PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

First Quarter

I. Quantitative Research Characteristics:

- Characteristics and strengths/weaknesses of quantitative research.
- Use of quantitative research in exploratory studies.
- Methods of data collection.
- Sampling in quantitative research.
- Limitations of quantitative research.
- Descriptive and experimental research types.
- Generalizability.
- Suitability for studying measurable phenomena.

II. Types of Variables:

- Independent and dependent variables.
- Control variables in experiments.
- Categorical, ordinal, and interval variables.

III. Probability Sampling Methods:

- Simple random, proportional stratified, systematic, and cluster sampling.

IV. Importance of Quantitative Research:

- Relevance in public health, business, and education.

V. Background of Research:
- Research gap, rationale, and significance.

VI. Stating Research Questions:

- Appropriate research questions.
- Characteristics of quantitative-descriptive research questions.

VII. Selecting Relevant Literature:

- Purpose and criteria for reviewing literature.
- Authoritativeness of sources.

VIII. Citing Related Literature using APA Style:

- In-text citation formats and reference listing.

IX. Synthesizing Information from Relevant Literature:

- The role of the thesis statement and arguments in literature review.
- Incorporating research from various levels and selection criteria.
- Managing new arguments and perspectives in the review.

X. Choosing Appropriate Quantitative Research Design:

- Research design types and their purposes.

XI. Constructing an Instrument and Establishing Validity and Reliability:

- Validity and types.
- Instrument development and reliability.

XII. Planning Data Analysis using Statistics and Hypothesis Testing:

- Data analysis methods.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research primarily deals with numerical data and uses
statistical methods for analysis. It involves collecting and analyzing data to answer research
questions and test hypotheses, often using structured surveys, experiments, or content
analysis.

2. Cause-and-Effect Relationships: One of the strengths of quantitative research is its ability

to establish cause-and-effect relationships. This refers to the capacity of quantitative
research to identify and demonstrate that changes in one variable lead to changes in
another.

3. Exploratory Studies: Quantitative research is not often used in exploratory studies to

generate new theories and hypotheses. Exploratory studies are typically qualitative and are
aimed at discovering new insights and generating theories.

4. Data Collection: The process of data collection in quantitative research may involve
surveys, experiments, and content analysis. It's the systematic process of gathering
information for research purposes.

5. Sample: In quantitative research, researchers may use a sample, which is a subset of the
population, to draw conclusions about the larger population. The sample may not always be
large or fully representative. A sample is a smaller group selected from a larger population
for the purpose of research.

6. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a type of quantitative research that focuses

on providing a detailed account of a particular phenomenon. It involves describing the
characteristics and properties of a subject of study.

7. Experimental Research: Experimental research is a type of quantitative research that

involves manipulating variables to assess their impact on an outcome and is used to
establish cause-and-effect relationships. It's a research design that involves controlled
experiments to establish causality.

8. Generalizability: In quantitative research, generalizability refers to the extent to which

research findings can be applied to a broader population. It is about the degree to which the
results of a study can be applied to other situations or groups beyond the study sample.

9. Objective, Measurable Phenomena: Quantitative research is generally more suitable for

studying objective, measurable phenomena compared to qualitative research. It is better
suited for researching aspects that can be quantified and measured using numerical data.

10. Independent Variable: This is the variable manipulated by the researcher in an

experiment to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

11. Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or
tested in an experiment. It depends on the independent variable.
12. Control Variables: These are factors kept constant in an experiment to isolate the effect
of the independent variable.

13. Categorical Variables: Variables that represent categories or groups, often non-numeric.

14. Ordinal Variables: Variables that have ordered categories with a meaningful sequence
but don't have consistent intervals between them.

15. Continuous Variables: Variables that can take on a range of values within a certain range
and can have decimal points.

16. Confounding Variable: A variable that affects both the independent and dependent
variables, potentially leading to a false association.

17. Simple Random Sampling: A method of selecting a random sample where every member
of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

18. Stratified Sampling: Dividing the population into subgroups (strata) and then taking
random samples from each subgroup.

