Introduction

Have you ever wondered what the use of donut holes is? Like other industries, the

food industry has been searching for methods to increase revenue generation to

gain a higher amount of profit. One of which is increasing the surface area to volume

ratio of food products. In my biology lessons, we have talked about how cells are

relatively small in size so that they maintain a large surface area to volume ratio,

which is important for the efficiency of cell activities. Then, we have connected to the

food industry, and have talked about how the food industry also uses a high surface

area to volume ratio to allow a greater surface area for flavouring particles to stick on

and a smaller amount of raw materials needed for production of one unit. Hence,

theoretically, the taste per unit will be stronger, meaning a higher satisfaction enjoyed

by the consumers hence increasing their demand while the production cost will be

lower. Examples include squiggly fries with a high quantity of dents and donuts with

a hole. With a hole, donuts are able to have a higher surface area and a lower

volume. This leads to a higher surface on the donuts for sprinkles or grain sugar to

stick onto, and less dough will be needed to create it. But how much does the ratio

increase? In this investigation, I will be exploring the percentage increase in the

surface area to volume ratio and percentage decrease in raw materials needed due

to the hole that donuts possess.

Background

Donut is in the shape of a torus, as shown in figure 1.

 Note: Image by Wikipedia 2023

Figure 1: Shape of a Three Dimensional Torus

A torus can be created by plotting a circle above the x-axis, as shown in figure 2,

then having the circle revolve around the x axis.

Figure 2: Graph to Show how a Torus can be Created

The distance between the bottom of the circle to the x axis is therefore the radius of

the hole, the width of the circle is therefore the height of a torus, and lastly two times

the height of the circle and two times the distance between the bottom of the circle to
the x axis is therefore the width of the torus. As donut has a similar shape to a torus,

where it has a hole in the centre, a similar plotting can be used. Therefore, the

revolving cross section area of the donut, which is not a perfect circle, can be plotted

with a distance above the x axis equivalent to the radius of the hole of the donut.

Calculus, specifically integration, is used to calculate the area between functions and

the x or y axis. Using this mathematical concept, a few equations can be derived.

First is the volume of solids of revolution around the x axis.

𝑏
V=π ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]2dx
𝑎

Second is the surface area of solids of revolution around the x axis.

𝑏
2
A=2π ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 1 + [𝑓'(𝑥)] dx
𝑎

As torus or donut is a solid of revolution, therefore these formulae can be used to

calculate the volume and surface area of the donut. As mentioned, the revolving

cross section area of a donut is not a perfect circle, and it is an extremely irregular

shape. Therefore, the concept of partial functions can be used to derive functions to

plot out the revolving cross section area.

Exploration

Throughout this investigation, 6 decimal places will be used so that the result

is of high accuracy. To begin with, measurements of the donuts must be made. The

revolving cross section area refers to the area revealed of the donut when cut open.

The revolving cross section area is shown in figure 3.

 Figure 3: Revolving Cross Section Area of the Donut

The height and width of the revolving cross section and the radius of the hole must

be measured. This step is done with a measuring tape. This is shown in figure 4, 5,

and 6.

Figure 4: Measurement of Revolving Cross Section Area Width

 Figure 5: Measurement of Cross Section Area Height

Figure 6: Measurement of Diameter of Donut Hole

The measurements are shown in table 1 below:

Table 1: Measurements of Donut

Parts of Donut Measurement (cm ± 0.050000cm)

Revolving Cross Section Area Width 4.100000

Revolving Cross Section Area Height 2.900000

Diameter of Donut Hole 2.100000

After these measurements, a picture of the revolving cross section area will be taken

and cropped to ensure that all four sides of the photo are touching the border of the

revolving cross section area. The picture will then be uploaded onto the desmos

graphing calculator. Using the revolving cross section area width and revolving cross

section area height, the image will be scaled into those dimensions (4.100000cm x

2.900000cm), assuming that the units on the graphing calculator are equivalent to

centimetres. The entire image is placed at the distance equivalent to half the

diameter (1.050000cm) above the x axis. This is to ensure that the solid of revolution

has a hole in the centre, therefore the shape of a donut. I have chosen to place the

image to the right of the y axis so that later during calculations, the negative values

of x will not be present to confuse me, as I personally find calculations with all

positive values easier. Figure 7 shows how the image is scaled and placed in the

desmos graphing calculator.

