.

1
Terminologies
Property - A special quality or characteristics of
something

Physical - Something that is real in the sense that it can

be seen, felt, etc, and thus can be derived
Physical Property - A describable quality of something
observable
Examples:
 Length
 Mass
 Smell
 Temperature
 Color
 Conductivity

Quantity - An amount or a number of something

Physical Quantity - A physical property that can be
expressed in numbers.
Example:
 Length being quantified: 16m

Measurement - Is simply a comparison of a physical

quantity with the standard
Metric System English System
meter, kilogram, second foot, pound, second

International System of Units (SI)

o Le Systeme International d" Unites - is
the modern form of Metric System It is
the system of units that the General
Conference on Weights and Measures
has agreed upon and is legally enforced
in almost all parts of the world.

Physical Quantities
Base Quantities Derived Quantities
There are seven base These are combined base
quantities quantities

Expressed in base units Expressed in combined

base units
 Unit Conversion
A conversion factor is a multiplier equal to 1
 Derived Quantities and Units
There are derived units express online in based unites
There are also derived units with special names and
symbol for their units
4. If a number is greater than one, all zeroes to the
right of the decimal point are significant.
Example: 7.00 km has three significant figures.
5. If a number is less than one, only the zeroes at the
end of the number and the zeroes between two
nonzero digits are significant. Example: 0.02010
g has four significant figures.
6. The zeroes immediately to the left of an
unexpressed decimal point are not significant.
Example: 400 m has one significant figure.

Trivia
 Newton - Isaac Newton
 Pascal - Blaise Pascal
 Joule - James prescott joule
 Watt - James Watt
 Coulomb - Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
 Volt - Alessandro Volta

