Chapter 4: Sampling

1. Probability sampling
2. Non probability sampling
1. Probability sampling (representative sampling)

generalize Sampling frame

Sample (Target population)

Rule: every case in the population has Information: incomplete,

the same chance of being selected. inaccurate, out of date
1.1. Identifying a suitable sampling frame and the
implications for generalisability
1.2. Deciding on a suitable sample size

(Sauders and Lewis, 2019)

- Level of certainty
Ex: 95 per cent level of certainty: if your sample was selected 100 times, at
least 95 of these samples would be certain to represent the characteristics of
the target population.
- Margin of error
Indicatates the degree to which data obtain from the sample are expected to
deviate from the population as a whole or
the accuracy you require for any estimates made from your sample.
Ex: a survey indicates that 72% of respondents favor Brand A over Brand B
with a 3% margin of error. In this case, the actual population percentage that
prefers Brand A likely falls within the range of 72% ± 3%, or 69 – 75%
Margin of error
Population: 1,000
Sample: 500 Sample: 1,000 Sample: 1,500
Margin of error: 9% Margin of error: 3% Margin of error: 2,3%

(Leary, 2001)
1.3. The importance of a high response rate

total number of response

Total response rate =
total number of participants

number of respondents who complete

the survey
Total completion rate =
total number of participants
1.4. Estimating response rates and actual
sample size required

(Sauders and Lewis, 2019)

1.5. Selecting the most appropriate sampling
technique and the sample
1.5.1. Simple random
- Suppose we want to select a sample of 200 participants from a school
district that has 5,000 students: every possible combination of 200
students has the same probability of being chosen.
- Using a table of random numbers
- Need a sampling frame: a list of the population from which the
sample will be drawn.
1.5.2. Systematic random sampling

Ex: 1,500 patients, actual sample size 300 patients

Fraction: 300/1,500 = 1/5
If the first random number: 2
Then: 2 7 12 17 22 27 32 37, ….
1.5.3. Stratified random sampling
- Rather than selecting cases directly from the population, we first
divide the population into two or more strata.
- A stratum is a subset of the population that shares a particular
characteristics (salary grade, sex, age, …)
- Proportionate sampling method in which cases are sampled from
each stratum in proportion to their prevalence in the population.
- Samples can be stratified using more than one characteristic
(You may wish to stratify a sample of an organisation’s employees by
both department and salary grade).
1.5.4. Cluster sampling
30 universities
randomly pick up 10 univerisities
randomly pich up 5 class rooms/univerisity
10 students/classroom
Total: 10 *5 * 10 = 500 students.
Cluster: university, classrooms.
Chapter 4: Sampling
2. Non – probability sampling
- Non random sampling
- Include an element of subjective judgement
- Sample size: no rules (unlike probability sampling)
- The logical relationship between your sample selection technique and
the purpose and focus of your research is important; the sample
selected being used to illustrate a particular aspect or to make
generalisations to theory rather than about a population.
Non – probability sampling techniques
2.1. Quota sampling is a non - probability sampling method that relies on the non-random
selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.
- You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups
- Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available data.
Ex: Survey individuals about what smartphone brand they prefer to use
• Sample size: 500 respondents
• Gender: 250 males and 250 females
• Age: 100 respondents each between the ages of 16-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+
• Employment status: 350 employed and 150 unemployed people.
2.2. Purposive sampling is often used when working with very small
samples such as in case study research and when you wish to select
cases that are particularly informative.
- Purposive sampling is a technique used in qualitative research to
select a specific group of individuals or units for analysis. Participants
are chosen “on purpose,” not randomly. It is also known as judgmental
sampling or selective sampling
- “Hikikomori is a syndrome in which young people isolate themselves
from the outside world, lock themselves in their rooms and do not
communicate with anyone. The period of self-isolation may last for 6
months or more.”.
2.3. Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling
- Researchers attempt to collect data from the widest range of
perspectives possible about a certain topic.
(either in age, socioeconomic status, income, occupation, region, etc.)
2.4. Homogeneous sampling
- Homogeneous sampling focuses on one particular subgroup in which
all the sample members are similar, such as a particular occupation or
level in an organisation’s hierarchy.
- Why use this method? Homogeneous sampling is used when the goal
of the research is to understand and describe a particular group in
depth.
2.5. Typical Case Sampling allows you to develop a profile about what
is usual or average for a particular phenomenon.
An example of a typical-case sample is when you choose your sample
from a middle-class suburb rather than from a poor or rich suburb if
you wish to do research on the spending habits of a city. The spending
habits of the poor and the rich would probably not be typical for the
community
2.6. Critical case sampling selects critical cases on the basis that they
can make a point dramatically or because they are important.
- The process of selecting a small number of important cases – cases
that that are likely to “yield the most information and have the greatest
impact on the development of knowledge” (Patton, 2001).
- This a good method to use when funds are limited. Although
sampling for one or more critical cases may not yield findings that are
broadly generalizations from the rich evidence produced when
studying a few cases in depth.
- To identify critical cases, the researcher team needs to able to
identify the dimensions that make a case critical.
Patton (2015) outlines a number of clues that suggest critical cases.
These can be summarised by the questions such as:
• If it happens there, will it happen everywhere?
• If they are having problems, can you be sure that everyone will
have problems?
• If they cannot understand the process, is it likely that no one will
be able to understand the process?
2.7. Politically important sampling relies on your judgement regarding
anticipated politically sensitive issues and associated outcomes when
deciding whether to include one or a number
A government is conducting a poll regarding the fear of terrorism in
common people in a particular region. The view of the people who have
been under direct threat from terrorists or directly affected by a terrorist
attack will be too strong and might bias the analysis. In such cases, some
views which seem to be more influenced, are excluded and the view with
apparently lesser influence will be taken for further analysis. of prominent
potential participants. Consequently you choose to include (or exclude)
participants on the basis of their connections with politically sensitive
issues (Miles et al. 2014)
2.9. Opportunisitic or emergent sampling occurs when the researcher
makes sampling decisions during the process of collecting data. This
commonly occurs in field research. As the observer gains more
knowledge of a setting, he or she can make sampling decisions that
take advantage of events, as they unfold.
When little is known about a phenomenon or setting, a priori sampling
decisions can be difficult.
2.10. Theoretical sampling is a form of sampling in qualitative research
that is not bounded by the limits of a priori selection. Rather,
theoretical sampling entails jointly collecting and analyzing data to
decide what data to collect next and where to find them to develop
theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967/2012).
Theoretical sampling can be defined as “the process of data collection
for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes and
analyses his data and decides what data to collect next and where to
find them in order to develop his theory as it emerges”[1].
https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-
collection/theoretical-sampling/
2.11. Self-selection sampling
- Publicise your need for cases, either by advertising through
appropriate media or by asking them to take part.
- Collect data from those who respond.
2.12. Convenience sampling occurs when sample cases are selected
without any obvious principles of organisation in relation to your
research question (also known as availability sampling). This involves
selecting cases only because they are easily available (or most
convenient) to obtain for your sample.