Figure 7: Screenshot of Desmos Graphing Calculator with Correct Placement

of Image of Revolving Cross Section of the Donut in Correct Dimensions

After the image has been placed, points will be plotted. The revolving cross section

area of the donut will be split into four parts, top, bottom, left, and right. The top
section starts from the last x value before the direction of change in x value changes

moving from left to right and ends at the last x value before the direction of change in

x value changes moving from right to left.

Insert four tables onto the desmos graphing calculator. The bottom section is split in

the same way, but it is the bottom borders of the revolving cross section area of the

donut. The remaining sections are therefore left and right sides. Insert four tables

onto the desmos graphing calculator to start point plotting, each table is for one

section. The sides and near the two ends of the top and bottom section, the border

has a more and more vertical nature. Hence, near the two ends of top and bottom

section, regular y-intervals will be used for points plotting. On the other hand, the

other regions of the top and bottom section have a relatively horizontal nature,

therefore regular x intervals will be used for those regions. The intervals are

determined by having the start point and end point of the sections, then divide for a

certain amount of intervals. The relatively vertical region of top and bottom sections

will follow the regular y intervals with their respective sides. Table 2 demonstrates

how the calculation is done and two examples of calculations. The remaining

intervals calculated are included in appendix 1.1.

Table 2: Example for Calculations of Regular Interval

Sections Start End Start End Number of Regular

Point Point Point Point Intervals Intervals
(x (x (y (y
values) values) values) values)

Sample for a b N/A N/A c 𝑏−𝑎

𝑐
x regular
intervals

Sample for N/A N/A a b c 𝑏−𝑎

𝑐
y regular
intervals

Top 0.3864 3.55240 N/A N/A 32.000000 0.098938

 Horizontal 00 0
Section

Top Right N/A N/A 4.06880 3.65098 2.000000 -0.163270

Vertical 0 0
Section

There is no bottom left vertical section because at the left side of the bottom section,

there is a clear distinction of where the bottom section ends, and it ends before

entering a rather vertical nature. On the tables type out all the values of x or y for all

the sections using the interval, starting and ending point values. Using the points

dragging function, drag all the points to the borders of the donut but maintaining the

intervals. Figure 8 shows the points plotted.

Figure 8: Points Plotted on Desmos Graphing Calculator

After doing so, using observation, split different intervals of points into different

groups that would likely form a function. Table 3 shows an example of groups of

intervals of points.

Table 3: Example of Groups of Intervals of Points

Top Horizontal Group Top Left Group

Region (x values) Horizontal
Region (y values)
 0.3864 2 3.65098 1, 21

0.4853375 2 3.85989 1

0.584275 2 4.0688 1, 2

0.78215 2, 3

0.8810875 3

0.980025 3

1.0789625 3

1.1779 3, 4
The rest of the groups of intervals of points are shown in appendix 1.2. To

summarise, the top section includes groups 1-8, the bottom section includes groups

9-20, the left side includes groups 20-25, and the right side includes groups 26-29.

After the groups are separated, use a physical graphing calculator. Open a table

document and plot in the x and y coordinates of the points. Each table document

should be distinct groups of points. This is shown in figure 9.

Figure 9: Example of Table Document on Physical Graphing Calculator

After doing so, do linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic, power, exponential, and

logarithmic regression for all the groups. Then, select the regression with the highest

r2 value for the function that represents the group of points, as the higher the r2
value, the higher the accuracy of the function compared to the plotted points. Table 4

demonstrates an example.

