Core 2

Body In Motion
How do the musculoskeletal & cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and
respond to movement?

Skeletal system

Major bones involved in movement

206 Bones
600 Muscles

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Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy = study of body structure + relationship between them

Physiology = study of how body works + various functions of body parts

FUNCTION
• Protect vital organs
• Support - framework for muscles, tissue, organs
• Movement
• Mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus)
• Blood cell production (blood cell formation occurs within red bone marrow)

ANATOMICAL TERMS

• Anterior – towards front Medial – towards midline (nose is medial to ears)

• Posterior – towards back Lateral – towards side of body (ears lateral to nose)

• Superior – towards head Proximal – towards body’s mass (shoulder proximal to elbow)

• Inferior – towards feet Distal – away from body’s mass (elbow distal to shoulder)

Axial and Appendicular Skeletons

Axial skeleton = Frame of Skeleton

Appendicular = stems off from frame (appendices)

Vertebral Column

• Protects spinal cord (24 movable elements)

- 7 cervical vertebrae
- 12 thoracic vertebrae
- 5 lumbar vertebrae

- 5 fused bones in sacrum

- 4 fused bones in coccyx

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Classification Description Example

Long Bones • Longer than they are wide • Clavicle

• They function to support weight • Humerus
of body + assist with movement • Radius
• Ulna
• Femur
• Tibia
• Fibula
• Metacarpals
• Metatarsals
• Phalanges

Short Bones • Slightly cube shaped • Carpools

• Nearly equal in length and width • Tassels
• Provide support and stability • Patella
+ assist with movement
• Provide bone marrow to produce
blood cells

Flat Bones • Thin + have broad surface • Cranium

• Serve as places of attachment • Sternum
for muscles and vital organs • Ribs
• Scapula
• Pelvis

Irregular • Complex shapes + don’t fit into • Vertebrate

any category • Sacrum
• Strong • Mandible
• Limited movement

Note: Anatomical position = anterior

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Joints (articulations)

Features
• Bones are rigid
• Joints provide mobility
• A joint (articulation) = point at which bones articulate with each other
• Resistance to forces

Function & Stability of a joint is determined by:

• Way in which the articulating bones bit together

• Flexibility of connective tissue binding the joint
• Position of muscles, tendons and ligaments around joint

THREE CATEGORIES
Fibrous
• No movement
• Bones fused together
e.g. Cranium

Cartilaginous
• Limited movement
• Bones held together by cartilage
e.g. cartilage disks that lie between each vertebrae

Synovial
• Freely moveable
• Account for most joints in body
e.g. ball and socket join in hip

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 Structure and function of synovial joints

Fibrous (Synarthroses)
Cartilaginous (Amphiarthroses)
Synovial (Diarthroses)

Joint/Articular Capsule • Holds synovial fluid in place

• 2 layers, dense fibrous on outside

Hyaline/Articular Cartilage • Found on surface of bone

• Absorbs forces + prevent injuries to bone

Synovial membrane

Synovial fluid • Decrease friction

• Lubricates
• Fluid heats up in movement – allowing greater movement
• Contains phagocytic cells – prevents infection

Bursae • Fluid-filled sac that cushions joint + reduces friction

Tendons Dense connective tissue – bone to muscle

Ligaments • Dense connective tissue – bone to bone

• Extra support

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Synovial Joint Definition Examples
Hinge Convex end of one bone fits into Elbow
concave end of another Knee

Pivot Central bone pivot surrounded by bone Wrist

Condyloid Modified ball & socket Knuckles (not thumb)

- Concave & convex articulation

Plane/Gliding Flat surface on flat surface Vertebrae

Saddle Two bones fit into each other Thumb

Ball & Socket Head of one bone fits into concave part Pelvis and Femur
of other
- Almost all movements

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 Joint actions e.g. extension and flexion

Different Joint Actions

Flexion Decreasing the angle between two bones
e.g. bending elbow

Extension Increasing the angle between two bones

e.g. straightening elbow

Adduction Movement of a bone towards midline of body

Abduction Movement of a bone away from midline of body

e.g. star jump

Rotation Movement of a body part around central axis

e.g. turning head side to side

Circumduction Movement of the end of the bone in circular motion

e.g. tennis serve, drawing circle with straight arm

Joint Specific Actions

Supination Rotation of hand = thumb outwards + palm faces upwards
(palm up/superior)

