General Physics 2

Lecture 8

➢ Direct Current Circuits

✓ parallel and series connections

✓ Kirchhoff’s rules

1
Introduction: elements of electrical circuits
A branch: A branch is a single electrical element or device (resistor, etc.).

    

A circuit with 5 branches.

A junction: A junction (or node) is a connection point between two or more

branches.
•


•


• A circuit with 3 nodes.
If we start at any point in a circuit (node), proceed through connected
electric devices back to the point (node) from which we started, without
crossing a node more than one time, we form a closed-path (or loop).

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18.1 Sources of EMF
➢ Steady current (constant in magnitude and direction)
• requires a complete circuit
• path cannot be only resistance
cannot be only potential drops in direction of current flow
➢ Electromotive Force (EMF)
• provides increase in potential E
• converts some external form of energy into electrical energy
➢ Single emf and a single resistor: emf can be thought of as a
“charge pump” V = IR

+ - V = IR = E
I

E
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EMF

Each real battery has some

internal resistance
B C
AB: potential increases by E on
the source of EMF, then
r
decreases by Ir (because of
the internal resistance) R
Thus, terminal voltage on the E
battery DV is
DV = E − Ir A D

Note: E is the same as the

terminal voltage when the
current is zero (open circuit)

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EMF (continued)

Now add a load resistance R

Since it is connected by a B C
conducting wire to the battery →
terminal voltage is the same as
r
the potential difference across the
load resistance R
DV = E − Ir = IR, or E

E = Ir + IR
A D
Thus, the current in the circuit is
Power output:
E
I= I E = I 2r + I 2 R
R+r

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Note: we’ll assume r negligible unless otherwise is stated 5
Measurements in electrical circuits
Voltmeters measure Potential Difference (or voltage) across
a device by being placed in parallel with the device.

Ammeters measure current through a device by being

placed in series with the device.

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Direct Current Circuits

Two Basic Principles:

➢ Conservation of Charge
➢ Conservation of Energy
a
Resistance Networks I

Vab = IReq Req

Vab
Req 
I b

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18.2 Resistors in series
1. Because of the charge conservation, all
A v2 _
B charges going through the resistor R2 will
+
also go through resistor R1. Thus, currents
R2
in R1 and R2 are the same,
+ +
v _
Ii1 R1 v1 I1 = I 2 = I
_
2. Because of the energy conservation, total
C potential drop (between A and C) equals to
the sum of potential drops between A and B
and B and C,
DV = IR1 + IR2
By definition, DV = IReq
DV IR1 + IR2
Thus, Req would be Req  = = R1 + R2
I I

Req = R1 + R2
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Resistors in series: notes

Analogous formula is true for any number of resistors,

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... (series combination)

It follows that the equivalent resistance of a series

combination of resistors is greater than any of the
individual resistors

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Resistors in series: example

In the electrical circuit below, find voltage across the resistor R1 in terms of
the resistances R1, R2 and potential difference between the battery’s
terminals V.

Energy conservation implies:

A +
v2 _
B V = V1 + V2
R2 with V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2
+ +
v _ V
Ii1 R1 v1
Then, V = I ( R1 + R2 ) , so I =
_
R1 + R2
C Thus,
R1
V1 = V
R1 + R2

This circuit is known as voltage divider.

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 18.3 Resistors in parallel
1. Since both R1 and R2 are
I connected to the same battery,
A I
potential differences across R1 and
I2 I1 R2 are the same,
+ +
V1 = V2 = V
V V Req
R2 R1
_ 2. Because of the charge conservation,
_
current, entering the junction A, must
equal the current leaving this junction,

V I = I1 + I 2
By definition, I=
Req
V V1 V2 V V
Thus, Req would be I= = + = +
Req R1 R2 R1 R2
1 1 1
= + or Req =
R1 R2
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Req R1 R2 R1 + R2 11
Resistors in parallel: notes

Analogous formula is true for any number of resistors,

1 1 1 1
= + + + ... (parallel combination)
Req R1 R2 R3
It follows that the equivalent resistance of a parallel
combination of resistors is always less than any of the
individual resistors

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Resistors in parallel: example

In the electrical circuit below, find current through the resistor R1 in terms of
the resistances R1, R2 and total current I induced by the battery.

Charge conservation implies:

I
I = I1 + I 2
+ I2 I1
V V
with I1 = , and I 2 =
V R1 R2
R2 R1
_ IReq RR
Then, I1 = , with Req = 1 2
R1 R1 + R2

R2
Thus, I1 = I
R1 + R2

This circuit is known as current divider.

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Direct current circuits: example
Find the currents I1 and I2 and the voltage Vx in the circuit shown below.

Strategy:
I 7

I2 1. Find current I by finding the

I1
+ equivalent resistance of the circuit
20 V +
_ Vx 4 12 
_
2. Use current divider rule to find the
currents I1 and I2

3. Knowing I2, find Vx.

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Direct current circuits: example
Find the currents I1 and I2 and the voltage Vx in the circuit shown below.

I 7
First find the equivalent resistance seen
I2 I1 by the 20 V source:
+

20 V +
_ Vx 4 12  4 (12)
Req = 7 + = 10 
12 + 4
_

20V 20V
Then find current I by, I = = = 2A
Req 10

We now find I1 and I2 directly from the current division rule:

2 A(4 )
I1 = = 0.5 A, and I 2 = I − I1 = 1.5 A
12 + 4
Finally, voltage Vx is Vx = I 2 ( 4 ) = 1.5 A ( 4 ) = 6V
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18.4 Kirchhoff’s rules and DC currents

The procedure for analyzing complex circuits is based on

the principles of conservation of charge and energy
They are formulated in terms of two Kirchhoff’s rules:

1. The sum of currents entering any junction must equal the

sum of the currents leaving that junction (current or
junction rule) .
2. The sum of the potential differences across all the
elements around any closed-circuit loop must be zero
(voltage or loop rule).

