 and we already have the value of c as 2.9979x108 m/s, we only need
to find the change in mass. To do this, we just need to determine the change in mass from the products side and the
reactants side.
Given:
MM of Plutonium-238 = 238.049554 amu (atomic mass units but also equivalent to mass in g)
MM of Uranium-234 = 234.040946 amu
MM of alpha particle = 4.001506
Solution:
To get Δm, we first determine the difference between the molar masses of products and reactants
Δm = (MM of Uranium-234 + MM of alpha particle) - (MM of Plutonium-238)
= (234.040946 + 4.001506 - 238.049554) amu
= -7.102 x10-3 amu
= -7.102 x10-3 g
This is the change in mass per mole of plutonium-238 that undergoes alpha decay. But according to our given, only
1 g of plotunium-238 underwent decay. For this we use the molar mass of the element as a conversion factor.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
-5
Therefore, Δm for the decay of 1 g Pu = -2.9834 x10 g
Then using the formula for energy,
E = mc2
( )( )
E = -2.68 x106 kJ
Notice that since mass is released, energy is also released.

Part V – Effects of Radiation

Since radioactive elements are sources of high-energy particles, these are potentially hazardous, but the effects are
subtle and usually show itself after some time. For organisms, damage from radiation can be classified as either
Somatic or Genetic.
Somatic Damage is damage to the organism itself and may result in death.
Genetic Damage is damage to the genetic makeup of the organism, resulting in mutation and
malfunctions in the offspring.
The biological effects of a radiation source are dependent on the following factors:
1. Energy
Damage is directly proportional to energy content. Higher Energy Content = Higher Damage
Measurement of energy is in rads (radiation absorbed dose)
1 rad = 10-2 J / kg of tissue
2. Penetrating Ability
3. Ionizing Ability
The ionizing ability of radiation varies greatly.
Gamma rays are highly penetrative, but cause only occasional ionization
Alpha-particles are less penetrative but are very effective in causing ionization. The ingestion of
alpha-particle producers is highly damaging
4. Chemical Properties
When a radioactive nuclide is ingested, the effectiveness is dependent on residence time. For
example, both 8536Kr and 9038Sr are both beta-particle producers. But since krypton is chemically
inert, it can pass through the body quickly without much time to do damage. Strontium on the other
hand is chemically similar to calcium, and may therefore collect in bones causing leukemia and bone
cancer.

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Republic of the Philippines

MARINDUQUE STATE COLLEGE

Lecture Course Material

Keep in mind that

Some Isotopes of Neon

 Radioactive nuclides (Radionuclides)

Part II – Radioactive Decay

Particles involved in radioactive decay

Most massive particle

Less massive than α-paricles

0 Similar to ß-particle in terms of ionizing

1 Particles with approximately same mass with

Lowest ionizing power

Modes of Radioactive Decay

Part III – Half-Life

If we substitute N by ½ No, and isolate t, we get

Since –ln ½ = ln2, we arrive at the equation for half-life, t1/2

Part IV – Nuclear Fission and Energy

Then using the formula for energy,

Notice that since mass is released, energy is also released.

Part V – Effects of Radiation

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