Pronation Rotation of hand – thumb inwards + palm faces down

(palm down)

Inversion Rotating the sole of the foot inwards

e.g. twisting angle

Eversion Rotating the sole of the foot outwards

Dorsiflexion Pointing foot towards shin

Plantar flexion Pointing foot away from shin

Elevation
Lifting shoulders up e.g. shrugging

Depression
Movement of shoulders away form head e.g. resting position

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 Muscular system

Major muscles involved in movement

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Terms
• 600 muscles
• Role of muscles = to contract
• Muscles only pull – not push
• Muscles – origin and an intersection

Origin
where muscle attaches to stationary bone

Insertion
where muscle attaches to movable bone

Action
Movement made at joint when muscle contracts

Types of Muscles
• Skeletal – muscles attached to bones via tendons
• Cardiac – heart
• Smooth – protects organs + helps blood flow

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Muscle relationship – The Role of Muscles (agonist, antagonist, stabiliser)

Agonist
Muscle causes action to happen
e.g. bicep brachii in bicep curl

Antagonist
Muscles that relaxes + lengthens to allow action to occur
e.g. triceps

Stabiliser
Stabilises joint to allow action to occur
e.g. gluteus maximus in hamstring curl

Bicep Curl – Bending Elbow

Agonist (biceps)
Antagonist (triceps)
Stabiliser (deltoids)

Types of muscle contraction

Isometric Contractions
(think metric – long time, planks)

• Muscle develops tension BUT no change in length

• No movement

e.g. plank, wall sit, sprint start

Isotonic (dynamic) Contractions

• Muscle develops tension + changes in length

• Muscles move

Concentric Isotonic
Muscle shortens under tension

Eccentric Isotonic
Muscle lengthens under tension
e.g. biceps extending in downward phase

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 Respiratory system

Structure and function

transfer oxygen from air to blood

remove waste product (Carbon Dioxide)

Works in conjunction with cardiovascular system

Movement
• Delivery of oxygen to muscles + removal of waste products = essential for movement

Link all systems

respiratory system oxygen to muscles (cardio system) allows muscles to contract
(concentrically/ecc) across joints

Air passes through nostrils through nasal passages into cavity

Air moves into pharynx – through larynx – down trachea
Air enters bronchi – into bronchioles – into air sacs (alveoli)

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Structure and Function

Mouth/Nose
• Provides warm moist passage for air

Nasal cavity
• Contains cilia (fine hairs) which filter air + remove bacteria
• Warms area

Pharynx (throat)
• Connects nasal cavity/mouth to larynx
• Pathway for food + air

Larynx (voice box)

• Contains vocal cords that vibrate to produce sound as air passes

Trachea (wind pipe)

• Hollow tube kept open + strengthened by rings of cartilage
• Produces mucus
• Cilia lining to remove dust

Bronchi
• Trachea delivers into 2 bronchi (left/right lung)

Bronchioles
• Delivers to alveoli

Alveoli
• Gaseous exchange occurs (Oxygen in & CO2 out0
• Surrounded by capillaries

Effective
- Thin walls – allows for diffusion
- Large surface area
- Walls are moist

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Lung function (inspiration and expiration)

INSPIRATION
• Diaphragm (imporant)
• Oxygen to create energy
• Diaphragm & intercostal muscles contract

Diaphragm moves downwards increasing volume of thoracic cavity (chest)

Decreasing air pressure

EXPIRATION
• Carbon dioxide produced as waste product
• Diaphragm & intercostal muscles relax
• Returns to original volume

Increasing air pressure

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Exchange of gases bracket (internal, external)
Exchange of gases (internal, external)

Boyle’s Law
• When there is difference in gases – these gases will move to achieve equilibrium

Gaseous Exchange

External (pulmonary) respiration

• Exchange of O & CO2 between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries

deoxygenated blood = oxygenated blood

(blood collecting oxygen)

Internal (tissue) respiration

• Exchange of O & CO2 between capillaries and tissue cells

oxygenated blood = deoxygenated blood

(carbon dioxide move into capillaries to exit tissue
while oxygen enters tissues)

At rest, only 25% of oxygen in blood enters cells

Effect of Physical Activity on Respitation

Vital Capacity
amount of air forced out of lungs

Residual Volume
leftover air after forcibly exhaling

Total Lung Volume

Vital capacity & Residual volume

rate (frequency) & depth (tidal) of breathing increases (demand for oxygen/lactic acid)

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Explain how gas exchange occurs in body
• External and Internal respiration

How does asthma affect gas exchange?