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 a. Junction rule
As a consequence of the Law of the conservation of charge, we have:

The sum of the currents entering a node (junction point)

• equal to the sum of the currents leaving.

Ia Ic

Ib Ia + Ib = Ic + Id
Id
Similar to the water flow in a pipe.

I a, I b, I c , and I d can each be either a positive

or negative number.
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 b. Loop rule
As a consequence of the Law of the conservation of energy, we have:

The sum of the potential differences across all the

• elements around any closed loop must be zero.

1. Assign symbols and directions of currents in the loop

◼ If the direction is chosen wrong, the current will come out with a right
magnitude, but a negative sign (it’s ok).
2. Choose a direction (cw or ccw) for going around the loop.
Record drops and rises of voltage according to this:
◼ If a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current: +V = +IR
◼ If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite to the current: -V=-IR
◼ If EMF is traversed “from – to + ”: +E
◼ If EMF is traversed “from + to – ”: -E
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 b. Loop rule: illustration
Loops can be chosen arbitrarily. For example, the circuit below contains a
number of closed paths. Three have been selected for discussion.
Suppose that for each element, respective current flows from + to - signs.

+ v - - v5 +
2
- - - Path 1
v1 v4 v6
+ + + Path 2
v3
- + + v7 -
Path 3
+ -
+
v12 v10 v8
+
- -

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+ v11 - - v9 + 19
 b. Loop rule: illustration

“b” Using sum of the drops = 0

• + v -
2 - v5 +
- - -
v1 v4 v6 Blue path, starting at “a”

+ + +
v3 - v7 + v10 – v9 + v8 = 0
- + + v7 -
• “a”
Red path, starting at “b”
+ -
+
v8
v12 v10
+ +v2 – v5 – v6 – v8 + v9 – v11
- - – v12 + v1 = 0

+ v11 - - v9 + Yellow path, starting at “b”

+ v2 – v5 – v6 – v7 + v10 – v11
3/13/2019 - v12 + v1 = 0 20
Kirchhoff’s Rules: Single-loop circuits
Example: For the circuit below find I, V1, V2, V3, V4 and the power
supplied by the 10 volt source.

30 V 10 V
1. For convenience, we start at
V1
+
_ +
_
_
+
"a"
•
point “a” and sum voltage
20  drops =0 in the direction of
_ _ the current I.
V3 15  I 40  V2
+ + +10 – V1 – 30 – V3 + V4 – 20 + V2 = 0 (1)
5
_
+
+ _
V4 20 V

2. We note that: V1 = - 20I, V2 = 40I, V3 = - 15I, V4 = 5I (2)

3. We substitute the above into Eq. 1 to obtain Eq. 3 below.

10 + 20I – 30 + 15I + 5I – 20 + 40I = 0 (3)

3/13/2019 Solving this equation gives, I = 0.5 A. 21

Kirchhoff’s Rules: Single-loop circuits (cont.)

30 V V1 10 V Using this value of I in Eq. 2 gives:

+
_ "a"
+
_ _
+ •
20 
_ _
V1 = - 10 V V3 = - 7.5 V
V3 15  I 40  V2
+ +
5
V2 = 20 V V4 = 2.5 V
_
+
+ _
V4 20 V
P10(supplied) = -10I = - 5 W

(We use the minus sign in –10I because the current is entering the + terminal)
In this case, power is being absorbed by the 10 volt supply.

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18.5 RC circuits

Consider the circuit t q i

0 0 1
0.02 0.064493015 0.935507
0.04 0.124826681 0.8751733

switch i E
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.181269247 0.8187308
0.234071662 0.7659283
0.283468689 0.7165313
0.12 0.329679954 0.67032
0.14 0.372910915 0.6270891
q
0.16
0.18
0.41335378 0.5866462
0.451188364 0.5488116
i
0.2 0.486582881 0.5134171

C 0.22 0.519694699 0.4803053

+q -q R 0.24
0.26
0.28
0.550671036 0.449329
0.579649615 0.4203504
0.606759279 0.3932407
0.3 0.632120559 0.3678794
0.32 0.655846213 0.3441538
0.340 0.2 0.4
0.678041728 0.60.3219583
0.8 1 1.2 0 0.2 0.4
0.36
0.38 t
0.698805788 0.3011942
0.718230711 0.2817693
0.4 0.736402862 0.2635971

vc = q/C vR = iR

q = Q (1 − e −t RC ) RC is called the time constant

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RC circuits

Discharge the capacitor

t q i
0 1 1
0.02 0.935506985 0.935506985

switch i E
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.875173319 0.875173319
0.818730753 0.818730753
0.765928338 0.765928338
0.1 0.716531311 0.716531311
0.12 0.670320046 0.670320046
0.14 0.627089085 0.627089085

q 0.16
0.18
0.58664622 0.58664622
0.548811636 0.548811636
i
C 0.2 0.513417119 0.513417119

+q -q R 0.22
0.24
0.26
0.480305301 0.480305301
0.449328964 0.449328964
0.420350385 0.420350385
0.28 0.393240721 0.393240721
0.3 0.367879441 0.367879441
0.32 0.344153787 0.344153787
0.340 0.2 0.4
0.321958272 0.60.321958272
0.8 1 1.2
0.36
0.38
t
0.301194212 0.301194212
0.281769289 0.281769289

vc = q/C vR = iR 0.4 0.263597138 0.263597138

q = Qe −t RC

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