DEVELOPMENT OF EXPRESSION FOR RESISTANCE TO FAILURE BY THERMAL SHOCK

IN STEAM TURBINES
Ing. Román Antonio Pérez Castañeda
roman@cteag.une.cu
CTE “Antonio Guiteras”. UNE. MINEM

SUMMARY
The application of modern maintenance technologies, based on diagnosis and risk, requires a reliability
calculation methodology, which is not based on failure statistics, but on the real condition of the assets.
The author proposes the calculation of reliability from the symptom parameters, monitored for diagnosis,
which characterize the evolution of the technical state of the assets. Specifically, the failure of the steam
turbine due to thermal shock, caused by the induction of water or cold steam during its operation, is
analyzed. Conditions under which thermal shock causes metal failure are determined. These phenomena
are analyzed and the equations are established, which relate the mechanical properties (elastic limit,
modulus of elasticity, heat conductivity) of the metal of the rotor components with the maximum
temperature jump, which it can withstand without fail. The equations obtained make it possible to
determine the measurable parameters, which characterize "the load", with which the aforementioned
reliability calculation methodology proposed by the author can be applied.

Key words: Reliability, load, resistance, diagnosis, thermal shock.

1. INTRODUCTION
To improve efficiency, many companies apply the so-called predictive or proactive maintenance, based
on diagnostic techniques and technologies. Large corporations, especially in the hydrocarbon sector and
the electricity generation industry, have turned their attention to the “cost-risk” decision model, since it
allows comparing the cost associated with a maintenance action against the level of risk reduction or
performance improvement in a continuous production process. Additionally, reliability engineering stands
out as the theoretical-conceptual framework in which the methodologies and techniques to achieve this
task coexist. "Reliability engineering because one of the best ways to add value is to prevent it from being
destroyed" [1, 2].

The conventional method of determining reliability is through time to failure, which regards the element
as a black box, performing the function until it fails. The Weibull method has turned out to be the most
popular, since it offers the possibility of analyzing the data, in any of the stages of the equipment life
cycle [3]. Such a method is totally satisfactory from the point of view of mathematical statistics to
improve designs, especially when studying the behavior of many equipment of the same design, but not
so much from an engineering point of view, applied to the operation and maintenance stage of a few or
even a single piece of equipment, as is the case of the steam turbine in a power plant, since specialists
want to know what is happening inside the black box, when there is not enough data on what is happening
with other similar equipment.

The calculation of reliability is one of those methodologies, which makes it possible to meet this objective
[4]. Some authors have proposed reliability calculation methodologies, based on the use of the parameters
symptoms of the failures suffered by the equipment, which guarantee the link between the results of the
calculations and the real state, and therefore with the corrective, predictive and proactive actions,
necessary to minimize the risk of failures. In this way, it will be possible to identify the corrective,
preventive and proactive actions that can effectively optimize costs and minimize their impact on the
performance of the assets [5].

One of the currently accepted and referenced ideas is the one that expresses that reliability can be
determined by comparing the load to which the equipment in question is subjected, with its resistance to
the imposed conditions [6]. However, no definition of physical quantities has been found in the literature
during the current research, which should be used in each case for such purposes.

The present work aims to solve the problem of how to find those operating parameters, which can be used
as representatives of the load to which the turbine elements are subjected, and the mechanical properties
of the metal, which characterize the resistance, in those operating conditions. It is proposed to determine
the probability of turbine failure, as the sum of the reliability of elements joined in series or parallel, each
of which has an applied load and has its own resistance to this risk. In particular, the failure of the steam
turbine rotor due to thermal shock will be analyzed.

The research will be carried out under the hypothesis that starting from the equations of the stresses
caused by the temperature difference between the different surfaces, the mechanical properties can be
found, which make the metal of the rotor resistant to thermal shock. In this way it will be possible to
obtain an expression to relate the operating parameters with those of mechanical resistance to thermal
shock.