• Affects bronchi – Ventolin relaxes diaphragm muscles

How does swimming develop the respiratory system?

• Air above the pool is moist
• Improves cardiovascular endurance

Circulatory system

Structure
• Heart – pumps blood around body
• Blood – carries 02, food and waste
• Blood vessels – pathway for blood

Function
1) Transports materials
e.g. O & CO2, nutrients to cells, removal of waste, transport hormones

2) Fight infections
3) Stabilise pH level (body temp)
4) Maintaining body temp by transporting heat throughout body

Components of blood
• Plasma
• WBCs
• RBCs
• Platelets

Blood plasma (55%)

Blood cells (45%)

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Plasma
• Yellow
• 90% water
• Carries nutrients e.g. hormones, electrolytes, waste products

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

• Formed in bone marrow
• Carries O and CO2 around body
• Contains haemoglobin (red colour + transports O)

Red outnumbers white 700-1

White Blood Cells (leucocytes)

• Formed in bone marrow & lymph nodes
• Protect against disease

• Types – Phagocytes (engulf), Lymphocytes (produce antibodies)

Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Aid clotting (+)

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Structure and function of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries

Heart

2 Roles
• Deoxygenated blood to lungs
• Oxygenated blood around body

Structure of Heart

Four chambers
• Left & Right Atrium (receive blood coming back to heart)
• Left & Right Ventricle (pump blood to body – thick & strong)

x4 one way valves

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Blood Vessels one way

Arteries
• Thick walled

leaves heart (high pressure)

Veins
• Thin walled w valves to prevent back flow

enters heart from body (from vena cava)

- Except pulmonary vein – enters heart from lungs

Capillaries
• Thin & fragile
• 1 cell thick – provides opportunity for diffusion to occur
• Exchange of O2 & CO2 + movement of nutrients/waste

Heart Arteries Arterioles Capillaries (exchange of O/CO2)

Capillaries Veins Heart

Pulmonary & Systemic circulation

• Heart = double pump (serves 2 circulations)

Pulmonary Circulation
- From heart (right side) to lungs then back

Deoxygenated blood enters right atrium via

(vena cavas)
Into right ventricle – lungs via pulmonary arteries
– O/CO2 exchange

Systemic Circulation
- From heart (left side) to body tissues then back to right side

Oxygenated blood enters left atrium via 4 pulmonary veins

Into left ventricle – aorta – body

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Blood Pressure (BP)

• Pressure exerted on arteries

• Pressure fluctuates to meet body’s needs

Factors affecting BP
- Emotional state (stress), exercise and sleep

High BP = risk of heart attack, heart failure or kidney disease

Low BP = (usually youths) = healthy

Systolic
= concentration (blood pumped out)

Diastolic
= relaxation phase (blood fills chambers)

Blood volume
Amount of blood in body (↑body weight = ↑volume)

Blood viscosity
Concentration of blood (thickness)

Measuring Blood Pressure

• Sphygmomanometer
• 120/80

120 – systolic blood pressure

80 – diastolic blood pressure

Explain the structure and function of the heart

• Define
• How (structure/chambers etc) + why (cause and effect)

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 “What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement
efficiency?

Measuring components of fitness

• Provides us with an accurate measure of our current athletic capacity
• Highlights areas of strength and areas of improvement

Physical fitness
refers to the ability to exercise without experiencing excessive fatigue while having enough
energy in reserve for basic movements.

• An improvement in the health-related components will assist personal health and

lifestyle, including lowering the risk of hypokinetic disease.

Health-related Components of Physical Fitness

Health-related components of fitness is a multidimensional construct involving components
that affect an individual’s ability to perform physical activity and day-to day activities.

Cardiorespiratory endurance (stamina)

Refers to the ability of the working muscles, specifically the heart and lungs, to remove waste
and take up and utilise the oxygen that has been breathed in during exercise and transferred to
the cells. It is important in endurance events such as cycling and marathon running.

