Chapter 4: Energy Analysis of Closed Systems

Termodinámica Aplicada. Applied Thermodynamics

Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León | August 25, 2023
BACHELOR IN AEROSPACE ENGINEERING. COURSE 2
Chapter 4 Outline
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Boundary work

Energy balance 1 Boundary work

Specific heats

2 Energy balance

3 Specific heats
Chapter 4 Moving boundary work
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
Moving boundary work
Boundary work The expansion and compression work in a piston-cylinder device.
Z 2
Energy balance δWb = F ds = P A dS = P dV ⇒ Wb = P dV
1
Specific heats
Quasi-equilibrium process: A process during which the system remains nearly in
equilibrium at all times.

The work associated with a moving boundary is

A gas does a differential amount of work δWb as it called boundary work. Wb > 0 for expansion,
forces the piston to move by a differential amount ds. Wb < 0 for compression.
Chapter 4 Moving boundary work
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Boundary work

Energy balance

Specific heats

The area under the process curve on a

P-V diagram represents the boundary
work. The boundary work done during a process
Z 2 Z V2 depends on the path followed as well as
A= dA = P dV the end states.
1 V1
Chapter 4 Moving boundary work
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Boundary work

Energy balance

Specific heats

The area under the process curve on a

P-V diagram represents the boundary
The net work done during a cycle is the
work.
difference between the work done by the
Z 2 Z V2
system and the work done on the system.
A= dA = P dV
1 V1
Chapter 4 Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega processes
Universidad de León

Boundary work Polytropic process: P = CV −n , where C and n (polytropic exponent) are constants.

2 2
V2−n+1 − V1−n+1
Z Z
P2 V2 − P1 V1
Energy balance Wb = P dV = CV −n dV = C =
1 1 −n + 1 1−n
Polytropic and for ideal gas (n 6= 1):
Specific heats mR(T2 − T1 )
Wb =
1−n

Isothermal process (n = 1)
Z 2 Z 2  
V2
Wb = P dV = CV −1 dV = P V ln
1 1 V1

Constant pressure process

Z 2 Z 2
Wb = P dV = P0 dV = P0 (V2 − V1 )
1 1
Chapter 4 Energy balance for closed systems
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
dEsystem
Ein − Eout = ∆Esystem Ėin − Ėout =
Boundary work dt
Energy balance for a cicle:
Energy balance
Wnet,out = Qnet,in Ẇnet,out = Q̇net,in
Specific heats Qnet,in − Wnet,out = ∆Esystem
where
Q = Qnet,in = Qin − Qout W = Wnet,out = Wout − Win
For a cycle ∆E = 0, thus Q = W
Various forms of the first-law relation for closed
systems when sign convention is used.

Q − W = ∆E
Q − W = ∆U (Stationary systems)

δq − δw = de
Chapter 4 Constant-pressure processes
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

General analysis for a closed system undergoing a quasi-equilibrium

Boundary work constant-pressure process. Q is to the system and W is from the system.
Energy balance Ein − Eout = ∆Esystem
Specific heats
Q − W = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆P E Q − Wno−b − Wb = U2 − U1
Q−Wno−b −P0 (V2 −V1 ) = U2 −U1 Q−Wno−b = (U2 +P2 V2 )−(U1 +P1 V1 )
Q − Wno−b = H2 − H1

For a constant-pressure expansion or compression process:

∆U + Wb = ∆H
Chapter 4 Specific heats
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León Specific heat is the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance by one degree in a specified way.
Boundary work
Specific heat at constant volume, cv
Energy balance The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one
degree as the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heats

Specific heat at constant pressure, cp

The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one
degree as the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-volume and constant-pressure specific

heats cv and cp (values are for helium gas).
Chapter 4 Specific heats
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
cv and cp are properties.
Boundary work cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
Energy balance A common unit for specific heats is kJ/(kg o C) or kJ/(kg K).

Specific heats
Formal definitions of cv y cp
 
∂u
cv =
∂T v
The change in internal energy with temperature at
constant volume.
 