A series of authors have dedicated their investigations to experimentally determine the possible use of
certain materials as some ceramics and surface coatings, for which they verify the resistance to thermal
shock, when they are exposed to high temperatures and are abruptly cooled, for which reason a high
thermal gradient is created between different areas of the element, which constitutes the risk of failure due
to thermal shock, [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. However, none of these publications has the objective of
reaching expressions that relate the mechanical properties of materials with the parameters of the
environment to which it is subjected.

However, in the 1950s, NASA investigated the resistance to thermal shock of some materials to introduce
a ranking, or index of merit of materials, that are usually used in the aerospace sphere and that are
frequently subjected to the conditions of thermal shock. In these investigations, expressions were
obtained, which relate the mechanical properties of materials, with the parameters that characterize
thermal shock, which years later have been used by other authors [15, 16].

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Steam turbines are motors, which convert the thermal energy of steam into mechanical energy and to
perform mechanical work on the output shaft [17]. These machines drive a wide variety of equipment, of
different sizes and speeds, in almost all industry segments, including energy; pulp and paper; iron and
Steel; the combined generation of heat and electricity and chemicals; the oil and gas industries, almost all
of continuous production. Steam turbines are always at the center of the priority decision between
production and maintenance. To support the reliable operation of the turbine, it is necessary that there is
an effective infrastructure, to supervise the operating conditions, the quality of the water, steam, and its
own health, having and using written operating and maintenance procedures, with the use of a
maintenance management system for its programming and execution and to carry out the training of
personnel on an ongoing basis [18, 19].

There have been numerous causes of steam turbine failures around the world. The most frequent events
have been incidents of loss of lubrication oil, while the most serious events have been related to speeding
[20]. Typically, the events of greatest frequency and severity have been blade or blade wheel failures,
particularly in the low pressure (LP) section of the turbine, in which the blades experience a series of
failure mechanisms (stress corrosion cracking (SCC), solid particle (SPE) and water droplet erosion
(WDE), damage from falling foreign objects (FOD) or domestics (DOD)), which ultimately lead to
failure [4, 21, 22].

2.1 Characteristics of the turbine components and their failure mechanisms.

2.1.1 Rotors, discs, blade wheels and diaphragms

Due to the poor quality of casting and forging of the elements manufactured decades ago, cracks, pores
and inclusions have been found in the metal of the old rotors, which required the machining of a central
bore, to remove the affected material. Improvements in ultrasonic inspection (UT) instrumentation and
techniques have led to the search for greater numbers of defects, which were not detectable with older
technologies. On the positive side, the presence of the center bore allowed for UT inspection of the rotor
wheels and their grooves from below. Integrally-forged steam turbine rotors manufactured in the last two
decades do not have bores machined in their centers. Improvements in steel refining and forging
manufacturing have decreased the need to remove impurities and poorly forged material, which
accumulated in the center of those rotors [18].

To transmit the torque produced in each stage of the turbine, the rotating blades are fixed to the discs
through a union, specially designed at its base. The root of the blades can be fir tree shaped, T-slotted, or
semicircular fir shaped, or it can be used multiple pins to hold the blades to the discs. Turbine discs can
be fitted on the shaft, with an anti-rotation wrench, or they may have been integrally forged on the shaft.
The rotor shaft output disc or coupling is connected to the driven equipment through a rigid flange
connection or flexible coupling. On the other hand, the stationary blade roots may be attached to grooves
in the housing, sheaths, or blade rings, or the stationary blades are welded to the bearing ring, to create a
set of stationary blades, which are called a diaphragm. Depending on the pressure and temperature of the
steam, there may be dual sets of shells or housings; an inner shell, containing the stationary blades and an
outer shell that acts as a pressure barrier for the turbine, decreases the temperature difference between the
inner shell wall faces and further accommodates the attachment of the diaphragms.

