PHARMACOGNOSY

MODEL PAPER – 1
Syllabus to be covered in
this module are-
 Chapter-1 Definition, History, Present Status,
and Scope of Pharmacognosy
 Chapter-2 Classification of Drugs
 Chapter-3 Quality Control of Crude Drugs
 Chapter-4 Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Glycosides,
Volatile Oils, Tannins & Resins

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Questions
Long Questions-
Ques.1 Explain in detailed about the history of pharmacognosy.

Ques.2 Give the complete classification of crude drugs.

Ques.3 Write in detailed about drug evaluation.

Ques.4 Discuss in detailed about alkaloids

Short Questions
Ques.1 Write down the scope of pharmacognosy.

Ques.2 Give the alphabetical classification of crude drugs.

Ques.3 Write a short note on morphological classification of crude drugs.

Ques.4 Differentiate between taxonomical classification & pharmacological classification

of crude drugs.

Ques.5 What are the reasons for the adulteration of the drugs?

Ques.6 Enlist the methods of adulteration.

Ques.7 Write a short note on significance of pharmacopeial standard.

Ques.8 Give the identification test for alkaloids.

Ques.9 Give the distribution of terpenoids.

Ques.10 Write a short note on volatile oil.

Ques.11 Explain tannins.

Ques.12 Differentiate between resins & glycosides.

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Long Answers
Ques.1 Explain in detailed about the history of pharmacognosy.
Ans- History of Pharmacognosy Including Indigenous System of Medicine
History of Pharmacognosy is as old as history of human civilization. The primitive men and women had
used animal and plants as their food material.
The edibles which were innocent and without any side effects were used as food from one
generation to another generation and so on but the plant or animal or their parts which caused untoward
effects like vomiting, purgation, drowsiness, death etc were not used as a food. They were used for other
purposes e.g., mustard, ipecac etc. The plant causing purgation were used as purgative in case of
constipation e.g., castor oil, aloe, senna, rhubarb, myrobalan etc. The herbs causing death were used as an
arrow poison to hunt the animals e.g., strophanthus. Such knowledge about different properties of the
plants and animals was accumulated from time to time and was passed from generation to another
generation initially orally and later written from on stones, clay, leaves etc.
Each country has its own history for the crude drugs.
In India four Vedas (Atharvaveda, Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda) were written by Brahma
about 5000 years ago regarding the religious advice to live in the society, uses of the crude drugs etc. In
each Vedas use of many plants are described as medicine.
In Rigveda: 67 herbs are described
In Atharvaveda: 290 herbs are described
In Yajurveda: 81 herbs are described
In Samaveda: no herbs are described
The language used in the Vedas is difficult for a common man to understand so about 3000 years ago
Charak Rishi wrote a treatise called as "Charak Samhita"
Charak Samhita describes uses of the different crude drugs from about 350 plants, animals, and
mineral kingdom. It also describes how to collect them, how to use them, how to live etc. Later, about
2500 years ago Sushrut Rishi wrote another treatise based on Vedas, it is called as "Sushrut Samhita" It
describes uses of about 395 plants. He had also described about the surgery and the instruments used and
some names for the surgery. Later, more and more books were written like Sarang Dhar Samhita, Bhrigu
Samhita, Astanghradaya, Aryabhisek etc.) on the uses of different plants, animals, minerals, and treatment
of different types of diseases.
Egyptians were also familiar with human anatomy and uses of different plants which are described
in "Papyrus Ebers" it is a very big written document (3500 years ago) found from Egyptian mummies.
Different plants and plants parts are also found from the mummies.
Greeks have also contributed a lot of knowledge regarding the plant and animal kingdoms.
Hippocrates (460-370 BC) is referred to as a "Father of Medicine" He is remembered for his famous
Oath which is still administered to the doctors before conferring the degree for the medical practice.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) has written about "Animal Kingdom" Still today his writings are considered as
authoratives. Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.), students of Aristotle, has written about the "Plant
Kingdom".
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Ayurveda
The doctrine of Ayurveda aims to keep structural and functional entities in a functional state of
equilibrium, which signifies good health. Any imbalance due to internal and external factor causes
disease and restoring equilibrium through various techniques, procedures, regimes, diet, and medicine
constitute treatment. The philosophy of Ayurveda is based on the theory of Panchabhootas (five element
theory) of which all the objects and living bodies are composed of.