Table 4: Example of Regression and Selection of Function to Represent the

Group of Points Plotted

Group 1

x y

0.330300 3.650980

0.365000 3.859890

0.386400 4.068800

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=7.310803x+1.223858 0.981609

Quadratics y=66.696764x2-40.35380 1.000000

0x+9.703350

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=7.692074x0.675556 0.980240

Exponential y=1.943715(6.685584)x 0.985574

Logarithmic y=6.516095+2.598608lnx 0.975655

Highlighted in green is the selected function for representation. This step is repeated

for all the groups. Appendix [] shows the same data above for all the groups.

These functions are partial functions for four main functions, t(x), b(x), p(x), and n(x).

t(x) includes the partial functions for the top section, hence group 1-8. b(x) includes

the partial functions for the bottom section, hence group 9-20. p(x) includes the

partial functions that are either decreasing on the right side or increasing on the left

side, hence groups 22, 25, 27, 28, and 29. n(x) includes the partial functions that are

either increasing on the right side or decreasing on the left side, hence groups 20,

21, 23, 24, and 26.

The solid of revolution of b(x) is the volume for the hole of the donut, as the hole is

not part of the volume, the volume of solid of revolution of b(x) will be minused from

the volume solid of revolution of t(x). p(x) and n(x) are dents on the sides, where n(x)

is where the dent starts to move towards the centre of the revolving cross section

area and p(x) is where the dent starts to move away from the centre. Therefore, the

volume of solid of revolution of n(x) will be minused from the volume solid of

revolution of t(x) and the volume solid of revolution of p(x) will be added. Therefore,

the volume of the donut is shown by the equation below:

3.569700 3.599000 3.599000 3.569700

V=π ∫ [𝑡(𝑥)]2dx - π ∫ [𝑏(𝑥)]2dx+π ∫ [𝑝(𝑥)]2dx - π ∫ [𝑛(𝑥)]2dx
0.330300 0.452100 0.379000 0.330300

To find the volume of solid of revolution for each main function, the sum of the

volume of solid of revolution of partial functions within the main function must first be

found. An example is given below:

ℎ 0.361000
π ∫[𝑛(𝑥)]2dx=π ∫ [− 6. 804886𝑥 + 5. 898634]2dx+
𝑔 0.330300

0.428000
2
π ∫ [146. 415798𝑥 − 121. 758184𝑥 + 28. 315721]2dx+
0.361000

0.380000
π ∫ − 208. 910000𝑥 + 81. 992230]2dx+
0.379000

0.453000
2
π ∫ [155. 908156𝑥 − 135. 595056𝑥 + 31. 619413]2dx+
0.380000

3.569700
π ∫ [44. 127027𝑥 − 154. 197658]2dx
3.566000

Due to a large number of partial functions, the remaining equations are given in

appendix []. Below shows a sample calculation for calculating the volume of solid of

revolution of a partial function (group 20).

 0.361000
V=π ∫ [− 6. 804886𝑥 + 5. 898634]2dx
0.330300

0.361000
2
V=π ∫ 46. 306473𝑥 − 80. 279063𝑥 + 34. 793883 dx
0.330300

46.306473 3 80.279063 2 0.361000

V=π( 3
𝑥 − 2
𝑥 + 34. 793883𝑥)|0.330300

46.306473 3 80.279063 2
V=π[( 3
(0. 361000) − 2
(0. 361000) + 34. 793883(0. 361000)]-

46.306473 3 80.279063 2
π[( 3
(0. 330300) − 2
(0. 330300) + 34. 793883(0. 330300)]

=1.213444cm3

After repeating the same calculations above, the values for the volume of the solid of

revolution for t(x), b(x), p(x), and n(x) are determined. They are shown in table 5.

Table 5: Values for the Volume of Solids of Revolution for All Main Functions

Main Function Volume of Solids of Revolution (cm3)

t(x) 237.117921

b(x) 19.987451

p(x) 2.237583

n(x) 4.590632

Therefore, the volume of the donut is 237.117921 - 19.987451 + 2.237583 -

4.590632, which is 214.777421cm3.