Purpose
Allows athletes to work continuously e.g. in running, swimming and cycling

Tests
• Multistage fitness test (beep test)
• Bicycle ergometry

Improving cardiorespiratory endurance

Increasing exercise intensity & increasing duration of training sessions

Muscular strength
Muscular strength is the ability to exert force against a resistance in a single maximal effort.
It is essential in sports such as weight-lifting and wrestling

• Muscular strength can be isometric or isotonic

Purpose
Important in weightlifting, wrestling, and rugby

Tests
• Grip strength dynamometer
• 1 RM test (RM = repetition maximum)

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Muscular endurance
Muscular endurance is the ability of the muscles to endure physical work for extended periods
of time without excessive fatigue.
Running for long periods of time such as in a marathon requires considerable muscular
endurance because the same muscle groups are contracting repeatedly.

Purpose
Important in Cross fit, boxing, rowing and team sports such as football and basketball

Tests
• Push up or sit up test
• Wall sit test

Improve Muscular Strength and Muscular Endurance

Improve muscular strength Improve muscular endurance

• Heavy weight • Light weight

• Low repetitions (6-12) • High repetitions (15-20)
• Long rest between sets (1-1.5 min) • Short rest between sets (30 secs)
• 3-4 sets • 3-5 sets

Flexibility
Flexibility is the range of motion about a joint or the ease of joint movement in performing a
full range of motion.
It is important for injury prevention and in slowing muscle shrinkage as a result of the ageing
process.

Purpose
Avoiding injury & enhancing performance

Tests
• Sit and reach test
• Goniometer

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Body composition
Body composition refers to the percentage of fat as opposed to lean body mass in the body.
• Healthy body composition = 45% muscle tissue & 10-20% fat

• A certain amount of fat is essential to protect and insulate vital organs.

• Excess fat is called storage fat and is useful as a source of fuel in endurance events,
however, high levels of excess fat hinder athletic performance in most events.

Tests
• BMI (Body Mass Index - weight(kg)/height(m2)

Skill-Related Components of Physical Fitness

(Skill Related Components of Physically Active Bodies)

Skill-related components of fitness relate explicitly to the skills required to perform efficiently in
sport, containing the components agility, coordination, muscular power, balance, speed, and
reaction time.

Speed
Speed is the ability to perform body movements quickly.
It is essential in sprint events e.g. 100m and fast-paced sports such as basketball.

→ 50m sprint test

Reaction time
= time taken to respond to a stimulus.
It is important in swimming and athletic starts such as launching off the blocks at the start of a
100m race
e.g. catching a ball during an intercept in a basketball game

→ ruler drop test

Coordination
= involves the smooth and efficient movement of body parts, contributing to the aesthetic
quality of a movement.
Coordination requires robust interaction between the brain and the muscles,
e.g. catching an NFL ball while sprinting

→ wall ball toss

Muscular Power
Muscular power is the ability to combine strength and speed in a quick, explosive action.
It is importing for events such as running, shot-put and box jumps

→ vertical jump test

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Agility
Agility is the ability to change speed and the position with finesse, that is, precision and balance.
It is important in most team games.

→ Illinois agility test

Balance
Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium, that is, keep the body upright while either
stationary or moving.

Two types of balance

• static (maintaining equilibrium while stationary)
• dynamic (maintaining equilibrium while moving)

e.g. beam routine (dynamic) frog balance or handstand (static)

→ balance board test

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Aerobic and Anaerobic Training
Training designed to develop aerobic capacity (sustained continuous activity) & anaerobic
capacity (powerful and explosive movement)

• Most sports require energy utilising both aerobic & anaerobic pathways

Aerobic Training
Exercise that is sustainable, of low to moderate intensity, and is dependent on the body’s
oxygen utilisation for the muscles to function
e.g. Marathon, 400m swim, & triathlon are examples of activities that draw their energy from
aerobic metabolism

• Aerobic = ‘with oxygen’

• The FITT principle is used to adapt aerobic training programs to individual needs
• Aerobic exercise is dependent on oxygen to function muscles
→ low-moderate intensity (90secs+) → because oxygen becomes available to cells of
working muscles for energy generation

FITT Principle (improve cardiorespiratory system)

Used to adapt aerobic training programs to individual needs

Principle Stands for... Example...