Siddha
Siddha system of medicine emphasizes that medical treatment is oriented not merely to disease,
but also must consider the patient, environment, age, habits, physical condition. Siddha literature is in
Tamil and it is largely practiced in Tamil speaking parts of India and abroad.

Unani
Unani System of medicine is based on established knowledge and practices relating to promotion
of positive health and prevention of diseases. Although Unani system originated in Greece, passed
through many countries, Arabs enriched it with their aptitude and experience and the system was brought
to India during Medieval period. Unani System emphasises the use of naturally occurring, most herbal
medicines, though it uses ingredients of animal and marine origin.

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Homeopathy
Homeopathy is a system of medicine, which believes in a specialized method of treatment of
curing diseases by administration of potency drugs, which have been experimentally proved to possess
the power of producing similar artificial systems on human beings.

Yoga and Naturopathy

Yoga is a way of life, which has the potential for improvement of social and personal behaviour,
improvement of physical health by encouraging better circulation of oxygenated blood in the body,
restraining sense organs, and thereby inducing tranquillity and serenity of mind. Naturopathy is also a
way of life, with drugless treatment of diseases. The system is based on the ancient practice of application
of simple laws of nature. The advocates of naturopathy focus on eating and living habits, adoption of
purification measures, use of hydrotherapy, baths, massage etc.

Ques.2 Give the complete classification of crude drugs.

Ans- Classification of Crude Drugs
The term 'CRUDE DRUG' generally applies to the products from plant and animal origins found in a
raw form.
They are unprocessed form of natural products which are treated for their packing and to prevent
them from deterioration.
 Crude Drug Le, Simple drug.
 Crude drugs are the plant, animal, or their parts which after the collection are subjected only to
drying or making them into transverse/longitudinal slices pieces, or peeling them in some cases.
They exist in natural form.
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 Crude drugs may be derived from various natural sources like plants, animals, minerals, and
micro-organisms etc.
 Because of their wide distribution the arrangement of classification in a definite sequence is
necessary to understand easily. Although each system of classification has its own merits and
demerits, but for the purpose of study the drugs are classified in the following different ways:
 Alphabetical Classification
 Morphological Classification
 Taxonomical Classification
 Pharmacological Classification
 Chemical Classification
 Chemo-taxonomical Classification

1. Alphabetical Classification
 It is the simplest way of classification of any disconnected items.
 The crude drugs are arranged according to the alphabetical order/form of their Latin and English
names.
 Some of the Pharmacopoeias, dictionaries and reference books which classify crude drugs
according to this system are as follows
 Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 1955 (Latin)
 Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 1966 (English)
 British Pharmacopoeia (BP) (English)
 British Pharmacopoeia Codex (BPC) (English)
 United States of Pharmacopoeia (USP) (English)
 European Pharmacopoeia (Latin)

Advantages
 It is a simple method, in this system location, tracing and addition of the drug are easy.
 No technical person is required for handling the system.

Disadvantages
 Scientific nature of the drug cannot be identified by this method, whether they are organised or
unorganised drug.
 This system does not help in distinguishing the drugs of plant, animal and mineral sources.

