Fluid Flow Post Lab Report

Summary
Fluid flow is concerned with transporting fluids from one point to another.
Fluid mechanics looks at fluids, the forces that act on them e.g. pressure
(absolute and gauge), surface tension, specific gravity and other factors such as
viscosity, density, bulk modulus and capillary action. In this experiment the
relationship between fluid flow through a series of pipe networks and the
associated pressure drop, permanent pressure loss and flow rate is
investigated for smooth test pipes, orifice plate and Venturi meter using the
C6-MKII-10 Fluid Friction apparatus. A range of equations will be used
throughout the experiment to calculate different variables. Reynolds number,
the Fanning equation and the equation for flow through an orifice (to find the
coefficient of discharge) is used.
Summary in context of course and wider chemical engineering
Good understanding of fluid mechanics is essential in the chemical engineering
industry as the majority of processes are carried out either partly or totally in
the fluid phase. Some industries where fluid mechanics is used include:
biochemical, fermentation, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, polymer, and waste-
processing industries. Important processes that rely on fluid flow are; the
catalytic refining of hydrocarbons and the long-distance pipelining of coal
particles using water as the transporting medium. It is also considered to be
more efficient and cost-effective to work with fluids compared to solids (also
some operations involving solids can be carried out using quasi-fluid
methods).1 Fluid flow also helps process engineers calculate pressure drops
and design required pumps for systems.
Experimental Methods

Figure 1. Showing the setup of C6-MKII-10 Fluid Friction Apparatus attached to

a hydraulics bench2

Figure.2 and 3 Showing the F1-10 hydraulics bench and its components. 3
From Figure 1,2 and 3 the complete fluid friction apparatus is shown. The pipes
and fittings are mounted on a metal frame with castors. Water enters the
system via a barbed connector from the hydraulics bench and leaves the
system back into the volumetric tank via the exit tube. There are 4 different
diameters of pipe used (smallest to largest from top to bottom of system) and
the inner diameter is measured using Vernier callipers. The pipes diameter to
length ratio has been carefully selected to decrease entry and end effects, also,
isolating valves are used so each pipe can be tested individually without
disrupting the system.
For carrying out this experiment there is a number of precautions. Firstly,
when opening up any parallel line, ensure exit valve is fully open, then open
inlet valve slowly. Then when closing a line, close the inlet valve first, then
outlet. Lastly, when changing lines, open new line before closing previous line.
To start experiment, turn on the mains switch, then the water pump switch on
the tank and ensure system is primed with water (ensure water is flowing
through pipes and returning to the tank via the exit tube). Firstly, the
relationship between pressure drop and flow rate in a line is measured. Open
and close correct valves to allow water to flow through the required pipe
(ensure one isolating valve is open at all times to prevent pump damage). Take
readings at different tapping points (by connecting probe attachments to
connection facility) and measure each flow rate 3 times, taking an average of
values. Then close the dump valve and record time taken for tank to fill with
10L volume of water using a stopwatch. Measure the head loss using pressure
sensors, insert sensor into connecting point with corresponding coloured
sticker along the 1 metre pipe test section. Record readings for all four
diameters of smooth pipes ensuring isolating valve for each pipe is opened
before closing previous valve. Next, the second investigation is carried out.
Record readings from the orifice plate and Venturi at 4 different flow rates
(smallest to largest). Change the flow rate using the control valve on the
largest pipe. To measure the pressure drop, connect the pressure sensors to
the two tappings at the upstream and throat of flow meter body. Allow
stabilisation of pressures for 10m seconds and record value for both orifice
plate and Venturi. To measure the permanent pressure drop connect pressure
sensors to the upstream tapping on the flow meter body and the downstream
tapping on the orifice plate or Venturi. Allow pressure to stabilise and record
pressure drop and flow rate in table.
Finally, once both investigations have been completed, ensure the machine is
correctly shut down. Switch off the water pump and then the whole unit via
the mains switch on the wall. Open plug in water tank and allow water to drain
out. Lastly ensure there is no spillages, and if so mop and dry area.
 Results + Discussion

Graph 1

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3
 Graph 2

Graph showing Log∆P against LogV for

Venturi
-0.5 Graph 3
-1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4
-0.55
-0.6
f(x) = 0.612631702255367 x − 0.253069356078073
R² = 0.997775190624627 -0.65
-0.7
-0.75
-0.8
-0.85
-0.9
-0.95
-1

Graph showing Log∆P against LogV for Ori-

fice
-0.7
-1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4

-0.75

-0.8

-0.85
f(x) = 0.179220447213274 x − 0.744104436496376
R² = 0.315830471132386
-0.9

-0.95

-1
 Table 4

Grapg showing Coefficient of Discharge against throat

0.6 Reynolds number for Orifice plate and Venturi.

0.5

0.4 Orifice
Linear (Orifice)
0.3 Venturi
Cd Linear (Venturi)
0.2

0.1

0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

Re

Table 1 shows the

flow rate and
pressure drop in
smooth test pipes.
The pipe diameter
is an independent
variable which
affects the actual
flow rate and
pressure drop.
From these values
Graph 1 is plotted,
giving a trend-line
equation with
gradient of -
2.3227. This
negative gradient
value shows a
negative
relationship
between pressure
drop and flow
rate. As pipe
diameter
increases from
4.68mm to
17.85mm the
actual flow-rate
increases from
0.081 L/s to 0.27
L/s, but the
pressure drop
decreases from
9.17 mH2O to 0.21
mH2O. The points
form more of a
curved shape
compared to the
linear trend-line,
this indicted that
as the pipe
diameter
increases, flow
rate increases and
pressure drop
decreases at a
slower rate,
especially as the
pipe becomes very
large. There may
be a threshold,
whereby
diminishing
returns will set in,
as the pipe
diameter
increases the flow
rate will increase
but less
proportionally,
therefore it is less
efficient/ effective
to have large pipes
for this process.
Graph 3 shows the
relationship
between logf and
logRe, the blue
line shows the
values calculated
using Reynolds
number and the
Fanning equation.
The orange and
green lines are
plotted using the
Reynolds value
from previous
calculation and
finding the value
for f using
f=0.079Re-0.25 and
f=0.046Re-0.2
respectively.Lamin
ar flow turns into
turbulent flow
when Re > 2000,
after the first two
pipe diameters,
the flow turns
turbulent as seen
in table 3.4
Pressure loss of
turbulent flow in
smooth pipes
uses the Blasius
equation
f=0.079Re-0.25 to
calculate the
friction factor. The
second equation
f=0.046Re-0.2
improves the
estimate of the
friction factor for
higher vales of Re
but gives a more
inaccurate value
for small values of
Re. The original
friction factor has
a steeper gradient
compared to using
other two
equations. An
Orifice plate is
used to reduce
pressure of
restrict flow of
fluid, whereas a
Venturi is a system
for increasing the
flow of fluid by
constricting it in a
cone-like shaped
tube.5
Table 2 shows the
pressure drop
across orifice plate
and Venturi, the
flow rate was the
independent
variable and the
pressure drop was
the
dependent/measu
red variable. From
Graph 2 and 3,
which are plotted
from the
corresponding
table, it shows a
positive
correlation
between the flow-
rate and the
pressure drop. As
the flow rate
increases the
pressure and
permanent
pressure drop
both increase. The
Venturi graph
(graph 2) has a
trend-line with a
slope of 0.6162
and the Orifice
plate graph has a
trend-line with
slope of 0.1792.
The Orifice has a
less steep
gradient, likely
due to the fact it
has a larger
diameter of 20mm
compared to the
Venturi of 14mm.
The Orifice plate
graph points do
not lie on the line
compared to the
Venturi graph,
indicating error in
measuring the
pressure drop or
at the higher flow-
rates the pressure
drop increases
proportionally
more. Table 4 and
Graph 5 shows the
Coefficient of
discharge against
throat Reynolds
number for both
the Orifice plate
and Venturi. Cd
and Re are
calculated using
the formulae given
(shown in the
calculations
section of report).
Cd is a function of
the Reynolds
number, which is a
function of the
flow rate. So the
positive
relationship
shown in Graph 5
implies that as
flow rate
increases,
Reynolds number
increases and the
Coefficient of
Discharge
increases
respectively.6

Error and Reliability

In order to obtain accurate results, it is vital the full 10 seconds is allowed in
order for pressure to stabilise before recording head loss and flow-rate. If
values were recorded to quickly they would cause anomalies in the results,
such as in Graph 4, where three points to not lie on trend-line compared to the
Venturi graph. To avoid such errors, a stopwatch is used for timings. Also
throughout the experiment it is important that one isolating valve is open to
allow water to flow through and prevent pump damage. For each smooth test
pipe the isolating valve for the next valve must be opened before closing the
previous one. When measuring the pressure drop, ensure the pressure sensors
are matched to the correct coloured dots on the apparatus. Ensure for each
experiment the pressure sensors are connected to the right tapping when
measuring pressure drop across Orifice plate and Venturi, either upstream,
downstream or throat tapping. As there is a lot of equations and complex
calculations, human error can occur. To avoid this, use excel to carry out
calculations to achieve a greater number of significant figures and improve
accuracy. Human error can also occur when measuring pipe diameter, so
record three value and take an average to increase reliability of results
obtained.

Conclusions
Overall, it can be concluded that across both the Orifice plate and Venturi as
flow rate increases, the pressure drop increases.Both graphs 3 and 4 show a
positive gradient of 0.6126 and 0.1792. The larger gradient of the Venturi
suggests it is better for fluid flow as it means a proportionally greater pressure
drop as the flow rate increases, allowing smoother fluid flow with less friction
resistance. The smooth test pipes on the other hand have a negative gradient
of -2.33, indicating that as flow rate increases, pressure drop decreases. For
industry this would result in wasteful energy losses due to large frictional
resistance (large Fanning friction factor) cashiering increased costs and energy
losses. The Venturi cannot adjust with the changes in flow rate as it constricts
it, as flow rate increases friction factor will increase proportionally more after a
certain flow rate. On the other hand the Orifice plate can adapt and change
with differing flow rates, however, the size of the orifice is a key determining
factor for readings. Therefore, out of the three experiments carried out, the
Orifice plate is most suitable for flow measurement. However, if this
experiment was carried out at higher flow rates, on an industrial scale it may
be noted that the Venturi is more appropriate for measuring higher flow
rates.7

References

Author links open overlay panelMARKKU LAMPINEN (2007) Physical

fundamentals, Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook. Academic Press. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780122896767500072.
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Estimation optimal value of discharge coefficient in a ... - iopscience (no date). Available at:
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March 15, 2023).

F1-10 hydraulics bench (2023) Armfield. Available at: https://armfield.co.uk/product/f1-10-

hydraulics-bench/ (Accessed: March 15, 2023).

Informit (no date) InformIT. Available at: https://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?

p=2832417&seqNum=8 (Accessed: March 15, 2023).

Process Engineering and civil engineering platform: UEMF (no date) Process Engineering and
Civil Engineering Platform | UEMF. Available at:
 https://ueuromed.org/en/plateformes-technnologiques/process-engineering-and-
civil-engineering-platform (Accessed: March 15, 2023).

Venturimeter and orifice meter (2022) Unacademy. Available at:

https://unacademy.com/content/jee/difference-between/venturimeter-and-orifice-
meter/. (Accessed: March 15, 2023).

Calculations