To find the surface area of the donut, the surface area of the solid of revolution for

t(x), b(x), p(x), and n(x) must be all added together. Therefore, the formula for the

surface area of the donut is the following:

 3.569700 3.599000
2 2
A=2π ∫ 𝑡(𝑥) 1 + [𝑡'(𝑥)] dx +2π ∫ 𝑏(𝑥) 1 + [𝑏'(𝑥)] dx +
0.330300 0.452100

3.599000 3.569700
2 2
2π ∫ 𝑝(𝑥) 1 + [𝑝'(𝑥)] dx +2π ∫ 𝑛(𝑥) 1 + [𝑛'(𝑥)] dx
0.379000 0.330300

The formula surface area of the solid of revolution is more complex, which involves a

high number of calculations. Therefore, I have chosen to use the desmos graphing

calculator to calculate, rather than doing it by hand. Figure 10 shows an example

(group 1) of using the desmos graphing calculator for calculations.

Figure 10: Demonstration of Using Desmos to Calculate

Therefore, the surface area of the solid of revolution for group 1 is 10.231033cm2.

Repeating the process above, the surface area of the solid of revolution for t(x), b(x),

p(x), and n(x) are calculated. The values are shown in table 6.

Table 6: Values for the Surface Area of Solids of Revolution for All Main

Functions

Main Function Surface Area of Solids of Revolution (cm2)

t(x) 150.110904

b(x) 47.702432
 p(x) 15.665709

n(x) 28.954624
Therefore, the surface area of the donut is 150.110904 + 47.702432 +15.665709 +

28.054724, which is 242.433669cm2.

To calculate the surface area to volume ratio, simply divide the surface area by the

volume. This is shown below:

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
SA:V Ratio = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

242.433669
SA:V Ratio = 214.777421
= 1.128767

Therefore the surface area to volume ratio of a donut with a hole is 1:1.128767.

On the other hand, to calculate the volume of a donut without a hole, simply do not

minus b(x) from t(x), hence volume of the donut without a hole equals to the

following equation:

3.569700 3.599000 3.569700

2 2
V=π ∫ [𝑡(𝑥)] dx + π ∫ [𝑝(𝑥)] dx - π ∫ [𝑛(𝑥)]2dx
0.330300 0.379000 0.330300

Therefore, the volume of the donut without a hole is 237.117921 + 2.237583 -

4.590632, which is 234.764872cm3.

As the hole no longer exists for calculating the surface area of the donut without a

hole, the surface area of a solid of revolution for b(x) no longer have to be added into

the equation, hence the surface area of the donut without a hole equals to the

following equation:

3.569700 3.599000
2 2
A=2π ∫ 𝑡(𝑥) 1 + [𝑡'(𝑥)] dx +2π ∫ 𝑝(𝑥) 1 + [𝑝'(𝑥)] dx +
0.330300 0.379000

3.569700
2
2π ∫ 𝑛(𝑥) 1 + [𝑛'(𝑥)] dx
0.330300
Therefore the surface area of the donut without a hole equals to 150.110904 +

15.665709 + 28.054724, which is 194.731237cm2. Using the same formula to

calculate the surface area to volume ratio of the donut without the hole, the answer

194.731237
will be 234.764872
, which is 1:0.829473.

To calculate the percentage increase in the surface area to volume ratio the following

formula can be used:

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒
− 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 *100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒

Therefore, the percentage increase in the surface area to volume ratio equals to:

1.128767−0.829473
0.829473
*100 = 36.082351% Increase

To calculate the percentage decrease in raw materials needed, the following formula

can be used:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒−𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒
*100

Therefore, the percentage increase in the surface area to volume ratio equals to:

214.777421−234.764872
234.764872
*100 = -8.513817% Increase = 8.513817% Decrease.