During starting, stopping and load changes, transients and temperature gradients of the rotors and casings
occur, when steam arrives with a temperature different from that of the metal. On the other hand, under
certain conditions (such as the failure of the superheated steam tempering valves), it becomes possible for
cold steam to arrive, which puts the metal in thermal shock conditions, which can cause serious friction
between the rotating and stationary parts and / or there can be great distortion of the rotors and housings,
when the gradients occur too fast.

Steam turbine discs, rotors, shafts, housings, blade wheels, and diaphragms are subject to the same failure
mechanisms and have the same causes, which apply to blades. It is not uncommon to find permanent
deformation (creep), fatigue cracks (thermal and vibratory), and stress corrosion in discs, rotors, housings,
and diaphragms. Unlike blades, failures in these components can take longer to become detectable [18].

2.2 Water Induction

The most frequent sources of induction of water are the main steam and superheated lines and their
desuperheaters. Water induction can also descend from main steam line drains, cross pipes, and the
cylinder covers themselves. Sometimes cold water and steam enter turbines through terminal gland seals.
Most of the time, all these situations are associated with the starting and stopping of the turbine, although
in any case they are caused by large deficiencies of the starting technology or the violation of the
operating instructions.

When water enters into rotating turbine, it can cause significant, often brutal, mechanical damage to
blades, nozzles, and thrust bearings. The entry of steam with a temperature different from that of the
metal, induces a thermal shock. When this happens during operation, the vibrations of the fixed and
rotating blades increase and the risk of failure of these components increases, in the areas where the cold
water or steam is being introduced. Likewise, if fresh water or cold steam backflows during start-up, the
steam turbine rotor can become thermally distorted, causing severe friction on the seals and blades, and
severely damaged. If the induction of water or steam occurs during the stop, after the electrical circuit
breaker has been opened, the turbine overspeed, which can lead to its destruction. If the amount of water
is significant enough to slow down the rotation of the turbine, it leads to the destruction of the entire
steam path in the turbine. Otherwise, the induction of water can cause local damage and deformation,
which can be so severe that damaged elements must be replaced, even a rotor as a whole or the thrust
bearing.

Brittle and ductile materials react to thermal shock considerably differently. Brittle materials can
withstand only a small amount of deformation before breaking; while ductiles can withstand considerable
deformation without breaking.

When a material is subjected to a temperature gradient, or when a composite material, consisting of two
or more materials of different coefficients of expansion, is heated uniformly or non-uniformly, the various
fibers tend to expand in different lengths, according to with their temperatures and with the individual
thermal coefficient of expansion. To ensure that the body remains whole, rather than allowing each fiber
to expand individually, a system of thermal stress and associated stresses can be introduced, depending on
the body shape and temperature distribution. If the material cannot withstand either stress or strain, then
rupture occurs.

The behavior of materials under thermal stress depends essentially on their ability to absorb induced
deformations, to maintain the whole body. After the application of the thermal gradient, the brittle
materials cannot easily resist the superimposed deformations, without inducing enough stress, which
causes the rupture; on the other hand, ductile materials can generally withstand these additional stresses,
but ultimately they can fail if they are subjected to a series of cycles of temperature change, that is, they
fail due to thermal fatigue.

The problem of thermal stress is of great importance in high power turbines. The current trend towards
increasing temperatures has required the use of refractory materials, capable of withstanding much higher
temperatures, than normal engineering materials [15]. A prominent property of these materials is the lack
of ductility. For this reason, resistance to thermal stress is one of the most important design criteria in the
application of these materials. Thermal stress currently receives considerable attention in relation to
ductile materials as well, as there is considerable evidence that the failure of many ductile components
can be attributed to thermal cycling.