The specific heat of a ∂h
cp =
substance changes with ∂T p
temperature.
The change in enthalpy with temperature at constant
pressure.
Chapter 4 Specific heats of ideal gases
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León

Boundary work
Internal energy and enthalpy
Energy balance
change of an ideal gas
Specific heats
du = cv (T ) dT dh = cp (T ) dT
Z 2
∆u = u2 − u1 = cv (T ) dT
1
Z 2
∆h = h2 − h1 = cp (T ) dT
Joule showed, using this experimental 1
apparatus, that u = u(T ) For ideal gases, u, h, cv , and cp vary with
temperature only.
h = u + Pv P v = RT ⇒ h = u + RT

u = u(T ) ⇒ h = h(T )
Chapter 4 Specific heats of real gases
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal-gas behavior, and
therefore their specific heats depend on temperature only.
Boundary work
The specific heats of real gases at low pressures are called ideal-gas specific heats,
Energy balance or zero-pressure specific heats, and are often denoted cp0 and cv0 .

Specific heats

Ideal-gas constant-pressure specific heats for some

gases (see Table A–2c for cp equations).

In the preparation of ideal-gas tables, 0 K is cho-

sen as the reference temperature for u and h.
These tables are obtained by choosing an arbi-
trary reference point and performing the integra-
tions by treating state 1 as the reference state.
Chapter 4 Averaging Specific Heats
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega
Universidad de León
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
Boundary work specific heat is taken constant at an avera-
ge value:
Energy balance
u2 − u1 = cv,avg (T2 − T1 )
Specific heats h2 − h1 = cp,avg (T2 − T1 )

Three ways of calculating ∆u

∆u = u2 − u1 (tables), most
accurate.
R2
For small temperature intervals, the ∆u = 1 cv (T ) dT , very accurate.
specific heats may be assumed to vary ∆u ≈ cv,avg ∆T , reasonably
linearly with temperature. accurate.
Chapter 4 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega Gases
Universidad de León

Boundary work
h = u + RT ⇒ dh = du + R dT
Energy balance As dh = cp dT and du = cv dT , then cp = cv + R (on molar basis: c̄p = c̄v + Ru )
cp
Specific heats Specific heat ratio: k = cv
The specific heat ratio varies with temperature, but this variation is very mild.
For monatomic gases (helium, argon, etc.), its value is essentially constant at
1.667.
Many diatomic gases, including air, have a specific heat ratio of about 1.4 at
room temperature.
The air at 300 K: cv = 0.718 kJ/(kg K); R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K);
cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg K).
The cp of an ideal gas can be determined from a knowledge of cv and R.
Chapter 4 Internal energy, enthalpy, and
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega specific heats of solids and liquids
Universidad de León

Boundary work
Incompressible substance:
Energy balance A substance whose specific volume (or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are
incompressible substances.
Specific heats
The specific volumes of incompressible substances remain constant during a
process.
The cv and cp values of incompressible substances are identical and are denoted
by c.

Internal Energy Changes

Z 2
du = cv dT = c(T ) dT ⇒ ∆u = u2 − u1 = c(T ) dT ∆u ≈ cavg (T2 − T1 )
1
Chapter 4 Internal energy, enthalpy, and
Dr.E. Garcı́a-Ortega specific heats of solids and liquids
Universidad de León

Boundary work
Enthalpy Changes
Energy balance
h = u + Pv ⇒ dh = du + v dP + 
P dv
 = du + v dP
Specific heats ∆h = ∆u + v ∆P ≈ cavg ∆T + v ∆P

For solids, the term v ∆P is insignificant and thus ∆h = ∆u ≈ cavg ∆T .

For liquids, two special cases are commonly encountered:
Constant-pressure processes, as in heaters (∆P = 0): ∆h = ∆u ≈ cavg ∆T
Constant-temperature processes, as in pumps (∆T = 0): ∆h = v ∆P .
Finally, the enthalpy of a compressed liquid is:

h@P,T ≈ hf @T + vf @T (P − Psat@T )

a more accurate relation than h@P,T ≈ hf @T .