C H A P T E R
3
Micropumps for drug delivery
Eric Chappel and Dimitry Dumont-Fillon
Debiotech SA, Lausanne, Switzerland
1 Introduction
In the last four decades, microelectromecha-
nical Systems (MEMS) technologies have
enabled the development of a large diversity
of microfluidic devices, from micropumps,
microvalves, microneedles, micromixers to
micro total analysis systems (μTAS). MEMS
technology, materials science, and batch pro-
duction inherited from the semiconductor
industry allow for the fabrication of low cost
and highly integrated and biocompatible micro-
chips that can infuse a fluid, mix, sense and
monitor physical or chemical fluid characteris-
tics, perform reaction and analysis. In drug
delivery applications, the core of these micro-
fluidic devices is the micropump, which is able
to accurately transfer medication from a reser-
voir to the target site. Compared to conventional
drug delivery methods such as oral administra-
tion or intravenous infusion with large and
bulky injectors, wearable and implantable drug
delivery systems (DDS) comprising a MEMS
micropump offer numerous advantages, nota-
bly for the treatment of chronic diseases: local-
ized delivery, better patient compliance,
reduced side effects, and optimized drug action
[1, 2]. Moreover, the implementation of embed-
ded sensors in micropumps allows for the
Drug Delivery Devices and Therapeutic Systems
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819838-4.00015-8
possibility of fully controlled drug release and
continuous infusion monitoring.
According to the white paper “Microfluidic
vocabulary 5.0” published by MicroFluidics
Association, the term micropump refers to
“miniaturized liquid or gas pumping equip-
ment with capacity of lower than milliliter per
minute flow rate” [3]. Early research on micro-
pumps for drug delivery started in the mid-
1970s. The original design made by Thomas
and Bessman [4] was further developed by
Spencer et al. [5] that used a reciprocating micro-
pump, using conventional assembly techniques,
dedicated to the programmed release of insulin
for diabetic patients. The device comprises of
two immersed piezoelectric active flap valves
for flow rectification and a circular piezoelectric
bimorph glued onto a stainless steel shim, which
is then welded to the cylindrical body of the
pump to form the pump diaphragm. The maxi-
mum stroke volume of 1.5 μL with 90 V actua-
tion was reported at zero backpressure. At
Stanford, at the beginning of the 1980s, Smits
improved this peristaltic micropump concept
based on a displacing diaphragm and the selec-
tive inlet and the outlet valve opening. Using the
new possibilities offered by silicon and thin-film
technologies, Smits proposed a fully integrated
planar micropump in silicon that is able to
31 # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
32 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
deliver a flow rate that increases linearly up to a
driving frequency of about 15 Hz. A maximum
flow rate of 100 μL/min is observed at zero back-
pressure [97] and the device can generate a max-
imum outlet pressure of 60 mbar. Another
important step was achieved in 1988 at the Uni-
versity of Twente by Van Lintel et al. [6]. For the
first time, MEMS micropumps of the reciprocat-
ing displacement type, comprising of one or two
pump chambers, a piezo-actuated membrane,
and passive silicon check valves were designed
and manufactured. This three-layer micropump
is illustrated in Fig. 1. The two passive valves of
the micropump exhibit a pretension of 10 mbar.
The stroke volume is 0.21 μL at the actuation
voltage of 100 V and the corresponding maxi-
mum flow rate is 8 μL/min at the actuation fre-
quency of 1 Hz. The maximum outlet pressure is
100 mbar [6].
These preliminary works have generated an
extraordinary enthusiasm for MEMS micro-
pumps. Laser et al. noticed in 2004 that more than
200 hundred papers reporting on novel micro-
pump design, actuation scheme, fabrication tech-
nology, or modeling approach were published
[7]. Research is still very active in this domain.
Excellent published reviews, that are not
repeated here, provide a qualitative and quanti-
tative analysis of micropump performances with
exhaustive comparison tables and charts [7–13].
Instead, this chapter focuses on the description
of mature micropump technologies suitable for
drug delivery, with an emphasis on the specific
DDS design requirements.
Piezo actuator Glass diaphragm
Valve 1 Valve 2
Inlet Silicon wafer Glass wafer Outlet
FIG. 1 Piezoelectric micropump with passive check
valves. From P. Woias, Micropumps—past, progress and future
prospects, Sens. Actuat. B Chem. 105(1) (2005) 28–38. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2004.02.033.
I. Microfluidics
Micropumps are categorized here as mechan-
ical or nonmechanical micropumps, depending
on whether the external mechanical or nonme-
chanical energy is converted into kinetic energy.
According to Nguyen and Wereley [14], this clas-
sification is well adapted to pumping mecha-
nisms which are more effective on the
microscale domain than on the macroscale and
several authors adopted this type of categoriza-
tion [8, 9, 11–13]. Mechanical micropumps can
be further categorized into displacement micro-
pumps and dynamic micropumps according to
whether the mechanical energy is transferred
periodically or continuously to the working fluid.
In displacement micropumps, a force is applied
in a periodic manner to one or more moving
boundaries which in turn exert pressure on the
working fluid. In centrifugal and ultrasonic
micropumps, which both belong to the dynamic
micropump category, the mechanical energy is
continuously transferred to increase the fluid
momentum inside the device [14]. This fluid
momentum is then converted into pressure due
to the hydrodynamic resistance of the valves
and the fluidic line downstream of the pumping
mechanism [7]. Nonmechanical micropumps
include electrokinetic (EK), electrohydrodynamic
(EHD), electroosmotic (EO), magnetohydrody-
namic (MHD), capillary-driven, bubble and elec-
trochemical (EC) micropumps. The design of
these devices is simpler than those of mechanical
micropumps since most of them do not comprise
an actuator and a moving boundary to increase
the fluid velocity. The classification of the
different types of micropumps is illustrated in
Fig. 2.
After a brief description of the requirements
and the basic outputs of DDS, important fea-
tures of the micropumps are described, in partic-
ular, the pumping mechanism, the key
performances (flow rate, backpressure) along
with typical examples of recent devices under
development. The flow rectifying elements
(e.g., the valves), the actuators and the fluid
chambers, are briefly described. Comprehensive
 2 Micropumps for drug delivery systems 33

Micropump classification

Mechanical Nonmechanical

Displacement Dynamic
Electrokinetic

Piezo Ultrasonic
Electrohydrodynamic
Electrostatic Centrifugal
Electroosmotic
ICPF
Magnetohydrodynamic
Thermopneumatic
Capillary
Electromagnetic
Bubble
SMA
Electrochemical
Bimetallic

FIG. 2 Classification of micropumps as mechanical or nonmechanical micropumps, depending on whether the external
mechanical or nonmechanical energy is converted into kinetic energy.

reviews of these elements were respectively
made by Oh and Ahn [15], Laser and Santiago
[7], and Amirouche et al. [8]. A detailed descrip-
tion of the therapeutic applications is provided
in dedicated chapters of this book, as well as
the review of implantable DDS.
2 Micropumps for drug delivery systems
2.1 Requirements
A DDS usually comprises of a drug reservoir,
a pumping mechanism, microchannels, one or
more sensors, and a connection to the delivery
site. The pump engine, as the key part of the
DDS, shall be safe and effective.
The development of a micropump for drug
delivery is made in agreement to the risk man-
agement process which comprises the follow-
ing steps, according to the norm ISO14971:
2007 [16]:
• specification of the intended use
• identification of the hazards (source of harm
associated with the device)
• definition of the hazardous situations and the
foreseeable sequences of events
• estimation of the risk (risk ¼ severity of
potential harm  probability of occurrence)
• evaluation of the risk
• use of the risk control process to reduce the
risk to an acceptable level
• benefit-risk analysis
• evaluation of the overall residual risk level of
the global product which shall be judged
acceptable.
The risk management process includes the
use of specific tools (namely DFMEA and
PFMEA) for the description of the design and
process failure modes along with the analysis
of their effects (see norm IEC 60812 [17]). Design
or process mitigations are then implemented to
ensure that the risks are reduced to an accept-
able level. As a general manner, the main
patient’s risks associated with a drug delivery
device are induced by the following high-level
classes of device failure:
• overinfusion
• underinfusion