Conclusion

To conclude, the hole of the donut is able to increase the surface area to volume

ratio by 36.083521%, and decrease the raw materials needed by 8.513817%.

Hence, there is an 36.083521% increase in the surface area that grain sugar or

sprinkles can stick on, therefore theoretically increasing the tastiness of the donut.

The decrease in raw materials needed by 8.513817% can also decrease the

production cost per unit, leading to higher profit generation.

Evaluation

There are many weaknesses in this investigation. To begin with, the major problem is

that this investigation is only for this specific donut with the specific dimensions and

conformation. To ensure that this error is fixed, dimensions of multiple donuts can be

measured and undergo the same steps for this investigation, so that the results are

more accurate.

There are also a lot of assumptions made in this investigation that made this

investigation inaccurate. First is that this investigation assumed that a donut has a

perfect round shape, as it revolves around the x axis. As seen in figure 6, this may

not be the case. In real life situations, donuts do not have a perfect round shape,

therefore this made this investigation inaccurate. Furthermore, this investigation also

assumed that the donut is smooth when felt horizontally. However, in real life

situations, there are many dents and therefore it is not smooth when felt horizontally.

This also has made this investigation inaccurate. This is due to a lack of

mathematical knowledge. Other formulas than the ones used in this investigation will

be needed to remove these assumptions.

In the data collection process, there are also many errors. Firstly, there is the human

error. When measuring the dimensions of the donut, a measuring tape is used, and

therefore when making readings on the measuring tape, human error may arise.

When splitting functions, human eyes are used to attempt to split the points into

groups that can be represented by a single function. This has led to some partial

functions not having a r2 value of 1, therefore does not represent the plotted points

accurately. The next error in the data collection process is the splitting of regular

intervals for points plotting. The regular intervals created for points plotting may be
too big, therefore excluding some small dents on the donut and hence does not

reflect the true shape of the donut, making this investigation inaccurate.

Work Cited

Wikipedia contributors. (2023). Torus. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus

Appendix

Appendix 1.1: Table for all Regular Intervals Calculated

Sections Start End Start End Number of Regular

Point Point Point Point Intervals Intervals

(x (x (y (y

values) values) values) values)

Top 0.3864 3.55240 N/A N/A 32.000000 0.098938

Horizontal 00 0

Section

Bottom 0.4521 3.51300 N/A N/A 30.000000 0.102030

Horizontal 00 0

Section

Top Right N/A N/A 4.06880 3.65098 2.000000 -0.163270

Vertical 0 0

Section

Top Left N/A N/A 3.81240 3.32259 3.000000 -0.208910

Vertical 0 0

Section
 Bottom N/A N/A 2.17970 2.66951 3.000000 0.163270

Right 0 0

Vertical

Section

Bottom Left N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Vertical

Section

Right Side N/A N/A 3.32259 2.66951 4.000000 -0.163270

0 0

Left Side N/A N/A 3.65098 1.97970 8.000000 -0.208910

0 0

Appendix 1.2: Groups of all Intervals of Points

b11 b12

0.3303 3.65098

0.365 3.85989

0.3864 4.0688

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=7.310803x+1.223858 0.981609

Quadratics y=66.696764x2-40.353800x 1.000000

+9.703350

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=7.692074x0.675556 0.980240

Exponential y=1.943715(6.685584)x 0.985574

Logarithmic y=6.516095+2.598608lnx 0.975655

x y

0.3864 4.0688

0.4853375 4.367

0.584275 4.533

0.78215 4.708

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=1.537017x+3.559177 0.912024

Quadratics y=-3.971213x2+6.233706x+ 0.997648

2.259552

Cubic y=10.30844x3-21.761945x2+ 1.000000

16.084263x+0.508299

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=5.001285x0.203798 0.954554

Exponential y=3.629689(1.417881)x 0.899303

Logarithmic y=4.968861+0.894891lnx 0.963257

d1 d2

0.78215 4.708

0.8810875 4.8085

0.980025 4.8735

1.0789625 4.925

1.1779 4.952

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=0.610992x+4.254613 0.951375