Examples:
Acacia Datura Jalap Rauwolfia
Agar Digitalis Kalmegh Scilla
Amla Ephedra Kino Senna
Bael Ergot Lemon peel Tobacco
Benzoin Eucalytus Linseed Urgenia
Beeswax Fennel Methi Vasaka
Benzoin Ginger Mustard Withania
Beeswax Gokhru Nutmeg Yeast
Catechu Honey Orange peel
Cinchona Ipecac Picrorhiza
Cinnamon Isapgol Quassia wood
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2. Morphological Classification
Here the crude drugs are arranged (Grouped) according to the part of the plant or animal
represented into organised (Cellular) drugs and unorganised (Acellular) drugs.
Organised drugs (Cellular)
Drugs are the direct parts of the plant and are divided into leaves, barks, wood, rhizome, seed,
fruit, flower, stem, hair and fibres.
Plant Parts Drugs
Leaves Datura, Senna, Vasaka, Digitalis.
Barks Cinnamon, Cinchona, Kurchi.
Wood Quassia, Sandalwood, Red sanders.
Roots Rauwolfia, Liquorice, Ipecae.
Rhizomes Ginger, Podophyllum, Turmeric.
Flowers Clove, Saffron, Pyrethrum.
Seeds Nux vomica, Linseed, Isapgol.
Fruits Fennel, Coriander, Dill.
Stems Ephedra
Hair and Fibres Cotton, hemp, Jute.

Unorganised drugs (Acellular)

Drugs are the products of plant, animal and mineral source and they are divided into dried latex,
dried juice, dried extracts, gums, resins, fixed oils and fats, waxes, volatile oil, animal products, minerals
(solids, liquids, semi-solids etc).
Plant, Animal, Mineral Drugs
Dried latex Opium, Papain
Dried Juice Aloe, Kino
Dried extracts Agar, Catechu, Pectin
Gums Acacia, Tragacanth, Stericulia
Resins Benzoin, Colophony, Asafoetida
Fixed oils and fats Castor, Chaulmoogra, Cotton seed
Waxes Beeswax, Spermaceti
Volatile oils Coriander, Cinnamon, Clove
Animal products Bees wax, Shark liver oil, Gelatin
Minerals Bentonite, Kaolin, Tale

Morphology of Higher Plants

1. Flower
It is the essential reproductive organ of a plant. For an inexperienced observer two characteristics of a
flower are particularly noteworthy: the size and the colour. Although the flowers are of great botanical
importance, they are only a minor source of drugs used in phytotherapy or pharmacy e.g., chamomile
(Matricaria recutita) L. (Asteraceae).
2. Fruit

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Caraway (Carum carvi L.) (Umbelliferae)
3. Seed
Coffee (Coffea arabica) (Rubiaceae)
4. Leaves
The leaves function as collectors of the sun's energy and its assimilation. A characteristic key of a species
is the way how the leaves are arranged on the stem which they may be: Alternate spiral, Alternate
Distichous, Opposite Decussate or Whorled.
5. Bark
The bark as an outer protective layer frequently accumulates biologically active substances e.g. red
cinchona (Cinchona succirubra L.)
Difference between organized and unorganized drugs
Organized Drugs Unorganized Drugs
These may be plant, animal or mineral origin. These may be of plant or animal origin
These are direct parts of plant or animal. These are the products of plant or animals.
These have cellular structure. These do not have well defined cellular
Generally identified by morphological structure.
character Generally identified by organoleptic properties.
Examples Digitalis leaf, cinchona bark and Examples: Agar, gelatin, honey.
ephedra stem

Advantages
 This system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially when the chemical
nature is not clearly understood.
 This type of classification is very useful in identifying the adulterants used.

Disadvantages
 It does not give an idea about biological source, chemical constituents and uses.
 When different parts of the plants contain different chemical constituents, it is difficult to classify
them.

3. Chemical Classification
The crude drugs are divided into different groups according to the chemical nature of their most important
constituent present in the drug to which the pharmacological/therapeutic activity of the drug is attributed.