I. Microfluidics
34 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
• infection
• biocompatibility issues (cytotoxicity,
genotoxicity, sensitization, …)
• electrical/mechanical hazards.
The latter class of hazards is usually related to
the overall device, including risk associated
with electrical leakages or shocks, sharp
mechanical parts that can induce patient’s inju-
ries. The risks related to infection and biocom-
patibility issues are well documented in
several excellent textbooks [18, 19]. Since the
chapter focuses on the infusion mechanism of
micropumps, the requirements related to deliv-
ery issues are mainly considered here.
A drug delivery device is able to deliver pre-
cise quantities of a drug based upon a specified
time schedule. During the whole product life-
time, delivery accuracy shall be maintained
under specified conditions of use (temperature,
humidity, external pressure conditions), speci-
fied fluid characteristics (viscosity, drug concen-
tration, particulate contains, pH, etc.), and
delivery site properties (body fluid pressure,
etc.). The different methods for the assessment
of infusion accuracy are described in the norm
IEC 60601-2-24 [20] and take into account the dif-
ferent types of infusion devices:
• type 1: continuous infusion
• type 2: non-continuous infusion
• type 3: discrete delivery of a bolus
• type 4: profile pump (programmed sequence
of delivery rates).
A typical root cause of overinfusion is associ-
ated with a pressure gradient between the drug
reservoir and the delivery site, leading to a free
flow if the pumping mechanism is valveless or
if the valves of the micropump are not watertight.
This risk is an important limitation for a large
number of pumping mechanisms, in particular,
nonmechanical micropumps. Moreover, specific
treatments such as diabetes requires the delivery
in both basal and bolus modes, and only a few
types of micropumps can manage to infuse either
at very high or very low flow rates. Other types of
I. Microfluidics
design considerations (reliability, MRI compati-
bility, self-priming capability, power consump-
tion, precision, compatibility with different
types of drugs, cost, ease of fabrication, etc.) for
each type of micropump will be also considered
and discussed in the following subchapters.
2.2 Basic output parameters
The main output parameters of micropumps
are:
• The maximum flow rate Qmax, which
corresponds to the pumped volume of liquid
per unit of time at zero backpressure.
• The maximum micropump differential
pressure Δ Pmax, which is equal to the
maximum backpressure the micropump can
work against; the flow rate of a micropump
that experiences a back pressure Δ Pmax is
equal to zero.
• The micropump thermodynamic efficiency,
η ¼ QΔP
P , for a micropump delivering a flow
rate Q against a back pressure Δ P, where P is
the total power consumed by the micropump
[7]; assuming that the flow rate varies linearly
with backpressure, an estimation of the
thermodynamic efficiency can be made as
follows:
Qmax ΔPmax
η¼ :
4P
In this chapter, a focus is made on the values of
Qmax and Δ Pmax reported in the literature for each
type of micropump. An exhaustive study of the
efficiency of micropumps can be found in the top-
ical review made by Laser and Santiago [7].
3 Mechanical micropumps
Mature mechanical micropump designs are
reviewed along with their key features and per-
formance characteristics. A basic scheme of the
actuation principle is also provided.
 3 Mechanical micropumps
This section describes first the most common
types of displacement mechanical micropumps,
including electromagnetic, electrostatic, piezo,
thermal/shape memory alloy, thermopneu-
matic, and ionic conducting polymer film-based
actuation schemes. The second part of this section
provides a brief description of two types of
dynamic mechanical pumps: ultrasonic and cen-
trifugal micropumps.
3.1 Displacement mechanical
micropumps
3.1.1 Basic operation of membrane
micropumps and design considerations
For a few decades, membrane or diaphragm
micropumps turn out to be the most popular
design for drug delivery applications, and a
large variety of actuation mechanisms were
investigated. Thus, it is noteworthy to briefly
describe the working principle of these devices.
A membrane micropump comprises of a var-
iable volume pumping chamber, a movable
membrane, an actuator, and flow rectifying ele-
ments at the inlet and the outlet of the pumping
chamber. Flow rectification can be obtained by
holes, diffusers or nozzles, or passive check
valves [21]. The membrane micropumps are
based on the reciprocating concept: the actuator
generates a cyclic movement of the membrane
which in turn induces alternatively an enlarge-
ment and a reduction of the pumping chamber
volume. For a membrane pump with ideal flow
35
rectifiers, the two phases of the pumping cycle
can be described as follows:
• Supply phase: The upward movement of the
membrane increases the pumping chamber
volume, the induced underpressure sucks the
liquid from the inlet toward the pumping
chamber.
• Infusion phase: The downward movement of
the membrane reduces the pumping chamber
volume, the generated overpressure forces
the fluid to flow from the pumping chamber
toward the outlet.
The two phases of the actuation cycle of a
membrane micropump with check valves are
illustrated in Fig. 3. The displaced volume dur-
ing an actuation cycle is called stroke volume Δ V
and the minimum pumping chamber volume is
called the dead volume V0. The volume of the
pumping chamber varies alternatively between
V0 (at the end of the infusion phase) and
V0 + Δ V (at the end of the supply phase).
One of the major membrane micropump
parameters is the compression ratio ε defined by:
ΔV
ε¼
V0
A minimum value of the compression ratio is
required to make the micropump self-priming
and bubble-tolerant [21]. To simplify, it is
assumed that the membrane pumps have two
passive check valves that exhibit the same open-
ing threshold jΔ Pvalve j (equal to the absolute value

FIG. 3 Schematics of a membrane pump with passive check valves during the supply phase (left) and the infusion phase
(right). The displaced volume during an actuation cycle is the stroke volume ΔV and the minimum pumping chamber volume
at the end of the infusion phase is called the dead volume V0.

I. Microfluidics
36
of minimum pressure gradient between the
pumping chamber and the inlet and the outlet,
to open respectively the inlet and the outlet
valves). During actuation, the amplitude of the
pressure gradient generated between the pump-
ing chamber and the in/out ports is noted jΔ Pj.
The micropump is able to pump the air in the
pumping chamber if during both supply and
infusion phases the following criterion is met:
jΔPj > jΔPvalve j
At high actuation frequency, there is no heat
transfer during the fast compression/expansion
phase. During this process, which is called adi-
abatic, the product PVγ , where P is the absolute
pressure of the ideal gas, V is the volume, and γ
is its adiabatic coefficient equal to 1.4 for air,
remains constant. The criterion for the minimum
compression ratio εgas for air pumping at high
frequency is therefore:
 1=γ
Patm
εgas >  1 ðadiabaticÞ
Patm  jΔPvalve j
where Patm is the atmospheric pressure. For a
valve opening threshold of 100 mbar, the crite-
rion is [22]:
εgas > 1 : 13
At low actuation frequency, typically a few hertz
or less, the gas is always at thermal equilibrium
with the surface of the micropump. During this
isothermal process, the product PV is constant
and the criterion becomes:
 
Patm
εgas >  1 ðisothermalÞ
Patm  jΔPvalve j
For jΔ Pvalve j ¼ 100 mbar the minimum compres-
sion ratio at low actuation rate is:
εgas > 1 : 9
The minimum compression ratio εliquid for a liq-
uid, considering a pumping chamber entirely
filled with liquid, is:
3. Micropumps for drug delivery
εliquid > κ jΔPvalve j
where κ is the liquid compressibility. Since the
value of κ is very small (e.g., κ ¼ 0.5  108
m2/N for water), this criterion is easily met.
This criterion derived from isothermal air
compression/expansion, which can be consid-
ered as the worst case, is usually considered dur-
ing the design of the compression ratio.
The value of jΔ Pvalve j derives from the spring
force of the valve and other types of forces
related to the small dimensions of the device,
such as van der Waals forces, electrostatic forces,
solid bridging, hydrogen bonding, and capillary
forces [23].
This latter type of surface force is particularly
important to determine the bubble tolerance of
the micropump. Once the micropump is wetted,
capillary forces due to the presence of a bubble
at the valve entrance may have a large impact
on the valve opening. This bubble induces an
air/liquid interface and additional pressure
force is necessary to force this meniscus through
the small opening of the valve [21]. This capil-
lary force depends on the valve geometry, the
surface tension of the liquid, and the surface
energy of the valve and valve seat materials.
Water, which exhibits a large surface tension
of 0.0072 N/m, can be considered as a worst case
during the compression ratio design. Hydro-
philic surfaces promote the initial wetting of
the micropump but induce large capillary forces
in the presence of a bubble. On the other hand,
hydrophobic surfaces induce capillary forces
onto the valve during the initial micropump
priming. Moreover, the removal of bubbles in
the pumping chamber becomes more complex
and the problem of drug stability may be
encountered [24]. Surface treatment and coating
can be used to limit the adhesion of the valve
onto its valve seat [23] and to improve the micro-
pump bubble tolerance.
Design requirements for the valve opening
thresholds (or valve pretensions) are based on
compression ratio, pumping performance,
I. Microfluidics
 3 Mechanical micropumps
pumping efficiency, and accuracy consider-
ations. Other patient-safety relevant features
are also considered, notably the protection
against free flow. The valves are closed what-
ever the pressure gradient between the reservoir
and the infusion site in normal conditions of use.
For instance, external pressure conditions and
the presence of a long infusion line between
the device and the patient can generate a water
column that does not open the valves. Other
considerations related to failure detectability
can be considered: the monitoring of the pres-
sure inside the pumping chamber or in the infu-
sion line is a powerful tool for failure detection.
The larger the valve pretensions, the higher the
over- and underpressure amplitudes during an
actuation cycle and the more sensitive the failure
detection algorithm. It has been shown that
valve pretensions of 100 mbar associated with
a high compression ratio micropump and a
stroke volume of 200 nL can yield to a fast and
reliable detection of any condition affecting
pumping accuracy including total and partial
occlusion, valve failure, reservoir under- or
overpressure and pumping mechanism failure
[25–27, 56].
The valve opening thresholds and the com-
pression ratio can be routinely monitored dur-
ing the MEMS micropump manufacturing [28].
Specific pumping chamber design, compatible
with push-pull actuation and low dead-volume
valves, can lead to a compression ratio as high as
1:1.2 and a maximum output pressure of 1.3 bar
[26]. A high compression ratio can, however,
lead to a few drawbacks: the large underpres-
sure generated during the supply phase may
induce cavitation, excessive shear stress on the
drug molecules [24], or even the generation of
foam depending on the nature of the drug excip-
ients. To prevent these negative side effects, the
actuation rate is electronically limited and the
pressure inside the pumping chamber is moni-
tored in a continuous way [29, 30, 56].
Passive check valves are widely used as flow-
rectifying elements of membrane micropump,
I. Microfluidics
37
but many other valve mechanisms were investi-
gated. A comprehensive review of active and
passive microvalves was made by Oh and Ahn
[15]. Passive valves can be classified as mechan-
ical and nonmechanical moving parts. Mechan-
ical check valves are incorporated in inlet and
outlet ports of the pumping cavity of reciprocat-
ing micropumps and various structures were
investigated: flaps, membranes, balls, and mov-
ing structures [15]. Check-valve micropumps
usually comprise a filter to prevent the risk of
valve blocking or valve leakage depending on
the type of contamination [31]. Further, these
moving and fragile structures may be subject
to stiction. Valveless micropumps represent an
interesting alternative to check valves: the con-
struction is very simple, robust, low cost, and
the mechanism is less sensitive to contamination
than check-valve micropumps. The original con-
cept of a micropump based on the difference of
flow resistance through diffuser/nozzle ele-
ments was proposed by Van de Pol in 1989
[32] and further developed by Stemme and
Stemme [33]. The working principle of a valve-
less micropump is illustrated in Fig. 4. A large
water flow rate up to 16 mL/min at 100 Hz
was reported with a maximum output pressure
of 200 mbar. Valveless micropumps exhibit a
systematic backflow during actuation and vari-
ous topology optimizations were carried out
[34–37] to optimize the diodicity of such devices,
which is defined as the ratio of pressure drop of
reverse flow and forward flow [38]. The flow
rate strongly depends on the value of the back-
pressure [39, 40]. Moreover, micropumps with
No-Moving-Parts (NMP) valves such as dif-
fuser/nozzle, Y-shape tubes [41], or Tesla valves
[42] show a systematic free flow in presence of a
pressure gradient between the reservoir and the
infusion site when the device is switched off.
This feature strongly limits the use of micro-
pumps with NMP valves in drug delivery appli-
cations, in particular for vascular infusion, since
the backpressure of the vascular system will
generate an important reverse flow. On the other
38 3. Micropumps for drug delivery