Quadratics y=-1.171184x2+2.906571x+ 0.999280

3.152679

Cubic y=0.946517x3-3.954016x2+5 0.999595

.602315x+2.292628
Quartic y=-14.350234x4+57.200868 1.000000
x3-86.027944x2+58.412447x
-10.350276

Power y=4.870967x0.123636 0.971687

Exponential y=4.287487(1.134666)x 0.948374

Logarithmic y=0.4871659+0.597665lnx 0.973923

d3 d4

1.1779 4.952

1.2768375 4.9945

1.375775 5.025

1.4747125 5.0585

1.57365 5.0855

1.6725875 5.101

1.771525 5.091

1.8704625 5.066

1.9694 5.03

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=0.118088x+4.859004 0.423486

Quadratics y=-0.600352x2+2.007576x+ 0.973485

3.411485

Cubic y=-0.564086x3+2.062671x2- 0.995484

2.117934x+5.507167

Quartic y=0.535207x4-3.932999x3+9 0.996284

.928837x2-10.189741x+8.57
7731

Power y=4.958445x0.0391677 0.493911

Exponential y=4.861320(1.023799)x 0.424948

Logarithmic 4.958317+0.196670lnx 0.492310

d5 d6

1.9694 5.03
2.0683375 5.074

2.167275 5.094

2.2662125 5.0945

2.36515 5.0865

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=0.134934x+4.783362 0.615345

Quadratics y=-0.901191x2+4.041193x+0 0.991497

.568035

Cubic y=1.333729x3-9.572865x2+2 0.999791

2.790707x-12.912947

Quartic y=2.826561x4-23.170012x3+ 1.000000

69.964123x2-91.774235x+4
8.873276

Power y=4.850610x0.058815 0.641155

Exponential y=4.790830(1.027014)x 0.615186

Logarithmic y=4.846137+0.297730lnx 0.641318

d7 d8

2.36515 5.0865

2.4640875 5.086

2.563025 5.0796

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.034870x+5.169957 0.804042

Quadratics y=-0.301370x2+1.450334x+ 1.000000

3.342087

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=5.161580x-0.01679 0.794723

Exponential y=5.170703(0.993163)x 0.804008

Logarithmic y=5.160980-0.085375lnx 0.794757

d9 d10

2.563025 5.0796

2.6619625 5.034

2.7609 4.9715

2.8598375 4.902

2.958775 4.829

3.0577125 4.757

3.15665 4.642

3.2555875 4.509

3.354525 4.355

3.4534625 4.105

3.5524 3.8124

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-1.182978x+8.253253 0.915572

Quadratics y=-1.236807x2+6.380621-3. 0.991983

189337

Cubic y=-1.448559x3+12.051023x2 0.999370

-33.997348x+37.450906

Quartic y=-1.295444x4+14.395820x3 0.999756

-60.303297x2+112.202667x-
72.835450

Power y=11.045743x-0.783773 0.864445

Exponential y=10.301093(0.769274)x 0.892111

Logarithmic y=8.574593-3.540820lnx 0.890236

b13 b14

3.5524 3.8124

3.555 3.64913
 3.5595 3.48586

3.5697 3.32259

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-26.429103x+97.632636 0.912967

Quadratics y=1782.021328x2-12719.52 0.997385

6400x+22700.350277

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=(1.630927x1015)x-26.590658 0.924271

