Lecture 4: Microwave Amplifiers (1)
Gain (dB): power gain
Component focus: bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field-
effect transistors (FET).
The design techniques: employ the full range of concepts of
microwave transmission lines, two-port networks and Smith chart
presentation.
Heavily used S-parameters: The development of S-parameter
matrix concepts grew from the need to characterize active devices
and amplifiers in a form that recognized the need for matched
termination rather than short- or open-circuit termination.
Microwave amplifiers for our consideration in this lecture:
Small signal so that superposition applies,
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Third order
intermodulation
output power
IP3
Dynamic range of a realistic amplifier
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Specifications of Microwave Amplifiers:
Mismatch (or return loss, or VSWR)
Stability: The amplifiers must not oscillate at any frequencies, for the range of
source and load impedances expected.
Noise figure: how much noise the amplifier adds compared to background noise.
1 dB compression: the input power level where the output power deviates from
linear by 1 dB. Affected by bias point and supply rails. Tied to dynamic range and
power consumption.
2-tone 3rd order intercept point (IP3): When two tones (two close frequencies
ω1 and ω2) are present with equal amplitudes at the input, the output exhibits an
intermodulation product. IP3 is where the extrapolated 3rd order intermodulation
product intersects the extrapolated linear output.
Dynamic range: The difference between the maximum allowable and minimum
detectable input signals.
Power consumption: DC power consumption
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Modeling of Microwave Transistors and Packages
The S parameters of a given microwave transistor can be derived from transistor
equivalent circuit models based on device physics, or they can be measured
directly. Generally, a manufacturer of a device intended for microwave
applications will provide extensive S-parameter data to permit accurate design of
microwave amplifiers. This can be verified by measurement, a step that has
proven important on many occasions.
For a bipolar junction transistor, in addition to intrinsic device parameters such
as base resistance and collector-base capacitance, amplifier performance is
strongly affected by the so-called parasitic elements associated with the device
package, including base-lead and emitter-lead inductance internal to the package.
Similar considerations apply to microwave field-effect transistors.
The magnitude and phase angle of each of the S parameters typically vary with
frequency, and characterization over the complete range of interest is necessary.
The S parameters also typically vary with bias. For large-signal applications,
bias-dependent S parameters need to be characterized and modeled.
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Features of interests for RF active devices:

(1) Maximum power gain bandwidth How do RFICs/MMICs look like?
(2) Minimum noise figure
(3) Maximum power-added efficiency
(4) Low thermal resistance
(5) High temperature of operation and reliability
(6) Low on-resistance/high off-resistance
(7) High linearity
(8) Low power dissipation
(9) Low leakage current under cut-off operation
(10) Low 1/f noise
(11) Multifunctionality
(12) Low single power supply
(13) Semi-insulating substrate
(14) Mature technology
(15) Low cost ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 7 ELEC518, Kevin Chen, HKUST 8
 GaAs MESFET An example of component values for a GaAs MESFET
• Gate barrier is formed by the Schottcky contact between the gate
metal and doped GaAs
• Higher operating frequency are achieved as a result of the higher
electron mobility of GaAs compared to that of Silicon.

S-parameter characteristics of a GaAs MESFET

2
Cross section of a typical
S 21 > 1 Representing the gain
Intrinsic small-signal
GaAs MESFET equivalent circuit S12 : S12 is solely determined by Cgd, which
is usually very small. In this case, the
Packaged MESFET model needs to include parasitics, such as
series resistance and inductance at each terminal.
device is said to be unilateral, and S
12 =0
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Unilateral current-gain cutoff frequency, fT • The choice of DC biasing points depends on the application (low-
noise, high-gain, high-power), the class of the amplifier (class A,
Short-circuit (at output) current Id g V g
Gisc = = m c = m class B, class AB).
gain under the unilateral condition
is defined as Ig Ig ωC gs • DC bias voltage must be applied to the gate and drain, without
fT is defined as the upper frequency limit when the short-circuit disturbing the RF signal paths.
gm
current gain is unity. fT = • The input and output decoupling capacitors are needed to block DC
2πC gs from the input and output lines.
Biasing and
DC characteristics decoupling
circuit