FIG. 4 Schematics of a valveless membrane pump with passive diffuser/nozzle elements during the supply phase (left) and
the infusion phase (right). The flow-rectifying property of this micropump is due to the difference in flow resistance through
the diffuser/nozzle elements.

hand, valveless micropumps were considered
as an alternative to passive drainage systems
(shunts) for the treatment of glaucoma: the
outflow of aqueous humor can be better con-
trolled and when the micropump is off, the
valveless structure enables the passive drain-
age of aqueous humor at a low flow rate
[39]. Furthermore, valveless micropumps are
considered for water-cooling systems [43, 44].
The possibility to change the direction of the
flow is an interesting aspect for other types
of applications, for example, chemical analysis
systems [45].
3.1.2 Modeling
At the micropump design stage, numerical
modeling is a relevant option to tackle complex
microfluidic designs and multiphysics systems.
Several options were investigated to determine
the characteristics of the micropump dynamics.
A classic option consists of building an electrical
equivalent network based on a subdivision of
the micropump structure into lumped elements
[46]. This method was used to design a micro-
pump for medical applications [47, 48] without
the use of a complex analytical model [49, 50].
More recently, progress in the computational
domain enables the development of software
packages able to perform a complete electro-
fluid-solid simulation [12, 13, 51]. These differ-
ent modeling methods based on equivalent
electrical networks are supported by experimen-
tal validations made on various types of micro-
pumps, such as micropumps with no-moving-
part valves [52], valveless micropumps [44, 53],
piezoelectric peristaltic micropump [54], and
piezoelectric membrane micropump [55, 56].
Equivalence between physical equations gov-
erning flow rate and pressure in a microfluidic
device and respectively current and voltage in
an electrical network can be established. The
standard analogy between fluidics and electrical
networks is shown in Table 1. The different ele-
ments of the fluidic pathway are replaced by
equivalent electrical elements and the fluidic
performances of the micropump can be simu-
lated using standard electrical circuit simulation
tools. To illustrate the method, a simple mem-
brane micropump with check valves and an
TABLE 1 Physical and/or fluidic effects and their
electrical equivalents.
Fluidic parameters Electrical parameters
Flow rate Current
Pressure drop Voltage
Mass Inductance
Flow restrictor Resistance
Elasticity Capacitance

I. Microfluidics
 3 Mechanical micropumps
embedded pressure sensor is considered. The
inlet and the outlet of the micropump are con-
nected to a drug reservoir and the infusion site,
respectively. These two elements are modeled
by voltage sources to account for the reservoir
pressure and infusion site backpressure. Hydro-
dynamic restrictions along the fluidic pathway
and the check valves are modeled by fixed and
variable resistors, respectively. The flow rate
generated by the displacement of the pumping
membrane is equivalent to a controlled current
source, while the elasticity of structural elements
is simulated by standard capacitors. The result-
ing general network is shown in Fig. 5. In normal
operation, the fluid flows from left to right.
The main outputs of such simulations are the
stroke volume, the free flow, and the pressure
profile during an actuation cycle. The impact
of manufacturing tolerances can be investigated
to improve the design robustness. Numerical
simulation is a powerful tool to determine the
effects of failure such as valve leakage, reservoir
overfilling, or occlusion on the micropump per-
formances. The design of the valve characteris-
tics, the compression ratio, and the actuator
39
can be optimized to reduce risks to an acceptable
level and to increase the chance of success dur-
ing the design verification phase.
Furthermore, the determination of the pres-
sure profiles during an actuation cycle can be
used to build a failure detection algorithm
[26]. Fournier et al. analyzed the impact of semi-
occlusion at the cannula tip of an insulin micro-
pump and proposed an adaptive actuation
pattern based on such investigations [56].
3.1.3 Actuation mechanisms
In addition to the pumping cavity and the
valves, the third key design element of a mem-
brane micropump is the actuator which fulfils
many different and sometimes contradictory
requirements such as large force, large displace-
ment, small size, fast response time, low power
consumption, low driving voltage, low thermal
losses, low cost, ease of manufacturing, assem-
bly, and test [8]. A selection of the most popular
micropump actuation mechanisms is presented
here with a brief discussion of their pumping
performances and their respective advantages
and drawbacks.

FIG. 5 General electrical network modeling the different elements of a membrane micropump with check valves and an
embedded pressure sensor made of a flexible membrane with integrated strain gauges. Reservoir overpressure and backpres-
sure at the cannula tip (occlusion) are modeled as voltage sources. The flow induced by the displacement of the pumping
membrane is modeled as a controlled current source. Fluidic restrictions along the fluidic pathway, including the valves,
are represented by fixed or variable resistors. Capacitors are added to the circuit to model the compliance of the flexible ele-
ments inside the pumping chamber.

I. Microfluidics
40 3. Micropumps for drug delivery

3.1.3.1 Piezoelectric chamber. In Fig. 6 (right) is shown a piezoelec-

Piezoelectric actuators are commonly associ-
ated with membrane micropumps in drug
delivery [8]. The microscopic origin of piezoelec-
tricity is based on asymmetric ionic charge dis-
tribution in the material [57]: an electric
polarization is generated when the material is
subjected to mechanical stress (direct piezoelec-
tric effect). Conversely, an applied electric field
in a piezoelectric material produces dimensional
changes and stresses with the material (inverse
piezoelectric effect). Quartz and zinc blende
are natural piezoelectric crystals. The most com-
mon materials for piezo actuator are modified
lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ceramics [58]. Pie-
zoelectric disks were already used in the 1970s
in inkjet print head [7] and later by Smits and
van Lintel in MEMS micropumps [6, 59]. The
two sides on the piezoelectric disks are covered
by electrodes. The working principle of the pie-
zoelectric actuator in a lateral-strain configura-
tion is illustrated in Fig. 6 (left). The actuator is
glued onto the membrane surface while the
top surface of the piezo disk is not constrained.
The application of an actuation voltage will
induce an electrical field perpendicular to the
surface of the piezo disk; a radial strain pro-
duced in the piezo material induces a bending
moment that will deflect the pumping mem-
brane and displace the fluid of the pumping
tric actuator in an axial-strain configuration,
where the piezoelectric disk is positioned
between a rigid frame and the pumping mem-
brane. The large vertical displacement of the
membrane results in an axial strain in the piezo-
electric disk when a voltage is applied.
The tip of a bimorphic piezo cantilever can be
glued to the center of the pumping membrane as
proposed by Stehr et al. [45]. He proposed a
micropump mechanism with an elastic buffer
and a piezoelectric bimorph that is able to con-
trol fluid in both directions when driven by a
DC voltage. The mechanism can be operated
as an active microvalve or an active micropump.
Maximum forward and reverse flow rates of
2 mL/min and 1.2 mL/min are reported respec-
tively and the maximum backpressure is
170 mbar at 200 V. Large piezo displacement,
optimized compression ratio, and low power
consumption can be obtained with a bimorphic
piezoelectric cantilever coupled to a pumping
membrane that is in an intermediate position
between two mechanical stops at rest [30]. The
tip of this actuator is glued to the center of the
pumping membrane in silicon to achieve a
push-pull movement that corresponds to the
infusion and supply phase of the actuation cycle,
respectively. Pumping accuracy is obtained by
the well-defined positions of the mechanical

FIG. 6 (Left) Schematic cross section of a micropump with a piezoelectric actuation in the transverse-strain configuration.
The application of an actuation voltage generates an axial electrical field, the radial strain produced in the piezo material
induces a bending moment that will deflect the pumping membrane and displace the fluid of the pumping chamber.
(Right) Schematic cross section of a micropump with a piezoelectric actuation in axial-strain configuration, where the piezo-
electric disk is positioned between a rigid frame and the pumping membrane. The large vertical displacement of the mem-
brane results in an axial strain in the piezoelectric disk when a voltage is applied.

