Biomedical Instrumentation

Bioelectric Signals:
The human body is composed of living tissues, can be
considered as a power station generating multiple electrical
signals with two internal sources, namely muscles and
nerves.
Potential differences (measurable with suitably placed
electrodes) are generated by:
❖physiological processes (Normal muscular contraction)
❖Electrochemical activity along the nerves to or from the
brain.
Bioelectric potentials are generated at a cellular level and
the source of these potentials is ionic in nature.
Surrounding the cells of the body are body fluids, which are
ionic and which provide a conducting medium for electric
potentials. The principal ions involved with the phenomena
of producing cell potentials are sodium (Na+), potassium
(K+) and chloride (Cl–).
The distribution of positively charged ions on the outer
surface and negatively charged ions inside the cell
membrane results in the difference of potential across it
and the cell becomes, in effect, a tiny biological battery.
Experiments have shown that the internal resting potential within a cell is approximately -90mV
with reference to the outside of the cell.
When the cell is excited or stimulated, the outer side of the
cell membrane becomes momentarily negative with respect
to the interior. This process is called depolarization and the
cell potential changes to approximately +20 mV.

Repolarization then takes place a short time later when the

cell regains its normal state in which the inside of the
membrane is again negative with respect to the outside.
Repolarization is necessary in order to re-establish the
resting potential. This discharging and recharging of the cell
produces the voltage waveforms which can be recorded by
suitable methods using microelectrodes.

The bioelectric signals of clinical interest, which are often

recorded, are produced by the coordinated activity of large
groups of cells. In this type of synchronized excitation of
many cells, the charges tend to migrate through the body
fluids towards the still unexcited cell areas. Such charge
migration constitutes an electric current and hence sets up
potential differences between various portions of the body,
including its outer surface.
Such potential differences can be conveniently picked up by
placing conducting plates (electrodes) at any two points on
the surface of the body and measured with the help of a
sensitive instrument. These potentials are highly significant
for diagnosis and therapy.
The primary characteristics of typical bioelectric signals are
given in Table

Definitions of Electrodes Types

❖ Surface electrodes: A small device that is attached to the
skin to measure or cause electrical activity in the tissue
under it. may be used to look for problems with muscles
and nerves
❖ Scalp electrodes: The electrode is then attached to the
baby's scalp to monitor the baby’s heartbeat.
❖ Needle electrodes: A fine wire through which electrical
current may flow when attached to a power source; used to
carry high frequency electrical currents that create heat or
destroy diseased tissue (called radiofrequency ablation) or
seal blood vessels. Multi-element needle electrodes are
used to pick up the signals from individual fibers of muscle
tissue. Special needles are available using 25-micron
diameter electrode surfaces.
❖ Contact electrodes: Skin contact electrodes require
electrolyte gels between the skin and the electrode in order
to ensure good electrical contact. The effect of electrolyte
gel on skin impedance will be studied.
Note: What is the difference between an electrode and an
electrolyte?
❖ Electrodes are the rods where the ions will move to;
most electrodes are made up of graphite.
❖ Electrolytes is the solution where electrolysis will take
place eg sodium chloride solution, copper II sulphate
solution.
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a graphical display of the
time variant biopotential produced by the cardiac system at
the surface of the human body. It reveals the most useful
diagnostic information about the state of the heart. This
information is sufficient with regards to both mechanical
and electrical activities of the heart, as these activities are
interrelated to each other. An important clinical benefit of
the 12-lead ECG stems from its ability to observe the heart’s
electrical activity from more than one angle as shown

The Conduction System of the Heart

• Located in the right atrium at the superior vena cava is the
sinus node (sinoatrial or SA node) which consists of
specialized muscle cells (Figure in right side). The SA nodal
cells are self-excitatory, pacemaker cells.
• They generate an action potential at the rate of about 70
per minute and
• from the sinus node, activation propagates throughout
the atria, and then cannot propagate directly across the
boundary between atria and ventricles, but through AV
node in the normal conditions of the heart.
• The atrioventricular node (AV node) is located at the
boundary between the atria and ventricles; it has an
intrinsic frequency of about 50 pulses/min and propagation
from the AV node to the ventricles is provided by a
specialized conduction system called the His of bundle.
• More distally, it separates into two bundle branches
propagating along each side of the septum, constituting the
right and left bundle branches (The left bundle
subsequently separates into an anterior and posterior
branch).