F Frequency 3-5 days / week

I Intensity 70-80% MHR

T Time 20-30mins + duration

T Type Running, swimming 90 secs +

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 Frequency: How regularly you train
• Train at least 3/week – increase to 5/week
• Aims to stress body systems resulting in adaptation response as a result of increases in
training intensity
• Adaptations – better utilisation of O2 by muscle cells, higher lung capacity, more
efficient pumping of blood

Intensity: effort required to obtain a fitness benefit

e.g. minimum intensity 60-75%, max = 70-80%
• Intensity needs to be at a sufficient level to maintain target heart rate for duration of
the exercise
• Training sedentary person – 60% of MHR
• Target Heart Rate (THR) = 70-85% of MHR (you will have lower and upper limit)

Time: min of 20-30+ mins with heart rate in THR zone to achieve aerobic benefit
• Can be less or more depending on fitness level
• 6 weeks = min period for adaptations to take place

Type: Continuous exercise that uses large muscle groups e.g. running, cycling, swimming
• Aerobic training methods – continuous, fartlek, interval, circuit
• Aerobic fitness improves as cardiorespiratory system adapts to demands
• adaptations: lowering RHR

Examples of TYPE
Aerobic Training Types Definition

Continuous Continuous exercise at same pace/intensity e.g. jogging

Fartlek training Speed play - change intensity within continuous exercise e.g. Indian file
running

Interval training Alternating short intervals of intense activity with long intervals of less
intense activity
e.g. all out exercise then short rest

Circuit training Combination of various activities – aerobic training zone

e.g. skipping, box jumps, squats (70-85%)

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 Anaerobic Training
Involves activities where the level of intensity is high (85% or higher)for a short period of time
e.g. 100m and 200m sprints are forms of anaerobic training aimed at promoting lactate
tolerance and the functioning of the muscles with the absence of oxygen.

• less than 2mins at 85%+ intensity

• Anaerobic = ‘absence of oxygen’

• Intensity level much higher (85%+)
• Muscular work takes place without O2 present
• Higher intensity = improved performance

Can be used for some types of anaerobic training

F - 3-4 days/week
I - 85% +
T - 30 - 45 mins (w breaks)
T - high reps

Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic

Aerobic Anaerobic
Fitness Cardiorespiratory endurance, Speed, power, agility
components muscular endurance, body
composition
(AFL)

Warm up Short, low intensity Sustained (20min+), gradual increase

(AFL) in intensity

Goals Stamina, endurance, lung capacity Force, power, body mass, speed
(AFL)

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Immediate physiological responses to training
Training causes an immediate physiological increase in heart rate, ventilation rate, stroke
volume, cardiac output and lactate levels.

- Heart rate
- Ventilation rate
- Stroke volume
- Cardiac output
- Lactate levels

Heart rate (↑)

Heart rate refers to the number of times the heart beats per minute (bpm).
As a result of starting exercise, the heart rate increases and reaches a steady state during
sustained moderate activity such as running.

↑ heart rate (to pump more O2 around body) = ↑ intensity

HR rises sharply when the body goes from inactive to active

• HR = beats/min
• RHR – avg 72bpm
• Low RHR = efficient cardiovascular system
• Fit person HR reaches a steady state (O2 uptakes remains at a steady state) vs. unfit
person fluctuates
Fit person – takes longer for HR to escalate when exercise has started

1. INITIAL
• HR ↑ before exercise
• HR ↑ rapidly and then plateaus once a constant effort is maintained

2. DURING
• Heart rate fluctuates from plateau in response to changes in intensity
• Fit person = O2 uptakes and hence HR reaches a steady state v unfit person fluctuates

3. AFTER
• Body replenishes oxygen supplies & removes waste (carbon dioxide & lactic acid)
• Fitter athlete = replenish oxygen faster – back to RHR faster
• 48 hrs to replenish glycogen (repair tears → protein)

Response During Exercise

1. breath deeper and faster
2. HR ↑ to pump more O2 around body
3. Arterioles widen to stop blood pressure increasing
4. Blood diverted away from inactive organs (stomach/liver) towards working muscles
5. Muscles contract – deliver deoxygenated blood to heart

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Ventilation rate (↑)
Refers to the rate and depth of breathing (breaths/min)

VR Affected by 2 factors
number of breaths taken per minute
depth of each breath

Rest VR = about 12 breaths/min

• Exercise = ventilation response due to the demand for more oxygen by muscle cells
• Minute ventilation = the amount of air breathed in a minute (usually 6L)

During exercise
• Rate & depth intensifies = increase in O2 consumption and CO2 production

VR = no. breaths/min x volume of air/min (L/min)

Lactate levels (↑)

Lactic acid is a salt formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates without oxygen and increases
in the blood during exercise.

If exercise is vigorous, lactate increases rapidly and can inhibit performance.