I. Microfluidics
 3 Mechanical micropumps
stops in silicon. The stroke volume of this MEMS
micropump does not depend on the flow rate up
to 2.5 mL/h and the presence of check valves
enables a constant flow rate for reservoir pres-
sure in the range 300 to +200 mbar. Specific
actuation patterns can be used to limit to a few
percent the effect of piezo bender hysteresis on
delivery accuracy [60]. The movement of the
piezo bender tip is not perfectly axial and a flex-
ible link between the piezo bender and the
pumping membrane is necessary to achieve a
full stroke [61]. The water flow rate varies line-
arly up to 2.5 mL/h at 3.5 Hz and a 200 V
applied voltage and maximum backpressure of
1.3 bar can be generated by the micropump
[26]. Jenke et al. combined thermal calorimetric
and differential pressure-based flow sensors
with a silicon micropump to improve dosing
accuracy [62]. More recently, Munas et al. devel-
oped valveless PZT micropumps for biomedical
applications. The micropump fluidic structure is
obtained by stacking microstructured poly-
methyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheets.
A maximum flow rate of 31.15 mL/min at
100 Hz was obtained with a maximum back-
pressure of 2.4 mbar [40].
High actuation voltage, large cost, and a rela-
tively complex assembly process represent the
main drawbacks of a piezoelectric actuator for
membrane micropumps [31]. On the other hand,
such a system provides large actuation force,
low power consumption, and fast response
time [7].
3.1.3.2 Electrostatic
Electrostatic membrane micropumps typi-
cally exhibit a parallel plate actuator design as
shown in Fig. 7. The top electrode is fixed while
the bottom electrode is placed on the top surface
of the pumping membrane. During the supply
phase, the application of a voltage between the
electrodes of the two closely spaced parallel
plates will induce the deflection of the pumping
membrane. The attractive electrostatic force F
I. Microfluidics
41
FIG. 7 Schematic cross section of an electrostatic micro-
pump. The application of a voltage between the electrodes
will induce an upward deflection of the pumping membrane
and the filling of the pumping chamber (supply phase). The
voltage is removed for the infusion phase and the membrane
returns to its initial position.
between two parallel plates of equal area A sep-
arated by a distance d is:
εAV 2
F¼
2d2
where V is the applied voltage and ε is the per-
mittivity of the medium separating the plates,
usually air or vacuum, with ε  8.85  1012-
F/m in both cases. By contrast to the force gen-
erated by a piezo actuator, the electrostatic force
increases as the membrane deflects against the
counter electrode and partly balances the oppo-
site restoring force of the bowed membrane [7].
During the infusion phase, the actuation voltage
is set to zero and the membrane moves back to
its initial rest position.
Since the first electrostatic micropump devel-
oped by Judy et al. in 1991 [63], many alternative
designs were fabricated and tested. The bidirec-
tional silicon micropump with passive flap
valves developed by Zengerle et al. for chemical
analysis systems shows, at 200 V applied voltage,
a maximum forward flow rate of 0.85 mL/min
for an actuation frequency of 800 Hz and a max-
imum backpressure of 310 mbar. At a higher fre-
quency, the micropump works in the reverse
direction, and a maximum reverse flow rate
and backpressure of 0.4 mL/min and 70 mbar,
42 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
respectively, were measured using a different
micropump layout [46]. Uhlig et al. proposed
an original electrostatically driven in-plane sili-
con micropump [64] with small-gap electrostatic
microactuators fabricated in a CMOS-compatible
process [65]. Numerical simulations showed that
this MEMS micropump can generate, at 100 V
applied voltage and 21 Hz, a maximum flow rate
of 0.01 mL/min for isopropanol and maximum
backpressure of 2.1 bar [64].
Electrostatic actuation is fully compatible with
MEMS microfabrication processes and offers low
power consumption and fast response times. The
high actuation voltage (typically 200 V) and the
small membrane deflection, usually limited to
about 5 μm, can be considered as the main disad-
vantages of this technology.
3.1.3.3 Ionic conductive polymer film
An ionic conductive polymer film (ICPF)
used as a membrane micropump actuator con-
sists typically of a layer of perfluorosulfonic acid
polymer covered by two thin conductive films
such as gold and platinum, which serve as the
metal electrode [8, 11]. This electroactive poly-
mer layer shows a large deflection proportional
to the applied electrical voltage. This effect is
due to the ionic movement induced by the
applied electric field [66]. A schematic ICPF
micropump structure is shown in Fig. 8. With
one end fixed, the application of an alternative
voltage across the electrodes leads to a bidirec-
tional bending of the electroactive layer. The
ICPF actuator can be operated in air or in a liq-
uid environment. Guo et al. developed a micro-
pump with two circular ICPF actuators as
pumping membranes and active one-way
valves driven by ICPF actuators. The size of
the prototype, mainly made in stainless steel,
is 12 mm in diameter and 20 mm in length.
Using a physiological saline solution, a maxi-
mum flow rate of 0.0378 mL/min at a frequency
of 2 Hz and an applied voltage of 1.5 V was mea-
sured [66]. Δ Pmax was not reported. Santos et al.
designed and tested a pumping mechanism
with ICPF(Nafion)/PDMS membrane and
I. Microfluidics
FIG. 8 Schematic cross section of an ionic conductive
polymer film micropump. When a voltage is applied, the
membrane will deflect as a result of the ionic movement in
the ICPF actuator which causes one electrode to shrink
and the other to expand. A bidirectional deflection of the
membrane is obtained using an alternating voltage.
diffuser/nozzle system as a flow rectifier.
A water flow rate of 8 μL/min was measured
at 0.1 Hz, using a sinusoidal electric current with
an amplitude of 8.4 mA. The maximum back-
pressure is 23 mbar [67].
ICPF actuators are biocompatible and can
work in an aqueous environment without elec-
trolysis. These actuators can be driven at low
input voltage (typically 1.5 V) and can produce
large stroke volumes with a fast response time.
The shortcomings of this technology are the high
manufacturing costs [68] and the weak repeat-
ability in batch fabrication [11].
3.1.3.4 Thermopneumatic
A thermopneumatic micropump generally
has, above the membrane of the pumping cham-
ber, a secondary chamber with a heater (see Fig.
9). The working principle of a thermopneumatic
actuator is based on the volume change or phase
change of the fluid present in this secondary cav-
ity when the heater is activated. The increase of
volume in the secondary chamber generates a
pressure that will push the pumping membrane
and infuse the fluid present in the primary
pumping chamber through the outlet. The sup-
ply phase of the pumping cycle occurs when
the heater is deactivated. The fluid in the second-
ary chamber cools down and its pressure
decreases. The pumping chamber returns to its
 3 Mechanical micropumps
FIG. 9 Schematic cross section of a thermopneumatic
micropump. When the voltage is applied, the heater expands
the fluid present in the secondary or heating chamber, the
pressure generated induces a deflection of the membrane
and the infusion of the liquid present in the pumping cham-
ber, through the outlet (infusion phase). When the voltage is
switched off, the fluid in the heating chamber cools down
and the membrane moves back to its initial position, causing
the filling of the pumping chamber (supply phase).
initial position, causing the filling of the pump-
ing chamber through the inlet valve. Van de
Pol et al. developed the first reciprocating mem-
brane micropump with a thermopneumatic actu-
ator and check valves [69]. This silicon
micropump can deliver a maximum flow rate
of 0.034 mL/min using a voltage supply of
6 V. The maximum backpressure is 50 mbar.
During the infusion phase, simulated pressure
and temperature rises in the secondary cavity
are 60 mbar and 30 °C, respectively (at 6 V).
A required electrical energy per pumped volume
equals to a few J/μL is reported. Cooney et al.
developed, for μTAS and lab-on-a-chip applica-
tions, a thermopneumatic micropump based on
phase change of a perfluorocarbon mixture
[70]. The temperature of the liquid-vapor mix-
ture is controlled by a film heater. The pressure
of the perfluorocarbon mixture expands a mem-
brane that forces the fluid to flow from the reser-
voir to the outlet flow restrictor. A mean flow
rate of 1.4 μL/min for 4.5 h is reported, with an
average electrical power of 0.2 W. Typical liquid
pressure levels are 70–420 mbar. Spieth et al.
reported a thermally actuated device dedicated
I. Microfluidics
43
to intracerebral drug delivery in freely moving
animals. The device comprises 16 hemispherical
reservoirs assembled with an expandable layer
placed above an array of microheaters. The
expandable layer is made of thermally expand-
able microspheres (Expancel®) embedded into
an elastic silicone matrix made from PDMS.
The small thermoplastic microspheres encapsu-
late a gas. During heating, the gas expands while
the microsphere shell softens. The result is an
irreversible increase of the microsphere volume
up to a factor 60. Using an external electronic
control unit, the device can infuse 16 metered
doses of 0.25 μL. The metered volume of
0.25 μL is infused within the first few seconds
of the 15 s heating period. The mean peak flow
rate is about 10 μL/min and the required electri-
cal power is 0.225 W [71]. Chee et al. proposed a
wireless powered thermopneumatic micropump
actuated using an external RF resonant fre-
quency [72]. The micropump consists of flexible
PDMS layers with a fluid directing channel and a
polyimide planar LC wireless heater.
A maximum flow rate of 2.86 μL/min at a cham-
ber temperature of 46°C is reported, for an
applied electrical power of 0.22 W. The maxi-
mum backpressure is 4 mbar. Recent trends
include the introduction of high thermal conduc-
tivity nanocomposite into PDMS layer [73].
Thermopneumatic actuators are compatible
with standard MEMS processing and can gener-
ate large pressure and large membrane displace-
ment at a low input voltage. Their slow response
time limits the actuation frequency to about
50 Hz [31]. In addition, the high electrical energy
consumption of these actuators is a major disad-
vantage for their implementation in implantable
or portable drug delivery devices.
3.1.3.5 Electromagnetic
A typical electromagnetic membrane micro-
pump has a permanent magnet that is embed-
ded into the flexible pumping membrane and
microcoils affixed onto the outer part of the
device (see Fig. 10). The application of an electri-
cal current in the microcoils will generate a
44 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
FIG. 10 Schematic cross section of an electromagnetic
micropump. The application of an electrical current in the
external coil induces a magnetic field which interacts with
the permanent magnet embedded into the membrane.
Depending on the input current phase, the induced magnetic
actuation force is either attractive or repulsive and a push-
pull movement of the membrane can be achieved.
magnetic field which interacts with the perma-
nent magnet. Depending on the input current
phase, the induced magnetic actuation force is
either attractive or repulsive and a push-pull
movement of the membrane can be achieved.
B€ohm et al. reported a plastic micropump actu-
ated by a permanent magnet placed in a coil and
associated with a flexible rubber micropump
membrane [74]. A water flow rate of
2.1 mL/min and a maximum backpressure of
125 mbar were achieved using an alternating
square-wave current of 100 mA at 50 Hz from
a function generator. Yamahata et al. proposed
a polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) valveless
micropump that consists of two diffuser ele-
ments and a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
membrane with an embedded composite per-
manent magnet made of NdFeB magnetic pow-
der [75]. Large membrane deflection up to
200 μm was obtained using an external electro-
magnet. Maximum water flow rate and back-
pressure of 0.4 mL/min and 120 mbar,
respectively, were measured at 12 Hz. Higher
flow rate and backpressure of 1 mL/min and
50 mbar, respectively, were obtained with a sim-
ilar valveless micropump made of a triple stack
I. Microfluidics
glass with PDMS membrane with an embedded
permanent magnet [76]. More recently, Gidde
et al. performed numerical simulations to opti-
mize the geometry of electromagnetic valveless
PDMS-based micropumps for drug delivery
applications. Maximum flow rate and backpres-
sure of 0.5 mL/min and 3.5 mbar, respectively,
were measured [77].
Electromagnetic actuation generates large
forces, large membrane deflection, fast mechan-
ical response, and the actuation frequency is
easily tunable. On the other hand, the miniatur-
ization of electromagnetic actuators is complex
and other important limitations are their large
power consumption and heat dissipation.
3.1.3.6 Shape memory alloy
Shape memory alloy (SMA) and bimetallic
micropumps are based on the reversible
mechanical deformation of an actuator upon
heating-cooling cycles. The shape memory effect
of SMA actuators results from a thermally
induced reversible solid-state phase transforma-
tion of specific materials such as NiTi (nitinol),
InTi, or AuCu [8]. SMA actuators are capable
of restoring their original shape after a heat-
ing/cooling cycle. NiTi is in the monoclinic mar-
tensite phase at low temperature and the cubic
austenite phase at high temperature [78]. Heat-
ing the NiTi actuator above the phase transfor-
mation temperature induces a mechanical
deformation that can be used to actuate a micro-
pump. A typical SMA micropump is shown in
Fig. 11. Benard et al. developed an SMA micro-
pump in silicon with two NiTi thin-film actua-
tors bonded through intermediate spacers [79].
A water flow rate of 50 μL/min was obtained
with maximum backpressure of 5.3 mbar at an
actuation frequency of 0.9 Hz and power con-
sumption of 0.63 W. Xu et al. proposed a simpli-
fied and compact version of SMA micropump
with NiTi thin films that exhibit phase transfor-
mation temperatures in the range 25–75 °C.
A maximum flow rate of up to 0.34 mL/min
was measured and the device can be actuated
 3 Mechanical micropumps
FIG. 11 Schematic cross section of an SMA micropump.
SMA actuators are capable of restoring their original shape
after a heating/cooling cycle. A voltage is applied to the
heater until the SMA temperature becomes larger than its
phase transformation temperature, causing a deflection of
the SMA membrane and thus the displacement of the liquid
in the pumping chamber. When the voltage is switched off,
the SMA membrane cools down and the membrane moves
back to its initial position.
at high frequency up to 100 Hz [80]. Fong et al.
developed a wireless implantable drug delivery
device embedded with an SMA micropump for
the anabolic treatment of osteoporosis [81]. The
polyimide-packaged 10  10  2 mm3 chip con-
tains the pump chamber and the check valves of
Parylene C. The drug reservoir has a volume of
76 μL. The nitinol coil cantilever forms a passive
185 MHz resonant circuit. Wireless heating of
the actuator is obtained through radiation of a
tuned RF electromagnetic field with an output
power of 1.1 W. An average volume of
0.219 μL for a single ejection was measured.
Considering a human parathyroid hormone
daily dose of 40 μg and solubility of 80 mg/
mL, the implantable device can potentially oper-
ate for 5 months before refilling.
TiNi/Si bimorph membrane as the driving
diaphragm of micropump provides a large actu-
ation force, a simple manufacturing process, and
no specific insulation is needed since the fluid is
only in contact with the silicon membrane [82].
In addition, SMA actuators are biocompatible
and show good chemical resistance. The main
drawbacks are the large electrical power
I. Microfluidics
45
FIG. 12 Schematic cross section of a bimetallic micro-
pump. The membrane is made of two metallic layers with
different coefficients of thermal expansion that cause a
deflection of the membrane when a voltage is applied to
the heater.
consumption, the limited actuation frequency,
and the sensitivity to temperature which pre-
vents the good control of the SMA deformation.
3.1.3.7 Bimetallic
A bimetallic actuator for micropump is typi-
cally made of two adjacent materials which
exhibit different coefficients of thermal expan-
sion. When subjected to a temperature change,
the bimetallic actuator will produce a mechanical
displacement that can be used to actuate a micro-
pump as illustrated in Fig. 12. The bimetallic
micropump developed by Zhan et al. is operated
by an aluminum-silicon diaphragm [83]. The
6  6  1 mm3 device can deliver 45 μL/min
and maximum backpressure of 120 mbar at a fre-
quency of 0.5 Hz and an applied voltage of 5.5 V.
Bimetallic actuators provide large forces at
low voltage and are simple to implement. The
main drawbacks are the small deflections of
the actuator and the limitation of the actuation
frequency.
3.1.3.8 Summary of the main features of micropump
actuators
The typical relative features of the aforemen-
tioned actuator mechanisms are summarized in
Table 2. Typical pressure, displacement, and
46 3. Micropumps for drug delivery

