Chandra kumari Chapter - 1

How To Balance A Chemical Equation:

Step 1: Write correct formulas of reactants and products. Step 2: Balance
How To Determine Empirical and Molecular Formula: Deals with the calculation of masses of the number of C atoms.
Step 1: Conversion of mass percent to grams. products and reactants involved in a Step 3: Balance number of H atoms. Step 4: Balance number of O atoms.
Step 2: Convert into number moles of each element. reaction. Step 5: Verify the number of atoms of each element.
Step 3: Divide the mole value obtained above by the smallest number.
Step 4: Write empirical formula by mentioning the number after writing the symbols of respective
elements.
Step 5: Writing molecular formula
(a) Determine empirical formula mass. Add the atomic masses of various atoms present Atomic Mass Unit (amul): A mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Molecular Mass: Sum of atomic
in the empirical formula. masses of the elements present in a molecule. Formula Mass: Sum of the atomic weights of atoms in a molecule. One Mole is the
(b) Divide molar mass by empirical formula mass. amount of a substance that contains as many particles/entities as there are atoms in exactly 12g (or 0.012 kg) of the 1 2 C isotope.
(c) Multiply empirical formula by n obtained above. Molar Mass: Mass of one mole of a substance in grams.

Ma
ss P
er ce
nt

M
ar = Mass of solute ×100 Mass of

ol
M ol a ri t y
it y
solution

= No. of moles of solute Volume of

solution in litres

= No. of moles of solute

Some Basic Mass of solute in kg
Concepts I m p o rt
a n ce
na of Chemistry of
Ch
em
Mole Fraction of A= n +n
ac tio n i st
a b Mo l e Fr

ry
nb Mole
Fraction of B= n +n n
a b o
ti
ca • In meeting human needs for food, health care products and other products required
Homogenous : Uniform for improving quality of life.

i
if
s
composition (Sugar solution, air) • In diverse areas such as weather patterns, functioning of brain and operation of a

as
computer.

Cl
t in any ra ti o. ( ai r,t
• In chemical industries.
p res en ea )
Hetrogenous: Non-uniform
composition (Mixtures of salt and
sugar.)
Have definite volume and shape.
(i) Solid: Particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion with no freedom
of movement.

(i) Gay Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volume: Have definite volume but no definite shape.
When gases combine or all produced in (ii) Liquids: Particles are close and can move around.
a chemical reaction they do so in simple ratio by volume
provided all gases are at same temperature and
pressure. (iii)Gases: Particles are far apart and their movement is easy and fast.
(i) Avogadro Law: Equal volumes of gases at the same Neither have definite volume nor definite shape.
temperature and pressure should contain equal number
of molecules. (iii)Dalton's Atomic Theory: Elements:Contains one type Compounds:Two or more
•Matter consists of indivisible atoms. atoms of different Properties of Matter:
of particles i.e., atoms, (i) Physical: Properties measured/observed without changing the identity or composition of substance.
•All the atoms of a given element have identical properties molecules (N a,Cu) elements (H2 O, NH3 )
including identical mass. (Colour, odour)
•Compounds are formal when atoms of different (ii) Chemical: Properties measured/observed when a chemical reaction occurs. (Acidity or Basicity,
elements combine in a fixed rate. combustibility)
•Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reaction.
Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. It
was given by Antoine Lavoisier. Law of Definite Propportions: A given compound Measurement of Matter:
always contains exactly the same proportion of elements. It was given by Joseph -International System of Units (SI): (Length-m)
Proust.
-Mass is the amount of matter present in a substance.
Law of Multiple Porportions: If two elements can combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other -Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
element are in ratio of small whole numbers. It was given by Dalton. -Uncertainty of measurement: Range of possible values within which the true, value of the measurement lies.
Significant figures: Meaningful digits known with certainty.
-Precision: Closeness of various measurements for same quantity.
-Accuracy: Agreement of a particular value to true value of result.