For instance, the muscles bust be trained to tolerate lactic acid in anaerobic events such as
400m

• Accumulates during exercise above LIP (Lactate Inflection Point) which is 85-90% MHR
• Can be used as a fuel source
• hydrogen formed along w lactate

only affects performance when produced faster than it can be removed

lactate makes it difficult for muscles to contract

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Stroke volume (↑)
Refers to the amount, in mL, of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per contraction (ml).

• Exercise = SV ↑ as heart pumps more blood

Difference between fit and unfit people

• Fit: ↑ in volume of oxygenated blood to working muscles explains superior efficiency
of elite athletes

Subject Resting SV (mL) Max SV (mL)

Sedentary 50-70 80-110

Elite Athlete 90-110 150-220

Cardiac output (↑)

Quantity of blood pumped by the heart per minute

5L for everyone at rest

CO = SV x HR

During exercise
Since SV and HR increase in response to training, CO also increases in response to training

CO is constant at rest (balance each other out)

Inverse relationship

Unfit person at max exercise

• Higher HR and lower SV
• Can increase to 22L/in

Athlete at max exercise

• Lower HR but higher SV (more efficient)
• Can increase to 40L/min

Remember Difference between SV and CO

Cardiac output = Blood pumped per Minute

Stroke volume = Blood pumped per contraction

- Cardiac output incorporates SV

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 Biomechanics
Study of the body as a machine

• Internal (muscles) & external forces (e.g. friction) that act on the body

Importance of understanding biomechanics

- correct technical errors
- reduce injury
- improve efficiency

Motion (movement)
Movement of a body part (or object) from one position to another

• Can be full body e.g. in cycling, running, basketball

• 3 types of motion – linear / angular / general

Linear Motion
When the body travels the same distance in same direction, at same time at same speed

e.g. downhill skier in crouch position

All body parts are moving in the same direction and at the same time

Angular Movement
Motion in a circular movement around a central point

Examples
- Treading water
- Spinning discus throw
- Bowling a cricket ball

General Motion
Combination of linear and angular motion

Examples
- Runner has linear motion of torso yet angular motion of arms & legs,
- Cycling

Note: most sports = general motion

Note: some movements can be purely linear or angular

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Displacement & Distance

Displacement = length of space between the start and end points, if connected in a straight

Measured ‘as the crow flies’

e.g. cross country

- distance = 5km,
- displacement = 1km

Velocity & Speed

Speed = how quickly body is moving
Velocity = how quickly + direction

Speed and velocity are equal only if movement occurs in a straight line

Speed
S = distance/t

Genetics impacts our potential for speed – type of muscle fibres

We have a percentage of fast twitch fibres – we can change that by only 10%

Velocity
V = displacement/t

e.g. velocity of the javelin – increasing velocity upon release (45 degrees) = increased
displacement = increased efficiency

Javelin of 70 and 45 degrees = same distance, but different displacement due to velocity

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Acceleration/Deceleration/Momentum
Acceleration = positive acceleration
Deceleration = negative acceleration

Important
e.g. rugby player carrying ball needs accelerate to apply force on defender

• Power and speed + techniques = maximise acceleration

Acceleration
Rate at which velocity is increasing or decreasing

Stationary – velocity = zero

Momentum
Momentum = mass (kg) X velocity (m/s)
M = mv

Momentum is advantageous in collision sport

• Once a body is in motion, it will stay in motion (unless acted upon by another force)

e.g. bowling bowl heavy ball released at higher speed = more momentum

Note
Momentum measured in kg/m/s

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Component Definition Formula
Distance (m) Full length SxT

Displacement (m) The length of space between start and N/A

end, if connected in a straight

Speed (m/s) how quickly body is moving Distance / time

Velocity (m/s) how quickly + direction Displacement / time

Acceleration (m/s2) Rate at which velocity is increasing V2-V1 / time

Deceleration (m/s2) Rate at which velocity is decreasing V2-V1 / time will be neg

Momentum (kg/m/s) Quantity of motion of a moving body M = mv

Balance and Stability

1. Static balance – body is at rest
2. Dynamic balance – body is moving

Three aspects related to balance and stability

- Centre of gravity
- Line of support
- Base of support

Centre of Gravity
An imaginary point around which the body or object is balanced

COG depends upon how the body parts are arranged

e.g. the position of arms and legs relative to the trunk

Males have a higher COG than females due to the wider

shoulders and smaller hips

In some sports, COG changes rapidly e.g. high jump, diving, gymnastics

COG will be located closer toward mass (heavy parts)