TABLE 2 Displacement and response time of micropump actuators.

Actuator Pressure Displacement Response time

Piezoelectric (disk) Small Medium Fast

Piezoelectric (stack) Very large Very small Fast

Electrostatic Small Very small Very fast

ICPF Small Large Fast
Thermopneumatic Large Medium Medium
Electromagnetic Small Large Fast
SMA Large Large Slow
Bimetallic Large Small Medium

Partly adapted from S. Shoji, M. Esashi, Microflow devices and systems, J. Micromech. Microeng. 4(4) (1994) 157–171.
https://doi.org/10.1088/0960-1317/4/4/001.

response time values for each type of actuators
are mentioned in the previous sections of the
chapter.
3.2 Dynamic mechanical micropumps
Contrary to displacement mechanical micro-
pumps, dynamic mechanical micropumps con-
tinuously transform mechanical energy into
energy in the moving fluid.
3.2.1 Ultrasonic micropumps
Ultrasonic micropumps are based on acoustic
streaming caused by the viscous attenuation of
flexural plate waves in a fluid. An ultrasonic
micropump can be seen as an active rectangular
channel having a thin membrane on the bottom.
In order to observe a flow in this channel, its
width and/or height must be comparable in size
to the wavelength of the acoustic wave [84]. Typ-
ically, for an ultrasound wave in water having a
frequency of a few MHz, the corresponding
wavelength will be of the order of 100 μm [85].
The membrane thickness usually ranges from
1 to 3 μm and is composed of 3 layers [86]:
low-stress silicon nitride (insulating layer in
direct contact with the fluid), zinc oxide (the pie-
zoelectric layer), and aluminum (ground plane
and interdigitated transducers, IDT). The spatial
period of the fingers matches the wavelength of
the acoustic wave [85]. A cross section of such a
channel is provided in Fig. 13.

FIG. 13 Schematic of an ultrasonic micropump channel cross section. The flow direction mentioned on this figure is the one
induced by the flexural plate wave. Depending on the IDT actuation, it can be directed one way or the other. A standing wave
can also be generated. Usually, this is a secondary flow that is used perpendicularly to the main flow and can, for example, be
used to stir solid elements in the main flow on one side of the channel or even to mix a multiphase main flow.