Propagation along the conduction system takes place at a

relatively high speed once it is within the ventricular region,
but prior to this (through the AV node) the velocity is
extremely slow. • From the inner side of the ventricular
wall, the many activation sites cause the formation of a
wave front which propagates through the ventricular mass
toward the outer wall. This process results from cell-to-cell
activation. • The automatic rates for different sites are
noted, SA node = 70- 100 / min, AV node = 40-70 / min, and
Bundle branches = 30- 40 / min

Formation of the ECG Signal

Figure above shows a typical ECG as it appears when
recorded from the surface of the body. The electrical
activity components of the ECG arte described as follows:
1. The P-wave: represents the depolarization of the atrial
muscles, is caused by contraction of the atria.
2. The QRS-complex: is the combined result of the
repolarization of the atrial and the depolarization of the
ventricles which occur almost simultaneously, caused by
contraction of the atria.
3. The T-wave: results from the ventricular repolarization,
caused by the return of this ventricular mass to the resting
electrical state.
4. The U-wave: is discernible on the ECG following the T-
wave with duration up to 0.24 sec.

Intervals and Segments The waves and complexes are

separated by important intervals (Figure above):
1. The P-R interval: extends from the beginning of the P-
wave to the beginning of the QRS complex. This interval
normally measures 0.12-0.20 sec.
2. The QRS interval: is the width of the ventricular complex
and normally measures 0.04 to 0.10 sec, usually 0.06 or 0.07
sec.
3. The S-T segment: describes the period between
completion of the depolarization and repolarization of the
ventricular muscle.
4. The Q-T interval: is measured from the beginning of the
QRS complex to the end of the T-wave, and its normal
duration varies with the heart's rate, the slower the rate the
longer the Q-T interval. 5. The T-P segment: represents the
elapsed time from the completion of repolarization of the
ventricular muscle to the onset of ECG cycle.
6. The R-P interval: is measured from the beginning of the
QRS-complex to the beginning of the ensuring P-wave of
next cycle.
7. The R-R interval: is the interval between consecutive
QRS-complexes, which is directly related to the cardiac rate.
The Electroencephalography (EEG)
The EEG signal can be picked up with electrodes either from
the scalp or directly from the cerebral cortex. The peak-to-
peak amplitude of the waves that can be picked up from the
scalp is normally 100 µV or less while that on the exposed
brain, is about 1 mV. The frequency varies greatly with
different behavioral states. The normal EEG frequency
content ranges from 0.5 to 50 Hz. The nature of the wave
varies over the different parts of the scalp.
The traditional clinical description of an EEG in the
frequency domain recognizes four dominant rhythmic
activities; delta (0.1-4) Hz, theta (4-7.5) Hz, alpha (8-13) Hz,
beta (13-30) Hz, and Gamma (30-50) Hz . These rhythms are
classified as background activity (normal) as opposed to
transient or abnormal activity. Figure a shows an example
of EEG rhythms taken from normal adult, in time domain
representation.
Blood Flow Measurements
An adequate amount of blood supply is necessary for the
proper functioning of all body organs as blood carries all
the nutrients and oxygen that our body needs to stay
healthy. Various diseases cause an impaired supply of blood
to the organs. The measurement of the blood flow can
therefore provide essential information for the diagnosis of
diseases. At times it may be required to measure the flow of
blood through a blood vessel which supplies blood to an
organ. Hence measurement of blood flow rate is necessary.
Flow rate is expressed in liters/min or cc/min.
There are four different methods of flow monitoring using
the following principles:
1.Radiographic Techniques
2.Indicator Dye Dilution Method
3.Thermal Convection
4.Magnetic Blood Flow Rate
5.Ultrasonic Blood Flow Meter

1.Radiographic Techniques
Since blood is not visible in an X-ray photo,