Significant Figures
The number of digits in a value, also a ratio, that
contribute to the degree of accuracy of the value are
significant figures. At the first non-zero integer, we
begin counting important figures. For an assortment of
numbers, measure the sum of important figures.
1. All nonzero digits are significant. Example: 1.234
kg has four significant figures.
2. Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant.
Example: 40 507 cm has five significant
figures.
3. Zeroes to the left of the first nonzero digit are not
significant. Example: 0.009 dm has one
significant figure.
 2 spherical in shape was supported by the following
Over a period of centuries, the ancient Greeks
developed an elaborate view of Earth and the universe.
They were first to explain the motion of the heavens
using pure observation without incorporating mysticism
or myths. In this lesson, you will understand the theories
developed by Greek thinkers to explain the motion of
heavens.
3 Types of Terrestrial Motion
 Diurnal Motion - Apparent daily motion of the
heavens from east to west in which objects
seem to rise and set, a phenomenon caused by
the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis.
 Annual Motion - Whenever you observe the
heavens over a long period of time, you will see
that the moon circles the Earth. The different
phases of the Moon, observed even during the
time of Ancient Greeks supports this
phenomenon. For a longer period of time, the
Sun has been observed to be moving slowly
against the stars and its position during sunrise
and sunset changes along the horizon. This
phenomenon is due to the yearly revolution of
the Earth around the Sun and constitutes
another type of terrestrial motion called annual
motion.
 Precession of the Equinoxes (Precession) - is a
movement of the celestial equator, the
projection of the earth's equator in space, with
respect to the fixed stars and the ecliptic, the
path of the Sun`s motion in space as viewed
from the Earth.
o This was the effect of the wobbling of
the Earth every 26, 00 years, which is
due to the gravitational pull of the both
Sun and Moon on the planet.
Spherical Earth
Various shapes were
used to describe the Earth during
the early times. It was only
during time of Pythagoras that it
was first thought of to be
spherical in shape. Sphere is
considered the perfect geometric
shape and the Greeks believed
that the most important objects in the universe – Earth
and the universe according to Plato - are appropriately
described as spherical. The notion that the Earth is
widely accepted observations:
When ships sail in and out from the harbor, the
mast of the ship is the first to appear and last to
disappear.
As you travel north or south, the altitude of the
celestial pole changes.
During a lunar eclipse, the shadow of Earth is
always round, a shadow that only a sphere can produce.
Greek Model of the Universe
Anaximander (610-546 BC) - In his
model, Earth was surrounded by
air, then one or more spherical
shells with holes in them. The holes
appeared as stars because beyond
the solid sphere lay a rim of fire.
Herakleides (390-310 BC) - A student of
Plato and Aristotle improved the ideas
of Philolaus (470- 385 BC). In his
model, Mercury and Venus revolved
around the Sun, while the Sun and
other planets revolved around the
Earth. The stars were fixed on a revolving crystalline
sphere.
Aristarchus of Samos (310-320 BC) - He
proposed a model that placed the Sun
at the center of the Universe. In his
theory, all planets, including the
Earth, revolved around the Sun in
circular orbits and that the Earth
rotated once a day on its axis and the moon revolved
around the earth.
Constraints on the Greek Models: Plato’s
“Saving the Appearance”
Plato (427-347 B.C.) - He adopted the ideas of
Pythagoras (580-500 B.C.) and came up with his own
model of the universe. Since he believed that spheres
and circles (sphere in 2d) constitute perfection in
geometrical shapes, he argued that "bodies in the
heavens" should be appropriately defined and described
by perfect shapes, including how they move. Thus, he
modeled the orbit of a planet as perfectly described by
a circle and that planets, just like stars, move in a
circular motion at constant speed.
However, even with his new model, Plato was not able
to address retrograde motion. So, in order to "save the
appearances”, Plato challenged his students, and the
astronomers and mathematicians of his time posing
before them this question: how to account for (save) the
seemingly irregular planetary phenomena
(appearances) using only uniform, circular motion?
Observation of Astronomical Phenomenon
Eudoxus (408-355 B.C.) - He was a student of Plato and
used geometry to envision a model which could explain
the irregular motion of the planets without going away
from the notion of perfectly uniform and circular
motion of planets. His model described a structure of
spheres within spheres, sharing a common center.
 (427-347 B.C.) - Note that the center of the
universe in this model is the Earth. Using this
model of the universe, Eudoxus was able to
roughly explain the apparent motion of the
planets as seen from the earth.
Aristotelian Model of the
Universe (384-322 B.C.) - He
proposed that the Earth was
indeed the center of the
universe and that the Moon,
planets, and stars revolved
around it. This was derived from the ideas of Eudoxus.
According to Aristotle, the universe was composed of a
series of 53 concentric crystalline, transparent spheres
rotating on different axes with the Earth as their center.
 Furthermore, he believed that the Moon serves
as a boundary between an ever-changing Earth
and the heavens, which was unchanging and
constant. For Aristotle, motion in the heavens
was natural and circular, allowing the other
planets and the Sun to orbit around the spherical
Earth.
Ptolemaic Model of Planetary
Orbits - Claudius Ptolemy,
(A.D. 120-180) developed a
model of the universe by
combining his works and
observations made by earlier
astronomers. His model, accepted until 1600s, naturally
places a stationary Earth at the center of the universe.
According to this Ptolemaic model, the celestial sphere
rotated around the Earth once every 24 hrs.
 The motion of the Sun and other planets can be
described by epicycles, deferent, and eccentric
positions. As shown in the figure the epicycles
refers to the circular path taken by a planet
orbiting point X, a point anywhere in the
deferent. The deferent refers to the circular path
around point C, the center of the motion,
travelled by point X.
 Note that the location of C is not the same as
that of the Earth. Eccentric is the angle formed
between point C and location of the Earth with
X as the vertex. Ptolemy's major contribution,
however, was that his model could so
accurately explain the motions of heavenly
bodies, it became the model for understanding
the structure of solar system.
Copernican Heliocentric
Model - Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543)
developed his own model
of the universe when he
observed a discrepancy in
Ptolemy`s prediction table. Influenced by Aristarchus,
he proposed a model that put the Sun at the Center of
the universe.
 Copernicus explained that the Earth rotated
daily on its axis. At the same time, along with
other planets, it revolved around the Sun in
circular paths.
 Aside from being able to predict planetary
position as the Ptolemaic model, the
Copernican model was able to explain the
retrograde motion of planets by the relative
motion between them and the Earth.
 Retrograde motion occurs whenever a planet
that passes by Earth is passed by another planet.
Galileo's Observations - Gallileo Galilei (1564-1642), by
improving the telescope, discovered three of Jupiter's
four largest moons, namely: Io, Europa, and Ganymede.
 Natural satellites orbit the planet since they
would occasionally disappear.
 Moons were behind the planet Jupiter.
 Using a telescope, Galileo was able to observe
Venus going through a full set of phases, just
like the Moon. Under the Ptolemaic system.
Venus would have only been allowed the new
and crescent phases as it would never be
possible that Venus be fully lit from the
perspective of the Earth (this requires Venus to
be on the far side of the Sun, which is
impossible on the Ptolemaic system where
Venus orbits around the Earth). This
observation essentially ruled out the Ptolemaic
system and was compatible only with the
Copernican System. Galileo`s observation of
Venus`s phases proved that Venus orbited
around the Sun. However, it only lent support
but did not prove the heliocentric theory
proposed by Copernicus.
Tycho Brahe`s Contribution - In year 1572, Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601), known to have extensive and more
accurate observations of planets and stars even without
the use of telescope. He
observed the following:

 A new star
appear in the
constellation
Cassiopeia.
 The absence of observable movement with
respect to nearby stars led him to believe that
this particular heavenly body was star and not a
comet
 Create a model that use the concept of
epicycles, deferents, equants
Johannes Kepler and the Law of Planetary Motion -
Johannes Kepler (1571- 1630) He believed in the
Copernican System. He was an assistant of Tyco Brahe.

Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion

Kepler`s First Law of Planetary Motion
(Laws of Ellipses) - states: "all planets
move in elliptical orbits with the sun as
one of the focal points."
Kepler`s Second Law of Planetary Motion
(Law of Equal Areas) - states: "a line joining the Sun and
a planet sweeps out equal areas at equal length of
time."

 It also suggests that a planet travels with

varying speed on its orbit, with the planet
travelling
faster when it
is closer to the
Sun than
when its is
farther away
Kepler`s Third Law of Planetary Motion (Law of Periods) -
states: “the square of the
orbital period of planet is
directly proportional to the
cube of the average distance of the planet from the
Sun." In equation form, the law can be expressed as
follows:
 3 - Displacement is a vector
with both magnitude and
direction

Motion
 Motion is always relative. When one says that an
object is moving, he/she is comparing the
position of that object with another object.
 Motion is therefore change in position of an
object with respect to another object over time.
 Kinematics studies motion without delving into
what caused the motion.

Aristotelian Motion

 Natural motion, also called vertical motion, on

Earth was explained by Aristotle as the natural
tendency of an object to go its natural place. Speed vs. Average Speed
According to Aristotle, it was natural for heavy
Speed Average Speed
things to fall and for very light materials to rise.
Speed is the rate at which Describes the total
Thus, using the elements that made up the
distance changes. distance travelled within
Earth, Earth's natural place is water, water a given time interval
below air, air below fire and all below aether. Is a scalar quantity which
 On the other hand, violent motion is the result tells the distance
of removing an object from its natural place. travelled within a given
Example of violent motions are pulling of a time interval.
wagon by a horse and the lifting of a box from
the ground by a man. Based on these examples,
Aristotle's view were considered reasonable
because they were literal interpretations of what
was observed with the naked eye.
Speed vs. Velocity
Galilean Motion
Speed Velocity
 Galileo believed that even when he had stopped Speed is a scalar (how Velocity is a
pushing cart, its natural tendency was to fast something is moving combination of speed
continue to move without any assistance. regardless of its and direction.
According to him, the reason why the cart direction).
tended to slow down or stop was because of Ex: v= 20 mph at 15°
friction - a force that opposes the motion of an Ex: v = 20 mph south of west
object.
Speed is the magnitude The symbol for speed is
Distance vs. Displacement of velocity. v.
Distance Displacement The symbol for velocity
(d) Δx is type written in bold: V
You drive the path, and Your displacement is the or hand written with an
your odometer goes up shorter directed distance arrow: v
by 8 miles (your from start to stop (green
distance). arrow).
Velocity vs Average Velocity
how far you have Displacement is the
traveled, regardless of change in position (or Velocity Average Velocity
direction location) Is a vector quantity that Describes the change in
describes the change in displacement within a
displacement with given time interval.
respect to change in time.
Uniform Motion a short period of time as shown in the distance
versus time graph in figure on the right.
 An object is said to be in uniform motion when Mathematically, it can be said that the distance
it is moving with constant velocity. Suppose a is proportional to time squared ( d a t2 ).
marble is placed on a leveled smooth surface.  In a velocity versus time graph, the motion of
What will happen to the marble? In that the marble is represented by a straight line. Its
orientation, the marble will just stay at rest. If shape is the same as the distance versus time
given an initial push to the left, it will travel left graph of uniform
at a seemingly uniform rate. If initially pushed motion. The slope of the
to the right, it will move to the right also at graph is the change in
seemingly uniform rate. This means the marble velocity per unit of time
is in uniform motion wherein its velocity which is also known as
remains constant and has zero acceleration. the acceleration.
Distance VS Time Graph - The motion of the marble can  Since the motion of the
be presented by using line marble in the velocity
graphs. The figure below versus time graph shows
shows the relationship a straight line, its
between the distances acceleration is uniform
covered by the object over a through out its motion.
period of time. In equation Thus, the acceleration of
d=vt the steepness or slope of the graph represents the an object caused by
velocity of the object. gravity as it descends along a straight inclined
plane is constant.
Velocity vs Time Graph - The
velocity vs time graph of the Acceleration – how fast you speed up, slow down or
marble is just a straight change in direction; it’s the rate at which velocity
horizontal line as shown in changes. Two examples:
the figure. The height of the
line represents the velocity
of the object, while the area
on the right is straight line from time = 0 and t represents
the distances covered.
Acceleration vs Time Graph -
Since the object is in uniform
motion, its acceleration is equal
to zero, Thus, the graph has no
line or dot on it.