Thermal shock stress can be distinguished by the fact that stresses are produced by transient temperature
gradients, generally sudden. At any instant, the stresses are determined by the temperature distribution
and are not different from what they would be if this distribution could be obtained at steady state. But the
temperature gradients, which can be established in the transient state are generally much higher, than
those that occur in the steady state, and therefore the thermal shock is important in relation to the ordinary
thermal stress, due to the higher stress that can be induced. Another distinction between thermal stress
and thermal shock is that the rate of application of stress is very fast and many materials are affected by
the rate at which the load is applied. Some materials brittle under rapid application of stress and therefore
may not withstand that thermal shock stress, which could be easily absorbed if applied slowly. Both
Manson [15] and Pinca [22] use the studies of thermal shock in a flat plate to find the temperature
distribution that can cause its failure.

General equation for thermal stress.

The case of a homogeneous flat plate is considered, initially at a uniform temperature and suddenly
immersed in a medium at a lower temperature [23, 24]. Most one-dimensional problems can be dealt with
essentially the same way as the flat plate problem, and therefore any important conclusions pertaining to
the flat plate are probably valid for other shapes as well, as long as the necessary changes are made in the
constants.

The first problem in relation to the flat plate is to determine the temperature distribution at time t, after the
surrounding temperature has changed. Once this temperature has been determined, the stresses can be
easily determined according to very simple formulas, derived from the theory of elasticity. Assuming that
the properties of the material do not vary with temperature and that the material is elastic, the following
equation can be written for the stress at any point along the thickness of the plate.

(1)

Physically, σ* can be considered as the relationship between the stress actually developed and the stress
that would develop if the thermal expansion were completely limited. The formula for σ* is

(2)
σ Actual stress
µ Poisson's ratio
 E Elastic modulus
α Coefficient of expansion
Tav Average temperature across thickness of plate
T Temperature at point where stress is considered
T 0 Initial uniform temperature of plate above ambient temperature (ambient temperature assumed
to be zero for simplicity)
Thermal stresses on the surface.
To obtain the surface stress, it is first necessary to determine the average temperature and the surface
temperature. The temperature problem has been dealt with thoroughly in the literature and the result is
generally presented in the form of infinite series. Figure 1 shows the results of some calculations that
have been performed by substituting the solution of the exact temperature series in the stress equations.
There are three important variables in the exact solution. First is the reduced stress, already mentioned,
second, the β value, which is equal to ah/ k (where a is half the thickness of the plate, h is the heat transfer
coefficient and k is the thermal conductivity of the material). The variables a, h and k always result as a
group, because of the way they appear in the differential equation. Therefore, in the generalized treatment
of the problem, what is important is not the individual value of a, h or k, but its grouped value to form the
β term, which is generally known as the Biot number; however, in the present discussion it will be called
the non-dimensional heat transfer parameter. The third important variable is θ, which will be called
nondimensional time. As shown, θ = kt/ ρCa 2, where k is again the conductivity, t the time, a is half the
thickness, ρ the density of the material, and C the specific heat. In Figure 1, the non-dimensional stress on
the surface has been plotted as a function of non-dimensional time, for several examined values of non-
dimensional heat transfer β. This graph contains the essential elements of the entire surface tension
solution in the flat plate problem.

Figure 1. Dimensionless stress σ* vs dimensionless time θ, for the flat plate surface
Maximum surface stress.

It is interesting to consider the maximum surface tension as a function of β. In references [23, 24], the
maximum stress is determined analytically by suitable approximations of the series solution. For example,
Bradshaw [23] considers only small values of β, for which all but the first two terms of the series can be
omitted. The maximum stress is obtained by establishing the derivative of the stress with a time equal to
zero. In this way, accurate results are obtained, but they are valid only for small values of β. As Figure 1
shows the complete variation of stress with time, it is not necessary to differentiate; the maximum stress
value can be read directly from the curve for each value of β, and the results will be correct over the full
range of β rather than just for certain intervals. Figure 2 shows a graph of σ* max versus β. From this curve
it is observed that the maximum non-dimensional stress varies approximately linear with respect to β, for
small values of β, but becomes asymptotic to the value of unity for very large values of β.
Figure 2. Analytical solution of the dimensionless maximum stress σ* max vs the dimensionless heat
transfer coefficient β.