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Chemical constitutents Drugs
Alkaloids Datura, Vasaka, Vinca, Lobelia.
Glycosides Cascara, Senna, Digitalis.
Tannins Catechu, Myrobalan, Ashoka.
Volatile oil Clove, Eucalyptus, Cinnamon.
Lipids Castor oil, Beeswax, Arachis oil.
Carbohydrates and derived Products Acacia, Agar, Honey, Linseed, Tragacanth,
Resins Starch.
Vitamins & Hormones Colophony, Benjoin.
Proteins & enzymes Yeast, Shark liver oil, Insulin.
Gelatin, Papain.

The chemical classification of drugs is dependent upon the grouping of drugs with identical constituents.
Types of the chemical constituents:
A. Primary metabolites
1. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones containing an unbroken chain of
carbon atoms.
 Gums: Acacia, Tragacanth
 Mucilages: Plantago seed.
 Others: Starch, Honey, Agar, Pectin, Cotton

2. Proteins: and amino acid e.g. Gelatin

B. Secondary metabolites
1. Glycosides: are compounds which upon hydrolysis give rise to one or more sugar part (glycone) and
non-sugar part (aglycone).
 Anthraquinone Glycosides: Aloe, Cascara, Rhubarb, Senna
 Saponins Glycosides: Quillaia, Glycyrrhiza.
 Cyanophore Glycosides: Wild cherry bark.
 Isothiocyanate Glycosides: Mustard.
 Cardiac Glycosides: Digitalis, Strophantus.
 Bitter Glycosides: Gentian, Calumba, Quassia.

2. Tannins: are complex organic, non-nitrogenous derivatives of polyhydroxy benzoic acids.

 Examples: Pale catechu, Black catechu, Ashoka bark, Galls and Amla.

3. Volatile Oils: Monoterpines & Sesquiterpenes obtained from plants.

 Examples: Cinnamon, Fennel, Dill, Caraway, Coriander, Cardamom, Orange peel, Mint, Clove,
Valerian

4. Lipids
 Fixed oils: Castor, Olive, Almond, Shark liver oil.
 Fats: Theobrama, Lanolin.
 Waxes: Beeswax.

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5. Resins: Complex mixture of compounds like resinols, resin acids, resinotannols, resins.
 Ex: Colophony, Podophyllum, Cannabis, Capsicum, Turmeric, Balsam of Tolu and Peru, Myrrh,
Ginger.

6. Alkaloids: Nitrogenous substance of plant origin

 Pyridine and Piperidine: Lobelia, Nicotiana.
 Tropane: Coca, Belladonna, Datura, Stramonium, Hyoscyamus, Henbane
 Quinoline: Cinchona
 Isoquinoline: Opium, Ipecac, Calumba.
 Indol: Ergot, Rauwolfia.
 Amines: Ephedra
 Purine: Tea, Coffee.

7. Vitamins: riboflavin
8. Protein: gelatin, ficin, papain.
9. Triterpines: Colocynth
Advantages
 Chemical constituents are known,
 Medicinal uses are known.

Disadvantages
 Drugs of different origin are grouped under similar chemical titles.
 This type of classification makes no proper placement of drugs containing two different types of
chemicals.
 Examples: Certain drugs are found to contain alkaloids and glycosides (Cinchona), Fixed oil and
volatile oil (Nutmeg) of equal importance together and hence it is difficult to categorize them
properly.

4. Taxonomical Classification
In this system the drugs are arranged according to taxonomical studies. The drugs are arranged according
to their phylum, order, family, genus, and species. It is a purely type of botanical classification or
biological classification and restricted mainly to crude drugs from plant source.

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Phylum Order Family Drugs
Angiosperms Liliflorae Liliacae Colchicum, Asparagus
(Monocotyledons) Dioscorea, Vanilla
Microspermae Dioscoriaceae
Papaverales Papaveraceae Opium
Angiosperms (Dicotyledons) Rosales Rosales Almond, Rose oil
Leguminaceae Glycyrihiza, Senna
Rutales Rutaceae Bael, Lemon, Orange
Rhamnales Rhamnaceae Cascara
Malvales Malvaceae Cotton
Umbelliferae Umbelliflorae Coriander, Caraway, Fennel
Gentianales Loganiaceae Nuxvomica
Gentianeae Chirata
Apocyanaceae Kurchi, Strophanthus

Advantages
 Easy for classification of crude drugs.
 Botanical names are same and unique throughout the world.
 Scientific names of plants are helpful as common names are confusing and different in the
commercial landscape business.