I. Microfluidics
 4 Nonmechanical micropumps
The flow rate can easily be controlled since it
varies as the square of the driving voltage
(which is proportional to the wave amplitude).
Meng et al. [87] have reported a maximum flow
velocity of 1.15 mm/s for an input voltage of
12 V. Moreover, Nguyen and White [85] have
reported a maximum backpressure gradient of
67 bar/m with a 10 nm wave amplitude in a
5 μm high microchannel. Such devices can be
used to stir, mix, and efficiently pump any fluid
in small microchannels without the need of a
large pressure gradient [86, 88, 89], or as a gravi-
metric sensor and viscometer [90, 91]. Because of
their gentle pumping mechanism without mov-
ing parts, valves, or any heating involved, they
can be used to handle any type of liquid or gas
and even transport very sensitive biological
samples such as liquids containing DNA. More-
over, they can do so at low operating
voltages [87].
3.2.2 Centrifugal micropumps
Centrifugal micropumps use rotational
mechanical energy to add momentum to the
moving fluid. The design of such a device usu-
ally consists of a rotating element having impel-
lers, a means to make this element move, an inlet
centered over the axis of rotation, and an outlet
port on the side located at the same level as the
impellers [92]. Simply put, the rotation of the
impellers will push the fluid toward the periph-
ery of the device and the outlet, thus generating
an overpressure and an underpressure at the
inlet. While some devices are actuated remotely
through rotating magnetic fields and permanent
magnets on the rotating element [92, 93], other
devices are actuated using a simple electrical
motor connected by a shaft to the rotating
element [94].
This kind of device can generate a very large
flow rate, up to 5 L/min with a maximum
backpressure of 160 mbar [93]. The pressure
generated depends on the operating fre-
quency. In terms of dimensions, centrifugal
micropumps can be quite small, Matar et al.
I. Microfluidics
47
[92] have reported a device having a footprint
of 10  12 mm2. The thickness is not men-
tioned but pictures of the actual device show
a device thinner than 10 mm. However, only
remotely actuated devices can reach these
dimensions. Their properties mainly depend
on the magnetic field as well as the operating
frequency. They also have a simple valveless
and battery-free structure without mechanical
problems since the rotating element is moving
surrounded by fluid and does not generate
heat. Moreover, the remote actuation can be
very interesting in applications such as medi-
cal implants since all the energy storage and
larger equipment could be placed outside of
the body while the micropump could easily
be placed under the skin. However, this
remote magnetic actuation is not without its
drawbacks. Indeed, actuation speed is limited
due to synchronization issues between the
rotating magnetic field and the rotating ele-
ment inside the pump and the coils used to
generate this rotating magnetic field need to
be placed in close proximity with the micro-
pump, which can be problematic since they
heat up when electrical current flows through
them [93].
4 Nonmechanical micropumps
Nonmechanical micropumps do not have
mechanically moving parts which makes them
more reliable when compared to mechanical
ones as they exhibit a simpler design and a lim-
ited number of failure modes. However, they do
rely on the interaction between at least a fluid
and external forces or its environment through
interfacial tension manipulation. This adds sev-
eral constraints, whether it is on the physical
properties of the fluid that can be handled, or
even on the size of the system itself. Neverthe-
less, such operation mechanisms can prove very
efficient and especially well-suited to some par-
ticular applications.
48
4.1 Electrohydrodynamic micropumps
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) micropumps
are based on the interaction of an electric field
with charged particles in a dielectric fluid that
exhibits a very low conductivity in the range
1012 to 106 S/m. Three different methods have
been developed to generate charge in the fluid
and therefore achieve EHD pumping: ion-drag
(or injection), induction, and conduction [7, 95].
4.1.1 Ion-drag pumping
Ion-drag pumping setup (see Fig. 4) requires
a series of electrodes inside a pipe containing a
liquid, sharp electrodes connected to a high volt-
age are called emitters, while regular electrodes
connected to the ground are called collectors.
Due to the high voltage difference applied to
the electrodes, charges will be injected from
the emitter inside the liquid and accelerated by
the electric field due to the Coulomb force. These
charges in motion will interact with particles of
the liquid and ionize them, making them sensi-
tive to the Coulomb force. Because of their rela-
tively large mass compared to the charges
injected from the emitter, the motion of these
ions will be the main cause of fluid flow within
the pipe due to the drag force exerted on the
adjacent particles in the liquid. Pumping perfor-
mances rely on the properties of the dielectric
fluid, namely its permittivity, conductivity,
FIG. 14 Schematic of an ion-drag pumping setup. Charges injected from the emitter electrode and accelerated by the elec-
tric field will interact with the particles of the liquid and ionize them making them sensitive to the Coulomb force. The motion
of these ions will, in turn, induce a drag force on the rest of the liquid, thus generating a net flow.
3. Micropumps for drug delivery
and viscosity. Best performances are achieved
with fluids having a high permittivity and low
viscosity while low electric conductivity and
mobility will lead to high pumping efficiency
[96]. Richter and Sandmaier [97] have reported
a maximum flow rate of 14 mL/min and a max-
imum backpressure of 25 mbar using ethanol
with an applied voltage of about 500 V.
4.1.2 Induction pumping
Induction pumping setup (see Fig. 15)
requires a series of parallel electrodes used to
generate traveling electric fields that will attract
or repel the charges in a given direction. In order
to generate those charges, there must be a con-
ductivity gradient in the fluid perpendicular to
the expected flow direction. This conductivity
gradient, which creates free charges, can be
achieved with a temperature gradient imposed
on a slightly conducting fluid [98]. The traveling
electric fields will move the free charges and this
motion will then exert a drag force on the rest of
the liquid. The higher the temperature, the
higher the conductivity and the smaller the
permittivity [95]. The resulting flow has the
same direction (resp. the opposite direction)
than the travelling wave propagation when the
wall of the pipe in the vicinity of the electrodes
is colder (resp. hotter).
Singhal and Garimella [99] have reported a
maximum total flow rate of 0.372 mL/min
I. Microfluidics
 4 Nonmechanical micropumps
FIG. 15 Schematic of an induction pumping setup. The
series of parallel electrodes are used to generate a traveling
electric field that will attract or repel the charges generated
in the fluid by the conductivity gradient. This conductivity
gradient is usually generated by a temperature gradient on
the channel. The motion of the free charges in the traveling
electric field will induce a drag force on the rest of the fluid
thus generating a net flow.
coming from 40 parallel microchannels. The
fluid used is deionized water and the applied
voltage has an amplitude of 200 V and a fre-
quency of 122 kHz. However, the maximum
backpressure is not mentioned.
4.1.3 Conduction pumping
Conduction pumping refers to a mechanism
in which the charges result from the
dissociation-recombination process of neutral
electrolytic species within the fluid [100, 101].
Conduction pumping setup (see Fig. 16)
requires a series of asymmetric (narrow and
large) electrodes inducing an asymmetric elec-
tric field that is stronger closer to the narrower
FIG. 16 Schematic of a conduction pumping setup. The
series of asymmetric electrodes (narrow and large) are used
to create an asymmetric electric field that will increase the
dissociation rate of neutral electrolytic species within the
fluid, thus creating a net charge density in the vicinity of
the electrodes called the heterocharge layer. The net flow,
directed from the narrower to the larger electrode, results
from the Coulomb body force exerted on these charges.
I. Microfluidics
49
electrode and weaker closer to the larger elec-
trode. Neutral species in a liquid tend to disso-
ciate and recombine at the same rate but the
imposed electric field mainly increases the dis-
sociation rate, thus creating a net charge density
in the vicinity of the electrodes called the hetero-
charge layer [100]. The charges of the ions in the
fluid are opposite to the adjacent electrode,
hence the name heterocharge layer. Finally, the
attraction of these charges to the adjacent elec-
trode generates a net flow, directed from the nar-
rower electrode to the larger electrode, due to
the resulting Coulomb body force.
A maximum flow rate of 1 mL/min with an
applied voltage of 800 V and a maximum back-
pressure of 2 mbar has been reported by Pearson
and Seyed-Yagoobi [102]. The liquid used in this
case was the refrigerant HCFC-123.
From the three ways to achieve EHD pump-
ing, ion drag is the one yielding the highest flow
rate. However, injecting charges at the metal
(electrode)/liquid interface can deteriorate the
fluid and can be hazardous. Induction and con-
duction pumping do not share this drawback. In
general, EHD pumping is associated with low
manufacturing costs, easy control, as well as
higher efficiency and reliability compared to
other counterparts [95]. These pumps can easily
be integrated with standard microelectronic
based on silicon manufacturing techniques,
making them especially suited for cooling pur-
poses of these systems. Moreover, scaling down
is favorable to EHD pumping since lower volt-
ages can be used to create the same electric field
strength.
4.2 Electroosmotic micropumps and
electrophoresis
Electroosmotic pumping is based on electro-
osmosis, which is the movement of an
uncharged liquid relative to a stationary
charged surface due to an externally applied
electric field [103]. The phenomenon requires
the solid surfaces of the channel containing the
50 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
liquid to be charged. It is worth noting that, even
if they are not charged, most solid surfaces will
become charged when in contact with an aque-
ous solution. For example, a silica surface, which
is composed of silanol groups, will experience
the solvation of the hydrogen atom of its alcohol
group when immersed in an aqueous solution.
This protonation of water will make the solid
surface negatively charged, thus creating an
electric double layer (EDL) at the interface (see
Chapter 1). In these conditions, when an electric
field is applied to the system (see Fig. 17), the
mobile ions in the EDL will move in the direc-
tion of the electric field if they are cations (which
is the case when considering a silica surface) and
in the opposite direction if they are anions. The
motion of those mobile ions close to the surface
will also induce a drag force on the rest of the liq-
uid, thus generating a net flow of the bulk fluid.
This so-called electroosmotic flow (EOF) has the
particularity of having a flat flow velocity profile
(see Fig. 17). However, this profile will be dis-
rupted if the channel internal diameter becomes
FIG. 17 Schematic of an electroosmotic micropump. The
charges in the glass channel and the charges in the ionic solu-
tion spontaneously form an EDL. The electric field applied
along the channel will induce a motion of the mobile ions
in the EDL which will, in turn, drag along the other particles
of the liquid, hence generating a net flow.
I. Microfluidics
wider than 200–300 μm [104]. In this case, the
surface tension of the liquid becomes not strong
enough to maintain this flat velocity profile in
the center of the channel at the velocity gener-
ated at the solid surfaces. It is worth noting that
if the flow generates backpressure, the flow
velocity profile will also be affected. The result-
ing profile is the superposition of two forward
flat and backward parabolic profiles [36, 37].
In terms of flow regulation, the higher the
applied voltage (and thus the higher the electric
field), the higher the flow rate. However, apply-
ing a high electric field will also generate more
heat due to Joule heating and can also eventually
lead to short circuits and sparking. Other means
do exist to decrease (or conversely increase) the
EOF by acting on the fluid itself, for example:
lower the pH, increase the ionic strength or
add neutral hydrophilic polymers.
In addition to open channels, porous sub-
stances are also widely used to create EOF. Elec-
troosmotic pumps (EOP) based on porous
substances can be separated into three catego-
ries: packed-column, porous-membrane, and
porous monolith [36, 37].
Typically, microfabricated open-channel
EOPs are able to generate flow rates of up to tens
of μL/min with a maximum backpressure up to
several bar for an applied voltage ranging from 4
to 2000 V [36, 37]. Paul et al. [105] have reported,
for a packed-column EOP, a maximum back-
pressure of more than 550 bar. This sort of EOPs
can also generate flow rates up to 0.8 mL/min
for an applied voltage of several kV [106].
Porous membrane EOPs are overall the most
efficient with Yao et al. [107] reporting a maxi-
mum flow rate of 33 mL/min with a maximum
backpressure of 1.3 bar for an applied voltage of
100 V. This sort of EOPs can also create a maxi-
mum backpressure of 16 bar for an applied volt-
age ranging from a few tens to several hundreds
of volts. Finally, Gan [108] have reported a
porous monolith EOP having a maximum flow
rate of 5.0 mL/min with a maximum backpres-
sure of 1.5 bar for an applied voltage of
 4 Nonmechanical micropumps
500 V. Maximum backpressures are usually of
this order of magnitude for this type of EOPs
but with flow rates around 1000 times slower
and an applied voltage 10 times larger [36, 37].
It is important to note that a slower flow rate
is needed in order to have a larger backpressure
and vice versa.
Most EOPs are operated under a continuous
DC voltage creating a continuous steady flow
rate but pH changes and bubbles generated by
electrolysis at the electrodes can lead to serious
issues inside of microfluidic channels. This can
be avoided by using an alternating AC voltage
but even though operating EOPs under an AC
voltage does not create any net electrolysis, it
does not generate any net flow either, making
it suitable for mixing but not pumping. There-
fore, in order to generate a net EOF, the solution
is to create a nonuniform electric field using an
asymmetric electrode [36, 37]. Changing one of
its dimensions will induce a net EOF from the
smaller to the larger electrode. Another way to
achieve this consists of creating a traveling elec-
tric field instead of modifying the geometry of
the electrodes. Nevertheless, AC EOPs are not
commonly used and do have a low pumping
power when compared to DC EOPs.
Generally, EOPs are able to generate high,
pulse-free and stable flow rates against high
backpressures and can be readily inserted into
microfluidic devices. Moreover, having no mov-
ing parts makes it suitable to handle sensitive
biologics. Downscaling is favorable since the
same electric field strength can be created at a
lower applied voltage. It is also less sensitive
to Joule heating and makes it possible to achieve
flat velocity profiles. However, their robustness
and reliability have been a concern in some
applications where several different fluids are
used since the working principle of the system
depends a lot on the interaction between the
fluid and the solid surfaces. However, if neces-
sary, an EOP can be built so as to isolate the sam-