To obtain a simple formula for the curve in Figure 2, the approach used for the first time by Buessem [25]
will be used, but with somewhat more general considerations. This derivation is obtained with the use of
figure 3. In this figure, the center line represents the center of the plate; the two solid vertical lines
represent the surfaces of the plate. The ordinate represents the temperature. The temperature distributions
through the thickness of the plate at different times t0, t1, t2, t3 after the sudden application of cold
atmosphere are shown in the curves PQ, P'Q ', etc.

Figure 3. Scheme of the temperature distribution at different times

These curves must fit to two boundary conditions:

(1) in the center they must have a horizontal tangent, because the center of the plate is a line of symmetry
and no heat is transferred through the center line;
(2) at the surface, the slope must be in accordance with the heat transfer coefficient of the surface, which
is equivalent to the condition that the tangent to the curves on the surface passes through the fixed point 0,
which represents the room temperature that has been taken equal to zero.

These temperature distributions must also satisfy the differential equations of heat transfer, which is
achieved by adjusting certain constants so that the final result is consistent with the curve in Figure 2,
which of course satisfies the differential equation.

In his work S. Manson [15] assumed, that the temperature curve can be fitted by an equation in the form:

(3)
Where: T2,c temperature in the center of the plate, at the moment when the stress on the surface is
maximum. M, N are constants that must be determined, to better fit the theoretical results.
When N > 1, this equation will automatically satisfy the first horizontal tangency limit condition at x = 0.
If the surface condition –k (dT / dx) a = hT 2,S is satisfied, then the condition of the equation (4) must be
satisfied.

(4)
From equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) is obtained

(5)
Or, if

(6)
Equation (5) reduces to:

(7)
Equation (7) suggests that a graph of 1/ (σ* max) versus 1/ β should be a straight line. When the values of
σ*max and β from figure 1 are used, the graph 1/ (σ*max) versus 1/ β is obtained. It is seen that for 1/ β ˃ 0.2
or β ˂ 5 a very good straight line can be fitted to the curve; the equation of this line is given by

β˂5
(8)
In the region 1/ β <0.2 (that is, β> 5), the curve deviates somewhat from the straight line, curving
downward, and reaches the limit σ* = 1.0 at 1/ β = 0 instead of a value of 1.5 predicted by the straight
line. For the formula to be accurate over the entire range, it is desirable to add a term that is effective only
in the very low range of 1/ β, which makes the expression reach the appropriate limit at l/ β = 0. An
exponential term satisfies this purpose throughout the range of β; therefore, the following equation relates
β to σ*.

(9)
For values of β between 0 and 5, the exponential term is negligible and the fit of the exact results with
equation (7) is essentially the same as the fit with equation (8). A comparison of equation (8) with an
asymptotic formula given by Cheng [24], indicates that equation (8) can be wrong up to 5 percent, at a
value of β = 200. However, since the most of the practical problems involve values of β below 20, it is
seen that equation (8) gives precision results over the practical range of β.

However, if greater precision is desired in the range of β 5 to 20, formula (9a) can be used in conjunction
with equation (8) for the range 0 <β <5. Equation (9) has, however, the advantage of representing the
entire range of β in a single equation.
(9a)
In his paper, Buessem [25] derived, in another way, a simplified formula for this case. It was assumed
that the stress could be approximated by taking the temperature distribution on the plate at the time of
maximum stress as the straight line PQ in Figure 3. By first determining the surface stress for this
temperature distribution, and then fitting the resulting formula to be consistent with the correct values of
surface stress in two values of β, and then the following equation was obtained:

(10)
Equation (10) is very similar in form to equation (8), but it does not fit the correct curve of σ* versus β as
well as equation (9) over the entire range of β.