Disadvantages
 The system is criticized for its failure to recognize the organised/unorganised nature of crude
drugs in their morphological studies.
 The system fails to face into an account chemical nature of active constituent and therapeutic
significance of crude drugs.
 (Hyocyamus, Datura, Belladonna, Stromonium) are considered with other members of solanaceae.
 The drugs obtained from plants having alternate leaves, flowers, seeds, capsules

5. Pharmacological Classification
The crude drugs are grouped according to the pharmacological action (Therapeutic action) of their chief
active constituents (most important) or therapeutic uses.

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 Bitter − Quassia, Cinchona, Gentian
 Carminatives − Dill, Clove, fennel, Coriander
 Emetics − Ipecac
 Anti-amoebic − Kurchi, Ipecac
 Bulk Laxatives − Agar, Isapgol
 Purgatives − Senna, Castor oil
 Expectorant − Liquorice, Vasaka, Ipecac
 Antitussive − Opium
 Bronchodilators − Ephedra, Tea
 Cardio-tonics − Digitalis, Squill, Stropanthus
 Cardiac depressant − Cinchona, Veratrum
 Antihypertensive − Rauwolfia
 Central analgesics − Opium
 CNS stimulants − Coffee
 CNS depressants − Opium
 Antispasmodics − Bellodonna
 Anticancer − Vinca, Podophyllum, Cochicum
 Antirheumatics − Aconite, Guggul, Colchicum
 Anthelmintics − Vidang, Quassia, Malefern
 Astringents − Catechu
 Antimalarials − Cinchona, Artemisia
 Local anesthetics − Coca

Advantages
 The special advantage is that if even chemical constituents of the crude drugs are not known they
can be classified properly on the basis of therapeutic or pharmacological uses.

Disadvantages
 Regardless of morphology, taxonomical status or chemical nature, the drugs are grouped together,
provided they exhibit similar pharmacological uses.
 Examples: Senna, Castor oil, Jalap, Colocynth are grouped together as purgative laxatives because
of their common pharmacological action.

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S. Pharmacological action Drugs
No. Anticancer Vinca, Taxus, Podophyllum
1 Antimalerial Cinchona, Artemisia
2 Antiasthematic Ephedra, lobelia
3 Anti-inflammatory Colchicum seed, Turmeric
4 Antispasmodic Datura, hyocyamus
5 Antiamoebic Kurchi, ipecac
6 Anthelmintic Quassia, male-fern
7 Astringent Myrobalan, Ashoka bark
8 Purgative Senna, aloe, rhubarb
9 Carminative Coriander, fennel, caraway,
10 Narcotic analgesic cinnamon
11 Expectorant Poppy
12 Cardiotonic Liquorices, Vasaka, balsam
13 Hallucinogens Digitalis, Strophanthus, squill
14 Bitter Cannabis, cocaine
15 Tranquillizer Chirate, Gentian root
16 Rauwolfia

6. Chemo-taxonomical Classification
In this system of classification, the equal importance is given for taxonomical status chemical
constituents. There are certain types of chemical constituents which are characteristics of certain classes
of plants.
Examples: (I) Tropane alkaloids generally occur in most of the members of Solanaceae thereby serving
as a chemotaxonomic marker.
(II) Volatile oils occur in the members of Umbelliferae and Rutaceae.
Similarly plant metabolites can serve as the basis of classification of crude drugs. For example the
berberine alkaloid in Berberis and Argemon, Rutin in Rutaceae members, ranunculaceous alkaloids
among its members etc.
It is latest system of classification and gives more scope for understanding the relationship
between chemical constituents, their biosynthesis, and their possible action.