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Figure of merit:
Physical layout of a MESFET.
The maximum available gain
(MAG)
2
f  1
MAG =  T 
f
  4 R / Rds + 4π f T gd ( R + Rg + πf T LS )
C
Where,

R = Rg + Ri + RS + πfT LS
gm
fT =
2πC gs

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This shows that MAG rolls of by 6 dB/octave. The frequency at Si bipolar transistor (BJT)
which MAG is unity signifies the maximum frequency of operation
and is given by, Current driven

I e = I S [exp( qVbe / kT ) − 1]
f max = f T [4 R / Rds + 4πf T C gd ( R + Rg + πf T LS )]
−1 / 2

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 Small-signal equivalent circuit for a microwave
∂I q I ( mA) bipolar transistor
gm = c = α0 I e = e
∂Vbe kT 26
fT
2
f max =
8πrbCC
1 τec: the transit time, or the delay time
fT = from the emitter to collector Typical component values
2πτ ec fT is given by
gm
Preferred over GaAs FETs at frequencies fT =
below 2 to 4GHz (may not be true anymore) 2πCπ

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Heterostructure Field-Effect Transistors (HFETs) Heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBT)

High electron mobility transistor (HEMT) or Modulated doped
Key advantage: Higher emitter injection efficiency
FET (MODFET): for high carrier mobilities and speed

The doping profile of HBT

Energy band diagram of HBT
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 Two-port network for amplifier analysis
SiGe HBT

Objective: try to derive parameter expressions in terms of the

S-parameter of the network.
Pick your
position! Power Gain G, Available Gain GA, Transducer Gain GT:
But be PL power delivered to the load
G= =
flexible. Pin power input to the network
Pavout power available from the network
GA = =
Pavs power available from the source
PL power delivered to the load
GT = =
Pavs power available from the source
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When the input and output are both conjugately matched to the two- Power Gain Equations
port, all the gains are maximized and G = GA = GT . The equations for the various power gain definitions are
Definitions of Γ L, Γ s, Γ in and Γ out:
ZL - Zo PL 1 1 - lΓLl 2
ΓL = 1) G=P = lS21l2
ZL + Zo , the reflection coefficient of the load in 1 - lΓinl 2 l1 - S22ΓLl 2
Zs - Zo
Γs =
Zs + Zo , the reflection coefficient of the source Pavout 1 - lΓsl 2 1
Zin - Zo S12S21ΓL 2) GA = = lS l2
Γin = = S11+ , the input reflection coefficient
Pavs l1 - S11Γsl 2 21 1 - lΓoutl2
Zin + Zo 1-S22ΓL
Zout - Zo S12S21Γs
Γout = = S22 + , the output reflection coefficient PL 1 - lΓsl2 1 - lΓLl 2
Zout + Zo 1-S11Γs 3) GT = = lS21 l 2
Pavs l1 - ΓinΓsl2 l1 - S22ΓLl 2
A typical S-parameter table for a GaAs FET 1 - lΓsl 2 1 - l ΓLl2
f GHz S11 S21 S12 S22 = lS l 2
l1 - S11Γsl2 21 l1 - ΓoutΓLl2
3.0 0.80/-89° 2.86/99° 0.03/-56° 0.76/-41°
4.0 0.72/-116° 2.60/76° 0.03/-57° 0.73/-54° Read page 606-609 of Pozar for the derivation.
5.0 0.66/-142° 2.39/54° 0.03/-62° 0.72/-68°
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 For a unilateral network, S12=0 and
Model of a single-stage microwave transistor amplifier
1) Γin = S11 if S12=0 (unilateral network)
Zo
2) Γout = S22 if S12=0 (unilateral network)
Input Transistor Output
Matching Matching
We can then define the unilateral transducer power gain, GTU, Circuit
[S]
Go
Circuit Zo
which is given by
( )( )
Gs GL
2 2 2
S 21 1 − ΓS 1 − ΓL
GTU = 2 2 Γs Γ in Γout Γ
1 − S11ΓS 1 − S 22 ΓL L

The transducer gain GT can be expressed as the product of

three gain contributions

GT=GsGoGL, where

1 - lΓsl 2 1 - l ΓLl2
Go = lS21l 2 , Gs = and GL =
l1 - ΓinΓsl2 l1 - S22ΓLl2

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For a unilateral network, S12=0 and The components of GTU can also be expressed in decibel form, so that
1) Γin = S11 if S12=0 (unilateral network)
2) Γout = S22 if S12=0 (unilateral network) GTU (dB) = Gs (dB) + Go (dB) + GL (dB).