Thermal shock parameters

The approximate formulas can now be used to correlate the maximum stress developed in a material with
the physical properties of the materials. In most cases, the value of β is found to be relatively low, for
reasonable heat transfer coefficients, plate thicknesses, and conductivities, so that for practical purposes
the 1.5 term of equation (8) can be neglected, compared to the value 3.25/ β. In this case, equation (8)
becomes equation (11), which can be rewritten as equation (12).

(11)

(12)
For the case when failure occurs, σmax = σb breaking stress, hence

(12a)
This equation establishes that for the case of a flat plate of thickness a and heat transfer coefficient h, the
maximum thermal shock temperature that the plate can withstand is proportional to the product kσb/ Eα.
Since the Poisson's ratio µ is very similar for all materials, it is placed in the group of terms, which do not
imply properties of the materials. This kσb/ Eα grouping is identified as the heat shock parameter used by
Bobrowsky [26]. Equation (12) provides a numerical measure of the shock temperature, which will cause
failures.

For the steam turbine, the permanent bending of the shaft is also considered a failure, therefore in formula
(12a), the value of σf must be placed instead of σb, that is, the elasticity limit must be considered.

The main objective of the current research is to find an expression that relates the mechanical properties
with the steam parameters, which determine the resistance to thermal shock. In this endeavor, for
equation (12a) the value of h must be found, since the other parameters have been considered constant,
for which the relationship between the heat transfer coefficient and the Nusselt number can be used:
(13)
Then

(14)
According to Moroz [4], Goloshumova [27], Incropera [28], Rezinskix [29], Camaraza [30] and Rusin
[31], for the case of the turbine rotor, the Nusselt number can be found using the Dittus-Boelter equation
[32]:

(15)

(16)
Re is the Reynold number, where v is the steam velocity, ρ its density and μ its dynamic viscosity. In the
case of the rotor shaft, d is taken as its diameter, while for the discs and blades the thickness is taken. The
coefficients C, m and n are determined according to the conditions in which the thermal shock takes
place, that is to say if it is cooled or heated and it is also taken into account if the axial velocity of the
steam is greater or not than the radial velocity.

During operation, the material of the steam turbine elements is subject to a complicated process of
mechanical and thermal stress, which can cause microstructure and metallurgical changes, which
modifies its resistance to the loads to which it is subjected, among which is the thermal shock. Thus, we
find that the following degradation mechanisms influence the metal:

 Aging, precipitation of alloy components and reorganization of the microstructure

 Corrosion, irreversible reaction of the material with the environment, which ends with its
deterioration
 Plastic deformations
 Grain growth, recrystallization
 Development and relaxation of residual stress

These phenomena cause the resistance of the material to thermal shock to decrease over time of operation,
since they modify its mechanical, metallurgical and physical properties, among which is the modulus of
elasticity E, which must be evaluated during periods of maintenance and thus update the values of the
parameters, which characterize the resistance.

3. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

When equation (9) is considered, it is observed that for very large values of β, the value 3.25/ β can be
neglected compared to the other terms and σ* max is equal to unity. It is interesting to examine the meaning
of σ*max = 1 and determine under what conditions it is reached. The condition σ*max = 1 means that:

(17)
The product αT0 is the contraction in the material that would occur if the temperature were reduced by T 0
and the material was allowed to contract freely. If shrinkage is completely avoided by applying stress,
then αT0 is the elastic strain, which must be induced in the material to prevent this shrinkage, and this
strain multiplied by the elastic modulus becomes the stress to be applied.

The term (1-µ) results from the fact that the problem is for an infinite plate, in which equal stresses are
applied in two perpendicular directions. In this case, EαT0/ (1-µ) is the stress that must be applied in two
perpendicular directions to completely avoid any contraction in the material. Therefore, for very large
values of ah/ k, equation (9) states that the developed stress is sufficient to avoid any thermal expansion.
To obtain an index of merit, to classify materials under conditions of very large β, equation (14) is
rewritten as equation (18), which suggests that this index is now σb/ Eα; and it is seen that the
conductivity factor has disappeared in comparison with the index kσb/ Eα.