1
 Mind map : learning made simple

2
Chapter - 2
Number of protons Atoms of same element having same atomic number
• Emission Spectra: Spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy. but different mass number. (Isotopes of hydrogen)
(Z) + number of neutrons
• Absorption Spectra: It is like photographic negative of an emission spectra. Protium 1H1 , Deuterium 2D1 and
(n)
• Line / Atomic Spectra: Emission Spectra which do not show a continuous spread of wavelength
from red to violet, rather they emit light only at specific wavelength with dark space between
them.
Number of protons in nucleus By J.J.Thomson Charge to mass ratio of electron
of an atom or Number of Tritium 3 T 1, = 1.758820 × 10 1 1 C kg- 1
electrons in a neutral atom
Atoms of different elements with Charge an electron = 1.6022 × 10 –19C Mass of electron =
different atomic number but same mass 9.1094 × 10 –31Kg
number. (Ca and Ar)
–
v = 109677 ( n112 n122 ) cm–1 where
n1=1,2………….n2=n1+1, n1+2……… By Ernest Rutherford
Series n n Spectral Region Ty
1 2 Ultraviolet p Charge on proton = +1.6022 × 10 C Mass of–19
Lyman 2,3......... es
1 Visible Infrared : Proton= 1.672 × 10 –27 Kg

rs:
Balmer 3,4.........

ba
Paschen 2 Infrared
4,5.........

I so
Brackett Infrared
3 5,6.........
Pfund 6,7......... By James Rutherford
4
Charge on neutron = 0
5 Ne u tro n
o ve r y of Mass of neutron= 1.675 × 10 –27 Kg
D i sc
B oh r's Mo de l f or H y d
r og
en m : (Wa ter me lo n Mo Atom possesses a Electron
Postulates: A to od e l o f A to del)
m s on M spherical shape in
•Electron in H atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and
T h om which the positive charge is uniformly
energy called as orbits. These orbits are arranged concentrically around the nucleus. s Nu cl ea r M o d e distributed. Positive space
Ru th e rf or d' l of A
•Each of these orbits has a definite energy known as energy levels or stationary states.
Structure to m
•When an electron jumps from a lower energy level to higher one, some energy is absorbed.
of Postulates:
Atom • Positive charge and most of the mass of atoms was densely concentrated in
extremely small region (ie) nucleus.
• E E 2 -E 1 Bohr's frequency rule. • Nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with high
v= n= n h
Angular momentum of electron: me vr = n 2 n=1,2,3..... speed in circular path called orbits.
Limitations: • Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
•Unable to account for finer details of H atom. Spectrum observed by sophisticated Drawbacks:
spectroscopic techniques.
• It cannot explain the stability of an atom.
•Could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds. • It does not say anything about the electronic structure of atoms.

• Dual behaviour of atom i.e., particle and wavelike. De Broglie

equation: = h =mv
h p Dual nature ie wave like and particle like of the electromagnetic
radiation.
• Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact • Experimental results regarding atomic spectra.
position and momentum of an electron It is the phenomenon of • Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation: It was given by James
h ejection of electrons from the Maxwell.
x. P >x = – surface of a metal when light Frequency ( ): Number of waves that pass a given point in one second.
4 of suitable frequency strikes Unit – Hertz (Hz), Velocity of light = Frequency × Wave length Wave
on it.
v. x = h 4 number (– ): Number of wavelengths per unit length. Unit – m-1
• Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation:
Fundamental Equation was developed by Schrodinger as H = E = where H= Planck's quantum theory: E= h Planck's constant (h) = 6.626 ×
Hamiltonian 10 –34 Js
>

>

•Aufbau Principle: In the ground Lower the value of (n+l)

(i) Principal quantum number (n) :n = 1,2,3,4………….. Shell = K, L, M, N.......
a b c
(i)s p d .........
(ii) Azimuthal Quantum number : For given value of n ,l = 0 to n-1 notation
(iii) Magnetic Quantum number (m) : for subshell with ‘l' value ml=2l+1 (ii)Orbital
diagram
(iv) Spin Quantum Number (ms ): + 1/ 2 ( ), – 1/ 2 ( )
state of atoms, the orbital's are filled for an orbital, lower is its
according to increasing energies. energy.
•P auli Exclusion Principle: No2
electrons in an atom can have same set
of four q u a n t u m n u m b e r s .
•Hund's rule: Pairing of electrons in
the orbitals belonging to same subshell
s Or bitals : p Or bitals :
does not take place until each electron d Or bitals – ‘’Clov e r le af ’’ dis tr ibution.
belonging to the subshell is singly Sphe r ic ally s ymme tr ic Eac h p Or bitals c ons is ts of two s e c tions c alle d
– Two angular node s .
occupied. Siz e inc r e as e s with inc r e as e in lobe s on e ithe r s ide of plane pas s ing thr ough

s p d s iz e in n, ie , 4s >3s >2s >1s

the nuc le us . z dxy z dxz z dyz
Z Z
2Px 2Py

z
x x y xy z xy x
z
y Z y dx2–y2
y y pz dyz Z

dz2
x x x
1s 2s y
y x y x
Siz e .4p>3p>2p