If the device is unilateral, or sufficiently unilateral so that S 12 is sm all We can maximize Gs and GL by setting Γs = S11* and ΓL = S22* so that
enough to be ignored, the unilateral transducer gain G TU is sim plified
because 1 1
Gsmax = and GLmax = , so that

GTU =
2
(
S 21 1 − ΓS
2
)(1 − Γ )
L
2 1 - lS11l2 1 - lS22l2
2 2
1 − S11ΓS 1 − S 22 ΓL 1 1
GTUmax = lS l2
1 - lS11l2 21 1 - lS22l2
1 - lΓ s l2
G sU = , where the subscript U indicates unilateral gain.
l1 - S 11 Γ s l2
Note that, if lS11l=1 or lS22l=1, GTUmax is infinite. This
In practice, the difference betw een G T and G TU is often quite sm all, as it raises the question of stability, which will be examined
is desirable for devices to be unilateral if possible. next.

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Stability
In a two-port network, oscillations are possible if the
magnitude of either the input or output reflection coefficient
is greater than unity, which is equivalent to presenting a
negative resistance at the port. This instability is
characterized by
lΓinl > 1 or lΓoutl > 1, which for a unilateral device implies
lS11l > 1 or lS22l > 1.
These are defined by circles, called stability circles, that delimit lΓinl
= 1 and lΓoutl = 1 on the Smith chart.
The radius and center of the output and input stability circles are
derived from the S parameters on (see pg. 613-614 of Pozar).
Output
stability circle

Thus the requirements for stability are Input stability

S12S21ΓL circle
lΓinl = lS11+
1-S22ΓL l
< 1 and
S12S21Γs
lΓoutl = lS22+
1-S11Γs l < 1 Where, ∆ = S11S22 − S12 S21
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Stable and unstable regions in the ΓL plane Stable and unstable regions in the ΓS plane
load stability circle Source stability circle

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Stability Consideration: Practical microwave transistors: unconditionally stable or
potentially unstable with K < 1 and ∆ < 1 .
Unconditional stable condition:
In potentially unstable transistors, most of the practical values of K
2 2 2
1 − S11 − S 22 + ∆ are such that 0 < K < 1 --- source and load stability circles
K= > 1 and
2 S12 S 21 intersect the boundary of the Smith chart.
If -1 < K < 0, most region of the Smith chart is unstable. Some
l∆l < 1, where ∆, the determinant of the scattering matrix, is transistor configurations (e.g. some CB configurations) used in
oscillator designs are potentially unstable with negative values of K.
∆ = S11S22 - S12S21
In the potentially unstable situations, the real part of the input and
Conditionally stable: K < 1, operating points for ΓS and ΓL must be output impedances can be negative for some source and load
chosen in the stable region, and it is good practice to check the stability reflection coefficients.
at several frequencies near the design frequency.

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Example: Solutions: conditionally stable at 500 MHz and 1GHz,

unconditionally stable at 2 GHz and 4 GHz.

Input stability circles output stability circles

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Resistive loading and negative feedback: improve stability Example: using a resistive loading to stabilize a potentially
unstable transistor
Even when the selection of ΓL and ΓS produces unstable operation,
the circuit can be made stable if the total input and output loop
resistance is positive
Re( Z s + Z in ) > 0
and Re( Z L + Z out ) > 0
Adding a resistive load or
adding negative feedback.

Not recommended in narrowband amplifiers because of the resulting

degradation in power gain, noise figure, and VSWRs.
Narrowband amplifier design with potentially unstable transistors is
best done by the proper selection of ΓL and ΓS to ensure stability.
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All four choices of

resistive loading affect the
gain performance of the
amplifier.
In practice, resistive
loading at the input is not
used because it produces a
significant deterioration in
the noise performance of
the amplifier.
Shunt resistor loading at
the output produces the
most acceptable trade-off
between gain and stability
and is most used in
practice.
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