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Example
The Fosbury flop – COG travels under the bar effective

Examples of when COG is modified to maintain stability

e.g. gymnastics, high jump, surfing

Line of Gravity
Represented by drawing a straight line from COG to the ground

Most stable when the Line of Gravity falls through the centre of Base of Support

• Because it increases the distance that the Centre of Gravity can be moved before
balance is compromised

• COG off-centre from base of support = less stable

Base of Support
Refers to an imaginary area that surrounds outside edge of body when it is in contact with a
surface

• Larger area of the base of support = greater stability

e.g. small feet = less stability

• A wide base of support = COG located within the boundaries = stability

Examples
- Pirouette – must ensure COG remains at base
- Tennis player receiving serve –widen stance

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 Fluid Mechanics
Forces that operate in water and air environments

For an object to float it must be less dense than the water is

displaces

Flotation
Sports require movement through fluid to be fast and efficient

For example
- Swimming in salt water is easier than fresh water.
salt concentration = float

Efficiency of movement
technique + equipment/clothing

• Average weight density of a human is equal to that of water

• If our weight density is low (more fat) = body floats

• Body tissues have a specific density

e.g. bones more dense

• Total body density = determining factor in flotation

Centre of Buoyancy
Point at which all the buoyancy forces are balanced

IMPORTANT
When centre of buoyancy line up with centre of gravity = float

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Fluid Resistance (Drag)

• Air less dense than water

Fluid resistance increases in proportion to the speed of movement squared

Examples
If speed goes from 1m/s to 2m/s, amount of resistance will be quadrupled.

• 4 times faster than someone else = 16 times more drag

Cyclists aim to reduce drag but marathon runners don’t

Factors Affecting Drag

Fluid density

Shape
• If body is streamlined at the front = less drag = less resistance

Surface
• Smooth surface = less drag = less resistance e.g. smooth row boat

Size of frontal area

• If front of a person or object is large = increased resistance

Two Types of Drag

Surface drag (skin friction)

Caused by friction between an object and fluid around it

Amount of surface drag is caused by

- Density of fluid
- Smoothness of object
- Surface area

e.g. rowing boats or Cathy Freeman’s suit

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Profile Drag (form drag)
Determined by shape + size of an object & how the fluid moves around it

• Air pocket (cavitation) is produced behind moving object

Examples
Anything tapered – shape at back of object = reduces size of cavity = reducing drag
e.g. thin bike

Developments
- Technique – Cyclists bend forward at the trunk
- Tactics – distance cyclists follow one another
- Clothing – tight bodysuits reduce friction
- Equipment design e.g. dimples in golf balls

Therefore,
understanding pressure + drag = equipment = efficiency

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 Force
The push or pulling of the body or an object

Measured in Newtons (N)

- 10 N required to lift a mass of 1kg

Internal vs External

Internal External
• Developed within the body • Outside body
• The muscles that contract to exert a force • Gravity, friction, fluid resistance
on bones, cartilage or ligaments around a
joint

Applied & Reaction forces

Applied forces
• Generated by muscles
• Applied to surfaces e.g. running track

Reaction forces
• Equal and opposite forces exerted in response to applied forces

e.g. a runner on a track

greater the force the runner can produce = greater the resistance from the track = faster

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Law 1
An object is at rest or moving at a constant speed (inertia) unless acted upon by an external
force

Law 2
Rate of change in motion is proportional to the force causing it
F = ma

Law 3
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

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How the body absorbs force

5 Ways
A force produced by a large area has less impact than a small area
e.g. standing on food with heel hurts more than with flat shoes

Minimising force though flexing of joints

e.g. landing from jump

Changing the impact from direct to oblique = lessen force

e.g. boxer turning his head while being punched

Absorb the force with equipment and not body parts

e.g. boxing gloves

Increasing the time absorption

e.g. catching a cricket ball

Applying force to an object

• Greater force = greater acceleration

More force for heavier mass

• If the mass of an object is heavier, more force is needed

Summation of forces
Adding up forces applied by different body parts = maximum force

Summation of force is influenced by

- no. of body parts used
- Order and timing of their movement
- Force and velocity
- Balance and stability

e.g. sprinters usually do well in long jump

END OF CORE 2 NOTES

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