Exponential y=(1.231752x1012)(0.00057 0.923940

3)x

Logarithmic y=123.084415-94.143390ln 0.913319

x

8x Total for top

Bottom

d11 d12

0.4521 1.9797

0.55413 1.8197

0.65616 1.6705

0.75819 1.512

0.86022 1.4182

0.96225 1.3473

1.06428 1.2871

1.16631 1.2556

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-1.026204+2.366672 0.947248

Quadratics y=1.171879x2-2.922785x+3. 0.998685

069986

Cubic y=0.328333x3+0.374813x2-2 0.998833

.309411x+2.921594

Quartic y=-3.695407x4+12.289699x3 0.999431

-13.652121x2+4.727010x+1.
651722

Power y=1.332471x-0.505717 0.994019

Exponential y=2.581377(0.518586)x 0.968517

Logarithmic y=1.331549-0.796827lnx 0.988246

d13 d14

1.16631 1.256

1.26834 1.242

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.137215x+1.416035 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.282094x-0.133658 1.000000

Exponential y=1.427698(0.895959)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=1.281682-0.166937lnx 1.000000

d15 d16

1.26834 1.242

1.37037 1.2216

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.199941x+1.495593 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.306831x-0.214051 1.000000

Exponential y=1.525924(0.850169)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=1.304675-0.263662lnx 1.000000

d17 d18

1.37037 1.2216

1.4724 1.217

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.045085x+1.283383 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.241989x-0.052535 1.000000

Exponential y=1.285095(0.963699)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=1.306831-0.214051lnx 1.000000

d19 d20

1.4724 1.217

1.57443 1.1882

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.282270x+1.632614 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.397501x-0.357454 1.000000

Exponential y=1.719445(0.790786)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=1.383308-0.429853lnx 1.000000

d21 d22

1.57443 1.1882

1.67646 1.1875

1.77849 1.177

1.88052 1.1583

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.098206x+1.347399 0.860875

Quadratics y=-0.432272x2+1.395270x+ 0.999780

0.063052

Cubic y=0.251064x3-1.733394x2+3 1.000000

.637569x-1.221949

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.272700x-0.142501 0.840539

Exponential y=1.360759(0.919761)x 0.859434

Logarithmic y=1.268854-0.167325lnx 0.842059

b1 b2

1.88052 1.1583

1.98255 1.0508

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-1.053612x+3.139638 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=3.710639x-1.843486 1.000000

Exponential y=6.973852(0.384952)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=2.443257-2.034615lnx 1.000000

b3 b4

1.98255 1.0508

2.08458 1.0445

2.18661 1.06833

2.28864 1.1116

2.39067 1.15934

2.4927 1.21483

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.338227x+0.351410 0.908657

Quadratics y=0.694042x2-2.767536x+3. 0.993653

805309

Cubic y=-1.366574x3+9.867570x2- 0.999609

23.222564x+18.954665

Quartic y=2.682666x4-25.377549x3+ 0.999912

90.268608x2-142.594187x+
85.258231

Power y=0.648667x0.665629 0.895786

Exponential y=0.563206(1.352314)x 0.914640

Logarithmic y=0.510046+0.745533lnx 0.888983

b5 b6

2.4927 1.21483

2.59473 1.2297

2.69676 1.2585

2.79879 1.2959

2.90082 1.3531

3.00285 1.4305

3.10488 1.51572

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-0.489635x-0.042068 0.935516

Quadratics y=0.725313x2-3.570362x+5. 0.999628
609269

Cubic y=-0.143054x3-0.475825x2- 0.999694

0.219055x+2.502185

Quartic y=-1.496338x4+16.894800x3 0.999854

-70.653655x2+130.166573x-
88.146034

Power y=0.471544x0.1006037 0.933428

Exponential y=0.478679(1.438528)x 0.948302

Logarithmic y=-0.061021+1.353450lnx 0.919163

b7 b8

3.10488 1.51572

3.20691 1.597

3.30894 1.6454

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=0.635597x-0.452270 0.979002

Quadratics y=-1.580193x2+10.770671x- 1.000000

16.692438

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=0.352014x1.291662 0.978548

Exponential y=0.436190(1.495354)x 0.975806

Logarithmic y=-0.790721+2.040185lnx 0.981555

b9 b10

3.30894 1.6454

3.41097 1.8885

3.513 2.1797

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

 Linear y=2.618348x-7.026572 0.997306

Quadratics y=2.310252x2-13.142051x+ 1.000000

19.836520

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=0.005942x4.698248 0.999594

Exponential y=0.017200(3.967136)x 0.999868

Logarithmic y=-9.042237+8.923767lnx 0.996336

b15 b16

3.513 2.1797

3.5185 2.3497

3.577 2.50624

3.599 2.66951

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=4.676280x-14.183275 0.905857