Constant Acceleration Motion

 An object is said to be
accelerating when it
travels with varying
velocity. The object
may be speeding up,
and slowing down, or changing direction. The
rate at which an object changes its velocity is
known as acceleration. In equation, it can be
expressed as:
 Note: SI unit for acceleration is m/s2 or m/s/s.
 Suppose the same marble
is placed on an inclined
smooth surface. How will
you describe its motion? In
that orientation, the marble
covers longer distance for

4 Ex. When a moving car suddenly stops, the
Newton`s Law of Motion Sir Isaac Newton (1642- 1727
 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy).
 The studies of Galileo prompted Sir Isaac
Newton to develop the three Laws of motion
which explain why things behave the way they
do. Galileo concluded from his experiments
that objects in motion tent to maintain their
state of motion while an object that is originally
at rest will remain at rest. He called this
tendency of an object to maintain its initial state
of motion inertia
Law of Inertia
Every body persists in its state of being at rest
or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar
as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed.
Simply stated — "An object at rest tends to stay
at rest, an object in motion tends to stay in uniform
motion unless acted upon by some external net force.'
Inertia
 Capacity of an object to resist changes in
motion.
 More Mass = More Inertia
 The more mass an object has, the greater the
resistance of an object to move; thus, it has
more inertia. In this case, mass, initially defined
as the amount of matter in an object, can also be
defined as the measure of inertia possess by an
object.
 Mass is a measurement of an object's inertia
whether at rest or in motion.
Types of Inertia
Inertia of Rest
 The inability of a body to change by itself its
state of rest is known as Inertia of Rest.
 Ex. Person sitting in a car falls backwards,
when the car suddenly starts. It is because the
lower portion in contact with the car comes in
motion whereas the upper part tries to remain at
rest due to inertia of rest.
Inertia of Motion
 Inability of a body to change by itself its state
of uniform motion is known as Inertia of
motion.

person sitting in the car falls forward because
the lower portion of the body in contact with the
car comes to rest whereas the upper part tends
to remain in motion due to inertia of motion.
Inertia of Direction
 The inability of a body to change by itself its
direction of motion
 Example: When a car moves round a curve the
person sitting inside is thrown outwards in
order to maintain his direction of motion due to
inertia of motion.
Force
 A force is a push or a pull.
 A force is an interaction between two objects or
between an object and its environment.
 A force is a vector quantity, with magnitude and
direction.
4 Common Types of Forces
1. The normal force:
When an object
pushes on a surface,
the surface pushes
back on the object perpendicular to the surface.
This is a contact force.
2. Friction force: This force
occurs when a surface
resists sliding of an object
and is parallel to the surface.
Friction is a contact force.
3. Tension force: A pulling
force exerted on an object by
a rope or cord. This is a
contact force.
4. Weight: The pull of gravity
on an object. This is a long-
range force (a force that acts
over a distance).
Net Force
 Sum of the vectors representing these multiple
forces operating on an object is net force.
 If the net force is not zero, there will be some
acceleration, meaning there is
 motion.
 If the net force is zero, there will be no
acceleration (no motion).
 Gravitational
Force

Frictional Force

MORE EXAMPLES
1. An applied force of 70 N is used to accelerate an
object to the right across a frictional surface. The object
encounters 20 N of friction and 90 N of gravitational
Law of Acceleration force. Use a diagram to determine the normal force, the
net force, the mass, and the acceleration of the object.
 states that "the
acceleration of an
object is directly
proportional to the
net force and
inversely
proportional to
mass" it can be
expressed in the following equation:
 Thus, if the net force acting on object is zero,
then its acceleration is zero. If the acceleration 2. An applied force of 20 N is used to accelerate an
is zero, the object remains at rest or in uniform object to the right across a frictional surface. The object
motion, which is consistent with the first law. encounters 10 N of friction and 100 N of gravitational
The illustrate, a few examples are given in the force. Use a diagram to determine the normal force, the
following slides. net force, the coefficient of friction (μ) between the
object and the surface, the mass, and the acceleration of
the object. (Neglect air resistance.)

3. A rightward force is applied to a 6-kg object to move

it across a rough surface at constant velocity. The object
encounters 15 N of frictional force. Use the diagram to
determine the gravitational force, normal force, net
force, and applied force. (Neglect air resistance.)

Finding Acceleration and Individual Forces

NAME FORMULA
Net Force
4. A rightward force is applied to a 5-kg object to move
it across a rough surface with a rightward acceleration
of 2 m/s/s. The coefficient of friction between the object
and the surface is 0.1. Use the diagram to determine the
gravitational force, normal force, applied force,
frictional force, and net force. (Neglect air resistance.)

Law of Interaction
States that: “for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction”