CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

Network: Interconnection of the network elements is called network

Network elements: 1.Passive elements: Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor

2. Active elements: Energy sources (Voltage source, current source)

1. Passive elements:

Resistor[R]: It opposes the flow of current in a circuit.

Inductor [L]: It is a storage element; it stores the energy in the form of electromagnetic field.

Capacitor[C]: It is also a storage element; it stores the energy in the form of electrostatic field.

Passive elements in series connection:

Resistor: Three Resistors (R1, R2 and R3) are connected in series as shown below .Then the total
resistance of the circuit is

Rtotal =R1+R2+R3

Inductor: Three Inductors (L1, L2 and L3) are connected as shown below. Then the total inductance
of the circuit is

Ltotal=L1+L2+L3

Capacitor: Three capacitors (C1, C2 and C3) are connected as shown below. Then the total
capacitance of the circuit is

1/Ctotal= 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3
Passive elements in parallel connection:

Resistor: Three resistors (R1,R2 and R3) are connected in parallel as shown below. Then the total
resistance of the circuit is

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1/Rtotal=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

Inductor: Three Inductors (L1, L2 and L3) are connected parallel as shown below. Then the total
inductance of the circuit is

1/Ltotal=1/L1+1/L2+1/L3

Capacitor: Three capacitors (C1, C2 and C3) are connected in parallel as shown below. Then the
total capacitance of the circuit is

Ctotal= C1+C2+C3

2. Active elements

Energy sources:

1. Independent energy sources:

a. Independent voltage source:

It gives constant voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its
terminals.

b. Independent current source:

It gives constant current at its terminal irrespective of the voltage appearing across its
terminals.

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2. Dependent energy sources:

a. Voltage dependent voltage source:

The value of this voltage source depends on the value of voltage elsewhere in the circuit.

b. Current dependent voltage source:

The value of this voltage source depends on the value of current elsewhere in the circuit.

c. Current dependent current source:

The value of this current source depends on the value of current elsewhere in the circuit.

d. Voltage dependent current source:

The value of this current source depends on the value of voltage elsewhere in the circuit.

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Active elements in series connection:

Voltage sources in series can be combined and replaced with a single source

Two or more current sources are allowed in series is when they have exactly the same magnitude
current, the current is flowing in the same direction

The multiple current sources in series can be replaced by a single source with the same magnitude,
direction of current flow

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ALLOWED NOT ALLOWED

Active elements in parallel connection:

Two or more voltage sources are allowed in parallel is when they have exactly the same voltage,
polarity
The multiple voltage sources can be replaced by a single source with the same voltage

ALLOWED NOT ALLOWED

Current sources in parallel can be combined and replaced with a single source.

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Network Terminology:

Branch:

A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with one another is
called a branch.In the figure A-B,B-C,C-D,D-A,D-E,C-F and E-F are the various branches .A branch
may consist more than one element.

Junction point:

A point where three or more branches meet is called a junction point. In the figure point D
and point C are the junction points.

Node:

A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node. The junction points
are also the nodes of the network. In the figure A, B, C, D, E and F are the nodes of the network.

Loop:

A set of branches forming a closed path in a network is called a loop. In the figure A-B-C-D-A, A-B-
C-F-E-D-A, D-C-F-E-D are the loops of the network.

Classification of Electrical Networks:

1. Linear network:

A network whose elements are always constant irrespective of change in time, voltage,
temperature is called linear network.

Example: networks consisting R, L and C elements are the linear networks.

2. Non linear network:

A network whose parameters change their values with change in time, temperature and voltage
is called non linear network.

Example: networks consisting diode, transistor etc. are the nonlinear network.

3. Bilateral network:

A network whose behavior and characteristics is same irrespective of the direction of current
through various elements is called bilateral network.

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Example: networks consisting only Resistors is the good example for bilateral network.

4. Unilateral network:

A network whose behavior is dependent on the direction of current through various elements is
called unilateral network.

Example: networks consisting diode and transistor is the good example for unilateral network.

5. Active network:

A network consisting at least one energy source is called Active network.

Example: network consisting voltage source, current source etc. are the active networks.

6. Passive network:

A network which contains no energy source is called passive network.

Example: networks consisting only elements like R, L and C without energy source are called passive
networks.

What is Network Analysis?

For any network three things are associated with it .These are i) network elements. ii) Input i.e. excitation.
iii) Output i.e. response
In the network analysis, the network elements are known and excitation is also known. Using number of
techniques, the networks are studied and the response is obtained. So obtaining a response for a known
network and known excitation is called network analysis.

What is network Synthesis?

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Network Analysis Techniques:

1. Ohm’s Law:

According to ohm’s law, the current flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to applied
voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.

I= V/R

The power absorbed by the resistor is P = v i

= (iR) i (since i=v/R)
= i2R
= (v/R) 2 R
=V2/ R
Energy dissipated in a resistor in a time t is
W= (v i) t= (i2R) t= (v2/R) t

2. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:

a. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

It states that the sum of the currents entering in to any node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that node.

Since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it. By
rearranging the terms, we get

OR

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It states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero

b.Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

It states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

OR
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

3. Voltage division Rule:

Consider the circuit in figure, where two resistors are connected in series across a voltage source
and therefore have the same current through them.

Let a current i is flowing through the circuit. We analyze this circuit directly by applying Ohm’s law
and Kirchhoff’s law.

By applying Ohm’s law at each resistor. We obtain

v1 = iR1 , v2 = iR2

By applying KVL to the Loop. We obtain

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Above two Equations shows that v1and v2 are fractions of vs. each fraction is the ratio of the
resistance across which the divided voltage is defined to the sum of the two resistances.

Current division Rule:

Consider the circuit in Figure, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the
same voltage across them.

From Ohm’s law,

v = i1R1 = i2R2--------------[1]

i1=v/R1, i2=v/R2

Applying KCL at node a gives the total current is as

is = i1 + i2

is=v/R1+v/R2

is=v [R1R2/R1+R2] ===> v=is [R1R2/R1+R2]------------------[2]

From equations [1] and [2]

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i1 and i2 show that the current divides between two resistors in parallel such that the current in
one resistor equals the current entering the parallel pair multiplied by the other resistance and
divided by the sum of the resistors.

Problems:

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4. The voltage across the 16Ω resistor is 80 V

a) Find the power dissipated in each resistor
b) Find power supplied by the 125V source.
c) Verify that the power supplied equals the total power dissipated.

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5.

Nodal Analysis:
It provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables

Steps to determine the node voltages:

o Select a node as the reference node.
o Assign voltages v1, v2… vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes. The voltages are referenced
with respect to the reference node.
o Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
o Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

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Example problems on Nodal Analysis

1. Find the current IX and voltage VX in the circuit shown below.

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2. Find the voltage VX in the circuit shown below.

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Mesh Analysis:
• Mesh analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the
circuit variables.
• Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it (independent loop).

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

• Assign mesh currents i1, i2, i3…in to the ‘n’ meshes
• Apply KVL to each of the ‘n’ meshes
• Solve the simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

Example problems on Mesh analysis

1. Find the current i in the circuit shown below using mesh analysis.

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2. a) Determine the number of mesh-current equations needed to solve the circuit shown

b) Use the mesh-current method to find how much power is being delivered to the dependent
source

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Thevenin’s Theorem:
It states that a linear two-terminal circuit (Fig. a) can be replaced by an equivalent circuit (Fig. b)
consisting of a voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH, where
VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals.
RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

Steps to apply Thevenin’s Theorem:

• Disconnect the load resistance.
• Determine the open circuit voltage (VOC i.e VTH) across the load terminals by using circuit
laws.
• Determine equivalent resistance RTH of the circuit by turning off all the independent sources.
• Now arrange circuit as shown below

• Now reconnect the load resistance across the terminals and find the output.

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Example problems on Thevenin’s theorem

1. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a, b in the circuit shown.

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2. Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit. Then find i.

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Superposition Theorem:
It states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltage across (or currents through) that element due to EACH independent source acting
alone.

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one independent
source by calculating the contribution of each independent source separately.

Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using
nodal or mesh analysis.
3. Repeat step 1and step 2 for each of the other independent sources.
4. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions
due to the independent sources.
Two things have to be keep in mind:
➢ When we say turn off all other independent sources:
o Independent voltage sources are replaced by 0 V (short circuit) and
o Independent current sources are replaced by 0 A (open circuit).
➢ Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

Example problems on superposition theorem:

1. using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit

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2. Find i in the circuit using the superposition principle

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