19. Systematic Sampling: Selecting every nth member of the population after a random start.

20. Cluster Sampling: Dividing the population into clusters and then randomly selecting
some clusters for inclusion in the sample.

21. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a

larger population where each element in the population has a known, nonzero chance of
being selected in the sample.

22. Non-Probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling is a method of selecting a sample

where not every element in the population has a known, nonzero chance of being selected.
This method is less statistically rigorous than probability sampling.

23. Likert Scale: A Likert scale is a type of rating scale often used in surveys or questionnaires
to measure participants' attitudes or opinions. It typically consists of a range of responses,
such as "strongly disagree," "disagree," "neutral," "agree," and "strongly agree."

24. Validity: In the context of research instrument development, validity refers to the extent
to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure. It ensures that the
instrument is accurate and measures the desired construct.

25. Reliability: Reliability in research refers to the consistency and stability of measurement.
A reliable instrument produces consistent results when used repeatedly in similar
conditions.
26. Content Validity: Content validity assesses whether an instrument's content adequately
covers the range of the construct it intends to measure. It ensures that the instrument
includes all relevant aspects of the construct.

27. Face Validity: Face validity is a type of validity that assesses whether an instrument
appears to measure what it is intended to measure on the surface. It does not provide a
detailed evaluation of the instrument's effectiveness.

28. Criterion Validity: Criterion validity assesses whether an instrument accurately predicts
an external criterion or outcome. It determines the instrument's ability to predict or
correlate with a specific criterion.

29. Convergent Validity: Convergent validity is a type of construct validity that assesses the
degree to which an instrument's scores correlate with other measures of the same
construct.

30. Data Analysis: Data analysis is the process of cleaning, transforming, and interpreting
collected data to answer research questions and draw conclusions. It involves statistical
techniques, visualization, and interpretation of results.

31. Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used in research to

evaluate the validity of research hypotheses. It involves comparing observed data to
expected results to determine whether any differences are statistically significant.

32. Survey Research: Survey research is a data collection method used in quantitative
research. It involves administering structured questionnaires to a sample of respondents to
gather information about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

33. Cross-Sectional Design: Cross-sectional design is a research design used to study a

particular phenomenon at a single point in time. It provides a snapshot of a population's
characteristics at a specific moment.

34. Longitudinal Design: Longitudinal design is a research design that involves studying
changes in a population or variables over an extended period, such as several years or
decades. It tracks changes over time.

35. Instrument Development: Instrument development refers to the process of creating and
refining tools, such as surveys or questionnaires, used to collect data in research. It involves
ensuring the validity and reliability of the instrument.

36. Central Tendency: Central tendency refers to the statistical measure that represents the
central or typical value of a data set. Common measures of central tendency include the
mean, median, and mode.

37. Mode: The mode is a measure of central tendency that represents the value that
appears most frequently in a data set.
38. Mean: The mean, often referred to as the average, is a measure of central tendency
calculated by adding up all values in a data set and dividing by the number of values.

39. Median: The median is a measure of central tendency that represents the middle value
in a data set when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. It is not
influenced by extreme values.

40. Variance: Variance is a statistical measure that quantifies the degree of variability or
dispersion in a data set. It calculates how much individual data points differ from the mean.

41. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is a statistical measure that indicates the
average amount of variation or dispersion in a data set. It is the square root of the variance.

42. Frequency: Frequency refers to the number of times a specific value or response occurs
in a data set. In research, frequency distributions are used to display the distribution of
responses or values.

43. Sampling Procedure: A sampling procedure is a systematic method used to select a

subset (sample) from a larger population for research purposes. Various sampling
procedures can be employed, including random sampling and stratified sampling.

44. Causal Relationship: A causal relationship exists when a change in one variable leads to a
change in another variable. It implies that one variable directly affects the other.

45. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a type of quantitative research that focuses
on providing a detailed account or description of a particular phenomenon, often without
altering or manipulating the variables.