Ques.3 Write in detailed about drug evaluation.

Ans- Drug Evaluation
Evaluation refers to the Standardization of crude drugs.
Drug evaluation may be defined as the determination of identity, purity, and quality of a drug.
 Identity: Identification of biological source of the drug.
 Quality: The quality of the active constituents present.
 Purity: The extent of foreign organic material presents in the crude drug.

Identity of the drug is confirmed by:

Comparing the sample with an authentic sample
Or
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Comparing with the Official Literature available
Importance of evaluation of crude drugs
 Determination of Biochemical variation in the drugs.
 Identification of deterioration due to treatment and storage.
 Reporting Substitution and adulteration, as a result of carelessness, ignorance and fraud.

Method of Drug Evaluation

The evaluation of a drug is drug done by studying its various properties.
The various properties are
1. Organoleptic evaluation
2. Microscopic evaluation
3. Physical evaluation
4 Chemical evaluation
5. Analytical evaluation
6. Biological evaluation

Organoleptic (Morphological) Evaluation

 It involves study of crude drugs by utilizing our organs of sense.
 Examination of the drug by colour, odour, shape, size, taste, touch, texture and sound is known as
organoleptic evaluation.
 E.g. Taste of fennel is sweet, Taste of clove is pungent, and Leaf of Datura is hairy.
 While evaluating by this method there are certain restrictions like changes in shape and size of
drugs during drying and packing so it is difficult to study the drug by organoleptic evaluation.
 E.g. length of cinnamon quill is 1 metre but mostly it is found in small pieces in the market.
 Digitalis leaves crumble in small pieces during drying and packing.

Microscopic Evaluation
 Study of microscopical characters of the organized drug.

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 Types of cells, tissues present, cell contents like starch, calcium oxalate, mucilage, special
structures like stomata or trichomes present or absent.
 Micro-chemical tests useful in evaluating certain organized drugs (e drugs having cellular
structure). T.S. and L.S. of the drugs are observed under the microscope.
 Every species has a unique anatomy, the study of which helps in their identification process.
 TS and LS of the drugs are studied under the microscope with the help of the staining agent.
 Special attention is given to the type of tissue, their arrangements, presence or absence of special
substances like sodium oxalate crystals, starch grains, size and shape of starch grains, cell contents
etc.
 E.g. Nux vomica have lignified trichomes, Fennel contains vascular bundles which are surrounded
by reticulated parenchyma and shows the presence of vitae which secrete volatile oil.
 Microchemistry: Sometimes small quantities of chemical reagent are used on sections to
highlight specific cells or structures.
 E.g. If we want to observe starch grain then we have to use dilute iodine solution, the area of TS.
containing starch grains becomes blue due to iodine.
 To locate strychnine and Brucine in Nux vomica seeds, we use ammonium vanadate.
 Thus the use of small quantities of drugs and chemical reagent in microscopy is known as
microchemistry
 Following are the examples of microscopic evaluation (Leaf constants)
 Stomatal Number: It is an average no. of stomata present in 1 sq. mm of the epidermis.
 The total number is constant for a given drug. e.g. Drug stomata no. in Datura stramonium 87,
Dinnoxia 141.
 Stomatal Index: It is the percentage which the number of stomata forms to the total no. of
epidermal cells, each stoma being counted as one cell.
 I=Sx100/ (E+S) (where I Stomatal Index, S = No. of the stomata, E = No. of epidermal cell in the
same area.)
 The stomatal index is useful for evaluation of leaf drug however, it is constant for a given species.

Drug Stomatal index

Indian senna 17 to 20
Alexandrian senna 10.8 to 12.6

Vein islet no.: Islet is the area surrounded by vein.

 It is the number of the vein islets per sq. mm of leaf surface.
 It is constant for given species of drug; it is used for evaluation of crude drug.