ple or reagent of interest from the fluid used to
generate the pumping [36, 37]. A high voltage
I. Microfluidics
51
and the need for an electrically conductive solu-
tion can be considered as the two major limita-
tions of EOPs.
Because of their working principle, EOPs are
especially well suited for analysis, whether it is
pharmaceutical, forensics, clinical, foodstuff,
environmental, chemical, or biochemical. This
is due to the electrophoretic effect of the applied
voltage on the system. Electrophoresis is the
migration, in an electric field, of charged species
in a direction and a rate determined by their
charge and mobility [104]. Because it can be more
than one order of magnitude larger than the
effective electrophoretic mobility of the charged
species, EOF makes nearly all the species present
in the fluid move in the same direction (see Fig.
18). In a microchannel, the EOF, because of its flat
flow profile, makes the subsequent in-line analy-
sis of the species that have been electrophoreti-
cally separated very effective.
4.3 Magnetohydrodynamic micropumps
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) micropumps
are based on the Lorentz force FL experienced by
an electrically conductive fluid in electric and
magnetic fields:
F L ¼ J  BVD
FIG. 18 Schematic showing the electrophoretic separation
of the differently charged species in electroosmotic flow. The
Coulomb force is the source of the electroosmotic flow (EOF)
but it will also induce migration of the different ions in a
direction and with a magnitude that depend on their charges
and mobilities. However, since the EOF can be more than one
order of magnitude larger than the effective electrophoretic
mobility of the charged species, EOF makes nearly all the
species present in the fluid move in the same direction.
52 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
FIG. 19 Schematic of a magnetohydrodynamic pumping
system. The walls of the rectangular channel that are dis-
played here are electrodes through which a current is
applied. The permanent or electromagnets are not shown
here but are placed so as to generate a magnetic field perpen-
dicular to the applied current. The resulting Lorentz force
will set the ions in the electrolyte in motion, which will, in
turn, generate a net flow due to the drag force exerted on
the other particles of the liquid.
where J is the current density (in A/m2), B is the
magnetic flux density, and VD is the volume of
the device [109]. The setup, as can be seen in
Fig. 19, is relatively straightforward. A channel
with a rectangular cross section has two opposite
walls acting as electrodes that are perpendicular
to the desired flow direction. Moreover, a mag-
netic field is applied orthogonally to both the
electric field and the fluid flow direction. When
this channel is filled with an electrolyte and sub-
jected to an electric field and a magnetic field, the
charged particles in the fluid will be set in motion.
This motion will then induce a net flow due to the
drag force exerted on the other particles of the liq-
uid. There are two types of MHD micropumps,
DC and AC.
4.3.1 DC MHD pumping
DC MHD micropumps are characterized by
the application on the system of a DC current
and a static magnetic field generated, most of
the time, using a permanent magnet. It is inter-
esting to note that the flow obeys Poiseuille law
in microchannels and has a profile similar to
pressure-driven flow [109, 110]. Considering a
fixed permanent magnet, the direction of the
electric field controls the direction of the flow.
This pumping mechanism requires a conduc-
tive liquid. If the conductivity is too low, then
I. Microfluidics
the liquid can be subject to an EOF, which can
have a negative effect on the desired MHD flow.
Jan and Lee presented an MHD pump that
exhibits, using seawater as fluid conductive
fluid and a magnetic flux density of 0.44 T, a
maximum flowrate of 63 μL/min at 1.8 mA
and a maximum backpressure of about
1.8 mbar at 38 mA [111]. Homsy et al. [109] have
reported a maximum flow rate of 0.5 μL/min
and a maximum backpressure of 0.28 mbar
with an applied voltage of 20 V and a 0.4 T per-
manent NdFeB magnet. Because of the applica-
tion of a DC voltage, water electrolysis will
generate bubbles that can be detrimental to
the flow inside microchannels. To prevent this
problem, one can either isolate fluidically the
electrodes so that the bubbles generated cannot
affect the flow of the micropump or use an AC
MHD micropump instead of a DC one. Other
adverse effects of this DC voltage include elec-
trode degradation due to Faradaic reactions
[109] and Joule heating. The performance of a
DC MHD pump is also limited by the max mag-
netic flux density generated by a permanent
magnet (typically 1 T). The possibility to gener-
ate bidirectional flow is an attractive feature of
MHD pumps. In contrast to EHD pumps
adapted to a fluid having a very low conductiv-
ity (<106 S/m), MHD pumps are compatible
with a medium conduction solution, for exam-
ple 1 S/m [111].
4.3.2 AC MHD pumping
AC MHD micropumps are characterized by
the application on the system of both an oscillat-
ing current and an oscillating magnetic field. In
this case, it is necessary to use an electromagnet
to generate the oscillating magnetic field, mak-
ing the system more complex and less efficient
than the DC one. Even though the flow gener-
ated using this kind of pump is actually pulsed,
only the time-averaged flow rate is considered at
high frequencies. Using such frequencies is also
desirable in order to avoid water electrolysis and
therefore bubble formation. Phase management
 4 Nonmechanical micropumps
controls both the speed and the flow direction.
The liquids that can be pumped are the same
as with the DC system except for the liquid
metals because of the heating by Eddy currents
that can strongly affect the expected flow. How-
ever, this problem can be minimized by laminat-
ing the electrodes [112]. Eijkel et al. [112] have
reported a maximum flow rate of 6 nL/min
and a maximum backpressure of 0.26 mbar with
an applied voltage of 2.8 V, a magnetic field of
flux density amplitude 0.1 T, and a frequency
of 2.44 kHz. The main problem left with this
AC configuration is the heating of the system.
Joule heating is still occurring, the same as in
the DC configuration but heating due to induc-
tion and Eddy currents also add up.
Because its performance increases with the
conductivity of the liquid being pumped, MHD
micropumps are well suited to handle physiolog-
ical liquids that require a high buffer concentra-
tion. It can also be used as a side actuation in
order to perform stirring, mixing [113], or even
to direct a fluid inside a fluidic network [114].
Moreover, they are also suitable to handle small
quantities of liquid metal. However, in doing so,
using AC MHD micropumps can be problematic
because of the generated Eddy currents [115].
4.4 Capillary micropumps
Capillary micropumps are based on surface
tension manipulation and capillary forces (see
Chapter 1 of this book). These surface-driven
flows are predominant at the microscale while
gravitational and pressure-driven flows are
commonly exploited at the meso- and macro-
scales. Three operating modes can be distin-
guished to control the surface properties of a
system: purely passive, thermocapillary, and
electrocapillary mechanisms.
4.4.1 Passive capillarity
Passive capillary systems are purely based on
capillary forces. In this case, no modification of
the physical properties of the surfaces in contact
I. Microfluidics
53
with the liquid being manipulated is done dur-
ing the operation of the device. They are being
used for a wide variety of applications, includ-
ing health diagnostics, biomedical analysis, bio-
chemical analysis, environmental monitoring,
forensic, and food quality control [116]. The
most common substrate is paper because it is
compatible with many chemical/biochemical/
medical applications, low-cost, easy to use,
and disposable. It can also be used without the
need for any additional equipment as in the case
for example with pregnancy tests. Otherwise, it
can also be combined with electronic equipment
as it is done for glucose monitoring. Li et al. [117]
have also reported using threads as substrate
but, similar to paper, it suffers from some limi-
tations such as sample retention and evapora-
tion which make this technology not so
efficient in terms of sample transport. It also
means that it is not well suited in some cases
when the sample volume is very small or the
sample concentration is very low [116]. Tian
et al. [118] have proposed a solution to this issue
by combining V-groove channels with paper-
like porous detection zones, thus taking advan-
tage of the short liquid transport time and
reduced evaporation loss in the channels.
Delivery efficiency of the liquid sample becomes
>80% and they also report a maximum flow
rate of 16.67 nL/s in 50 μm wide V-groove
microchannels.
4.4.2 Thermocapillarity
Thermocapillary systems are based on the
Marangoni flow. This flow is driven by internal
pressure differences that are the result of a sur-
face tension gradient at the fluid-fluid interface
in a microchannel. This means that the fluid of
interest must be surrounded by another fluid
(gas or liquid) in order for the system to operate.
In this case, the interfacial tension gradient is
induced by a temperature difference along the
microchannel. A gradient of only a few degrees
per centimeter is enough to generate a flow veloc-
ity on the order of millimeters per second [119].
54 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
The choice of the working fluids is important
since their interfacial tension will determine both
the direction and the velocity of the flow induced
by a given temperature gradient. It is worth not-
ing that the phenomenon does not need conduc-
tive liquids to work and has relatively low power
consumption with respect to more common
mechanical pumps. Therefore, possible applica-
tions are similar to what is done with passive cap-
illary systems. However, it requires much more
power and has a lot more inertia than electroca-
pillary systems. This thermal inertia makes flow
actuation and control slower than what is
achieved with electrocapillarity. Debar and Liep-
mann [120] have reported a maximum flow rate
of 9.3 nL/s and a maximum backpressure of
44 Pa using a vapor bubble in a microchannel
filled with fluid. The temperature gradient is gen-
erated using the thermal properties of a resistor.
Power ranges from 15 to 50 mW.
4.4.3 Electrocapillarity
Electrocapillary systems are based on the
modification of the interfacial tension by the
presence of electrical charges inside a micro-
channel. This phenomenon can be further
divided into three subtypes: continuous electro-
wetting, electrowetting, and electrowetting on
dielectrics.
4.4.3.1 Continuous electrowetting
Continuous electrowetting (CEW) is very
similar in terms of setup to thermocapillarity.
Indeed, it requires two working fluids, the liq-
uid metal to control and another liquid to act
as a surrounding medium, the filler liquid (usu-
ally an electrolyte), both inside a microchannel.
When a voltage difference is applied to the filler
liquid, an interfacial (fluid-fluid) tension asym-
metry is created on the liquid metal, resulting
in the generation of a pressure difference that
will set the liquid in motion. Yun et al. [121] have
reported a CEW micropump generating a flow
rate up to 70 μL/min and a maximum
backpressure of 800 Pa using a mercury drop
I. Microfluidics
in a microchannel filled with an electrolyte at a
driving voltage of 2.3 V. This kind of operation
is typically used in applications such as optical
switches, micromotors, and micropumps [122].
However, such a system is not always suitable
to be used inside a microchannel network
because of the high currents that can occur
and its sensitivity to gravitational forces. More-
over, even if Pollack et al. [123] have reported the
successful driving of an electrolyte instead of a
liquid metal, the variety of the medium that
can be driven using this principle of operation
remains limited.
4.4.3.2 Electrowetting
Electrowetting (EW), contrary to CEW, does
not require another fluid medium. Because of
the setup configuration, an electrical double
layer (EDL, see Chapter 1 of this book) sponta-
neously forms at the liquid-solid interface. In
this configuration, the voltage is applied
between the fluid (usually an electrolyte) and
a solid surface of the microfluidic system. This
will induce a lowering of the interfacial energy
(liquid-solid), thus affecting the apparent con-
tact angle between the electrolyte and the solid
surface. This change will modify the liquid
meniscus and generate its retracting or advanc-
ing motion. A large capacitance of the EDL
enables large changes of the contact angle at
relatively small applied voltages [122]. Com-
pared to other electro-actuated fluid motion,
EW does not generate electrochemical reac-
tions or bubbles as easily and has a power effi-
ciency of 50%. It also allows for very fast
switching capabilities which make it a good
solution for displays and optical switches
applications.
4.4.3.3 Electrowetting on dielectrics
Electrowetting on dielectrics (EWOD) is very
similar to EW, the difference comes from the
nature of the capacitor, which is a thin dielectric
layer instead of an EDL. This configuration
allows the use of highly hydrophobic surfaces
 4 Nonmechanical micropumps
and to apply much higher voltages without
causing any adverse electrochemical reactions
or bubbles. EWOD usually operates at electrical
potentials about 2 orders of magnitude higher
than EW. Prins [124] have reported a maximum
flow velocity of 12 cm/s in an array of parallel
microchannels having diameters of about
350 μm. The driving voltage was around 200 V
and the maximum backpressure was about
400 Pa.
4.5 Bubble-type micropump
The periodical expansions and collapses of
bubbles generated by a heating process can lead
to net fluid flow in the presence of flow rectify-
ing elements as illustrated in Fig. 20. Tsai et al.
developed a bubble-type micropump that
exhibits a maximum flow rate of 5 μL/min at
250 Hz with a 10% duty cycle and total power
consumption of 1 W [125].
Jung & Kwak reported a bubble-type micro-
pump with an embedded heater and also a pair
of nozzle diffuser [126]. Optimum pumping con-
ditions were achieved at 60% duty cycle and an
operation frequency of 0.5 Hz for the circular
chamber, with a maximum flow rate of 6.1
μL/min, and at 40% duty cycle and an operation
frequency of 1 Hz for the square chamber with a
maximum flow rate of 8 μL/min and a maxi-
mum backpressure of 4.9 mbar.
55
Bubble-type micropumps are compatible
with electrically conductive solutions, wherein
Joule heating is used to generate the bubbles,
and nonconductive fluids for which embedded
heaters are required [9]. Moreover, these micro-
pumps can be fabricated at a low cost. The com-
patibility of the fluid with the heating process is
one of the main limitations of this technology.
4.6 Electrochemical micropumps
Electrochemical (EC) micropumps are based
on the pressure generated by gas bubbles. Those
bubbles are the result of water electrolysis. Con-
trary to the other pumping mechanism where
electrolysis is usually a detrimental side effect,
it is here used as the main actuation force. To
do so, a DC current is applied through two elec-
trodes (usually platinum) submerged in an elec-
trolyte solution. This results in the generation of
gaseous dioxygen at the cathode and dihydro-
gen at the anode. At room temperature, the vol-
ume expansion resulting from the transition
from liquid water to gaseous dihydrogen and
dioxygen is on the order of a thousandfold
[127], making this pumping mechanism able to
generate large mechanical displacements. Li
et al. [128] have reported a deflection of over
1.5 mm in their pumping system. These bubbles
can be used in separate reservoirs that will
deform or expand under the pressure increase