46. Experimental Research: Experimental research is a type of quantitative research that

involves manipulating one or more independent variables to assess their impact on an
outcome or dependent variable. It is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

47. Generalizability: Generalizability in research refers to the extent to which research

findings can be applied or generalized to a broader population. It assesses the external
validity of the study.

48. Research Gap: A research gap is an identified area within the existing literature where
current knowledge is lacking or insufficient. Researchers aim to address or bridge these gaps
in their studies.

49. Rationale: The rationale in the context of a research study explains why the research is
important, its potential contributions, and its significance in the field. It justifies the need for
the study.

50. Significance of the Study: The significance of the study refers to the broader societal,
academic, or practical importance and relevance of the research. It highlights the potential
impact of the research.
51. Literature Review: A literature review is a critical evaluation and synthesis of existing
research, theories, and findings related to a specific topic or research question. It provides
context and background for the study.

52. APA Style: APA style is a standardized set of guidelines for academic writing, formatting,
and citation established by the American Psychological Association. It is commonly used in
research writing, particularly in the social sciences.

53. In-text Citation: In-text citation is the practice of citing sources within the body of a
research paper or document to give credit to the original authors and provide references for
specific information or ideas.

54. Reference List: A reference list is a section at the end of a research paper that provides a
detailed list of all the sources (books, articles, websites, etc.) cited within the paper. It
enables readers to locate the sources.

55. Validity: Validity, in the context of research instrument development, refers to the degree
to which an instrument accurately measures what it is intended to measure. It indicates the
extent to which the instrument is reliable and relevant for the study.

56. Content Validity: Content validity assesses whether an instrument adequately covers and
measures all relevant aspects of the construct it is intended to assess. It ensures that the
instrument is comprehensive in representing the construct.

57. Face Validity: Face validity is a type of validity that focuses on how well an instrument
appears, on the surface, to measure what it is intended to measure. It is a subjective
judgment by experts or users.

58. Criterion Validity: Criterion validity is a type of validity that assesses whether an
instrument can predict or correlate with an external criterion or measure. It examines the
instrument's ability to accurately predict outcomes.

59. Convergent Validity: Convergent validity is a type of validity that evaluates the degree to
which an instrument's scores correlate with other measures that theoretically should be
related.

60. External Validity: External validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a research
study can be applied, generalized, or extended to other settings, populations, or times. It
concerns the broader applicability of the study's results.

61. Research Design: Research design refers to the overall plan or structure of a research
study. It includes decisions about the methods, procedures, and techniques used to collect
and analyze data.
62. Descriptive Design: Descriptive design is a research design that aims to provide an
accurate and detailed portrayal of a particular phenomenon. It does not seek to establish
cause-and-effect relationships but rather focuses on summarizing and describing.

63. Cross-Sectional Design: A cross-sectional design is a type of research design that involves
data collection from a sample of participants at a single point in time. It examines the
relationships and characteristics of a population at that specific moment.

64. Longitudinal Design: A longitudinal design is a research design in which data is collected
from the same sample or participants over an extended period, allowing researchers to
study changes over time.

65. Survey Design: Survey design is a research design that involves collecting data from a
large number of participants using standardized questionnaires or surveys. It is commonly
used to gather self-reported information.

66. Data Collection Methods: Data collection methods are the techniques and tools used to
collect information, observations, or measurements for research purposes. These methods
can include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, etc.

67. Sampling Procedure: A sampling procedure is a systematic method used to select a

subset (sample) from a larger population for research purposes. Various sampling
procedures can be employed, including random sampling and stratified sampling.

68. Ethical Approval: Ethical approval refers to the formal authorization or permission
granted by an ethical review board or committee to conduct a research study, ensuring that
the research complies with ethical guidelines and principles.

69. Informed Consent: Informed consent is the process of obtaining voluntary agreement
from research participants after providing them with comprehensive information about the
study, its purpose, procedures, and potential risks.