Quadratics y=14.191133x2-96.197689x 0.907752

+165.056294

Cubic y=5815.041148x3-62130.00 1.000000

7664x2+221267.599483x-26
2662.329417

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=0.000412x6.847524 0.897264

Exponential y=0.002579(6.867546)x 0.897336

Logarithmic y=-18.635359+16.617714ln 0.905682

x

Left Side
a a0

0.3303 3.65098

0.361 3.44207
Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-6.804886x+5.898634 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.751701x-0.662971 1.000000

Exponential y=6.882220(0.146709)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=1.047136-2.350562lnx 1.000000

a1 a2

0.361 3.44207

0.3761 3.23316

0.428 3.02425

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-5.666315x+5.433768 0.908628

Quadratics y=146.415798x2-121.75818 1.000000

4x+28.315721

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.659834x-0.701496 0.927687

Exponential y=6.408891(0.171119)x 0.919097

Logarithmic y=1.096921-2.252300lnx 0.917724

a3 a4

0.428 3.02425

0.379 2.81534

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=4.263469x+1.199485 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=4.984164x0.588715 1.000000

Exponential y=1.618392(4.309484)x 1.000000

Logarithmic y=4.482364-1.718194lnx 1.000000

a5 a6

0.379 2.81534

0.38 2.60643

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-208.910000x+81.992230 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=1.318783x-29.260028 1.000000

Exponential y=(1.381225x1013)(3.27502 1.000000

7x10-34)x

Logarithmic y=-74.104889-79.281299lnx 1.000000

a7 a8

0.38 2.60643

0.394 2.39752

0.453 2.18861

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-5.080090x+4.475277 0.887575

Quadratics y=155.908156x2-135.59505 1.000000

6x+31.619413

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

 Power y=1.067649x-0.899086 0.911419

Exponential y=5.746053(0.117265)x 0.902985

Logarithmic y=0.485334-2.131875lnx 0.896594

a9 a10

0.453 2.18861

0.4521 1.9797

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=232.122222x-102.962757 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=4.878159x50.444890 1.000000

Exponential y=(2.573003x10-22)(2.57037 1.000000

0x1048)x

Logarithmic y=85.371361+105.046877ln 1.000000

x

Right Side

a01 a02

3.5697 3.32259

3.566 3.15932

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=44.127027x-154.197658 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=(4.678868x10-27)x48.588119 1.000000

Exponential y=(2.564373x10-21)(821034. 1.000000

 320416)x

Logarithmic y=-197.015124+157.438599 1.000000

lnx

a03 a04

3.566 3.15932

3.581 2.99605

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-10.884667x+41.974041 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=(3.018501x107)x-12.641133 1.000000

Exponential y=950722.255693(0.029087 1.000000

)x

Logarithmic y=52.613806-38.896299lnx 1.000000

a05 a06

3.581 2.99605

3.594 2.83278

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-12.559231x+47.970655 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=(1.105530x109\)x-15.463817 1.000000

Exponential y=(1.514393x107)(0.013427 1.000000

)x

Logarithmic y=60.471624-45.056191lnx 1.000000

a07 a08

3.594 2.83278

3.599 2.66951

Type of Regression Equation r2 value

Linear y=-32.654000x+120.191256 1.000000

Quadratics N/A N/A

Cubic N/A N/A

Quartic N/A N/A

Power y=(1.498081x1024)x-42.700250 1.000000

Exponential y=(9.634031x1018)(6.97816 1.000000

0x10-6)x

Logarithmic y=153.069872-117.449982l 1.000000

nx