FIG. 20 Schematics of a bubble micropump with passive diffuser/nozzle elements during the supply phase (left) and the
infusion phase (right). The flow-rectifying property of this micropump is due to the difference in flow resistance through the
diffuser/nozzle elements.

I. Microfluidics
56 3. Micropumps for drug delivery
and thus act on another fluid reservoir or
directly using them to drive liquids inside
microchannels. Kabata et al. [129] have reported
a maximum flow rate of 13.8 μL/min under an
applied voltage of 1.4 V. The maximum back-
pressure is not mentioned. EC micropumps can
be easily integrated inside microfluidic systems
because of their simple structure and have been
used in biological and medical applications
[128–131] or as a microdosing system [132]. They
also feature low power consumption, low heat
generation, and high efficiency (up to 90%
[128]), and produce an accurate flow rate with
a large driving force [133, 134]. However, the
catalyzing action of platinum electrodes can
reverse the reaction and thus create a backflow,
inducing in turn errors in volume dosing. Gases
can also remain partly dissolved in the electro-
lyte and therefore do not generate the expected
volume and pressure, again inducing errors in
volume dosing [132].
5 Challenges and future trends
An outstanding variety of pumping mecha-
nisms have been studied over the last 30 years.
The different micropump technologies reviewed
in the chapter have reached a good level of matu-
rity, and their respective performances are now
well established. Future trends in the healthcare
world include more connectivity between the
devices and an App on a smartphone to improve
patient experience and to follow up on the adher-
ence to its treatment. There is also a growing need
to monitor the infusion accuracy, the micropump
status, and physiological data related to the ther-
apy. It should be pointed out that except for the
micropump, the other elements of a drug delivery
device, including notably the drug reservoir and
the fluidic interconnections, have generated less
academic research. Important challenges remain
to develop a safe, biocompatible, and reliable res-
ervoir that does not impact pumping perfor-
mances over time. The compatibility of the drug
I. Microfluidics
delivery device with standard sterilization pro-
cesses is another aspect that shall be considered
carefully. Finally, the development of a standard
for microfluidic interconnections and a reservoir
platform that can suit different types of micro-
pumps would be desirable to simplify the FDA
clearance process and to reduce the time-to-
market of upcoming drug delivery devices.
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