(18)
The implication is that no matter what the conductivity of the material is, the temperature that can be
supported is proportional to σb/ Eα. Physically, this result can be understood by examining the meaning
of very large β, a condition that can occur if a is very large, if h is very large, or if k is very small. If a is
very large, it means that the test body is very large and that the temperature of the surface layers can be
reduced to that of the surrounding medium, before any change in temperature occurs in most of the body.
The surface layers cannot contract because to do so they would have to deform the rest of the body, and
this cannot be achieved for a very large body. Therefore, in this case, a complete contraction constraint is
imposed, and the stress developed is EαT0/ (1-µ), regardless of the actual conductivity value. Similarly,
for a large heat transfer coefficient h, the same result can be expected. The surface is reduced to the
temperature of the surrounding medium before the rest of the body has had time to respond to the
imposed temperature difference. Therefore, a complete shrinkage restriction is imposed, and the stress
developed is independent of conductivity. Finally, if the conductivity is very small, again only the surface
layers can take account of the imposed thermal shock conditions, leaving the rest of the body essentially
at the initial temperature. Again, a complete restriction is imposed against thermal shrinkage and the
stress is independent of the precise value of k, provided it is very small.

4. CONCLUSIONS

It was possible to obtain an expression to relate the physical and mechanical properties of the metal with
the parameters of the steam, which reaches the turbine and thus know at any time, the risk of failure due
to thermal shock. Furthermore, it is now possible to determine which of the elements adjacent to the
turbine must function correctly so as not to induce thermal shock. During the normal operation of the
steam turbine, the greatest risk of the occurrence of thermal shock is constituted by breakdowns in
equipment and systems peripheral to it, in addition to operating errors during starts, stops and load
changes. That is the reason why the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in its ASME
TDP-1-1998 procedures developed practices, which are recommended for the prevention of water
induction damage to steam turbines. Most steam turbines were designed and installed before the
publication of the initial version of the standard in 1985. However, the standard provides excellent
recommendations for minimizing water induction.

To detect and reduce the probability of induction of fresh water or steam in steam turbines, the following
basic requirements are suggested as a minimum [18]:

 Test the non-return valves (VRN) in the extraction.

 Install thermocouples and monitor the temperature in the extraction lines.
 Ensure that seals and casing drainage is free, that valves installed downstream of the drains are
in the proper position, that drains are properly connected, do not restrict flow, and that drain
lines they actually drain down.
 Ensure that the feedwater heater indicators are kept at the required levels and that the level
detector alarms are added.
 Ensure that the low drain points of the steam head, main steam shutoff valve and neck valve,
control valve, and draw valves are in the proper position for draining and that the lines drain to
down, not up.
  Ensure that the spray tempering control valves are closed when the boiler fuel fails and during
turbine firing and that there is a block or shutoff valve, in series with the spray control valve, to
ensure that there are no leaks to the turbine.
 Monitor the difference in thermocouple readings on the upper and lower halves of the turbine
housing. A large difference between the halves and/ or a cooler lower half could be indicative of
water induction.
From the previous results it can be ensured that there are two heat shock parameters at the extremes of the
β scale, kσb/ Eα and σb/ Eα. Buessem [25] has emphasized that both thermal shock parameters are
necessary to fully determine the thermal shock resistance of a material. The merit of equation (9) is that it
provides a simple formula to determine the relative roles of the two parameters in the full range of β [15].

In this way, we have the expression (14), which makes it possible to assess the maximum temperature,
which is capable of supporting the metal of the steam turbine elements in the event of a thermal shock.
The value of this temperature depends on the properties of the metal and the geometry of the elements, as
well as their metallurgical properties. Since during the normal operation of the turbine, there is no
possibility of monitoring the changes that occur in these magnitudes, they will be considered constant,
between maintenance periods. The registered value of the temperature constitutes "the load", while "the
resistance to thermal shock", will be found from the values determined by the mechanical properties of
the metal.

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