Drug Vein islet no.

Indian senna 19-23
Alexandrian senna 25-30

 Palisade Ratio: It is the average number of palisade cells beneath one epidermal cell using four
continuous epidermal cells for the count.
 It is constant for given leaf and used for evaluation of leaf.
 e.g.

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Digitalis purpurea 3.7 to 4.2
Datura stramonium 4 to 7
Atropa belladonna 6 to 10

Quantitative Microscopy: (Lycopodium Spore Method)

 It is an important analytical technique for powder drugs, especially when chemical and another
method of evaluation of crude drugs fail as an accurate measure of quality.
 Lycopodium spores are very characteristic in shape and appearance and exceptionally uniform in
size (25 mm).
 On an average, 94000 spores per mg of powdered Lycopodium are present
 A powdered drug is evaluated by this technique, if it contains

1. Well defined particles which may be counted, e.g. Starch grains or pollen grains,
2. Single layered cells or tissues, the area of which may be traced to suitable magnification and actual
area calculated or,
3. The object of uniform thickness, the length of which can be measured under suitable magnification and
the actual area calculated
 The size of starch grains is also important for the detection of adulterants.
 In the case of Cinnamomum cassia, the diameter of starch grains is usually more than 10 microns.
The dimension of fibbers also helps in detecting adulteration in the case of Cinnamon
 The number of sclerenchyma Tous cells per square cm in cardamom is one of the criteria for the
detection of varieties of cardamom seed in powdered form.

Chemical Method of Evaluation

 A number of chemical methods are used to evaluate of main constant of drugs and include
(a) Qualitative chemical tests (b) Quantitative chemical tests

Qualitative chemical tests

 This test depends on colour reaction or production certain colour when treated with certain
chemical reagents
 E.g.: Anthraquinone glycoside (found in senna, cascara, aloe, rhubarb) + KOH = red colour.
 The intensity of the red colour depends on concentration of active constituent – Drug containing
alkaloids such as Atropa belladonna + dragendroffs reagent (orange-red colour), Mayers reagent
(white precipitate).
 Drug containing carbohydrate (CHO) + Molish reagent = violate colour (Molish reagent consists
of 𝛼-naphthol and concentrated H2SO4.
 Drug containing tannins (such as pomegranate) + ferric chloride (Feel3 5%) = green colour.
 Quantitative chemical tests

This method of evaluation consists of isolation, purification & identification of the active chemical
constituent from the crude drug.
This method consists of following tests:
1. Acid value
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3. Iodine value
2. Saponification value
4. Chemical Assay
These tests are applied on non-cellular products such as (fixed oil, volatile oil, waxes, balsam).
The most important quantitative tests are
 Acid value: It's the number of mg of KOH potassium hydroxide required to neutral 1 g of an acid
and it depends on its M. Wt. and number of carboxyl group in its molecule e.g., oxalic about 124,
acetic acid 93.
 Iodine value: Its measure of unsaturated the iodine value is the number of parts of iodine
absorbed by 100 parts by weight of the substance. It's useful constant for acids, fixed oil and
waxes and helps to indicate the composition of complex mixture as well as pure substance.
 Saponification value: In the case of fats and waxes the term saponification value is used the fatty
acids from soup. In these cases the number of milligram of potassium hydroxide (KOH) used to
neutralize the free acids present in the sample plus that required hydrolysis of the eaters 4-Aster
value: (which is characteristic of each ester) it's the number of mgs of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) required to neutralize the acids resulting from the complete hydrolysis of 1 g of the
substance.
 Chemical assay: This method is applied for the evaluation of crude drugs which are similar for
those applied for assays of pure chemicals (gravimetric or colorimetric or titrimetric,…, etc.)
 Example: In assay of belladonna or opium, the total alkaloids of belladonna or opium can be
determined (quantitatively) by acid-base titration or back titration. In chemical assay the drug
must be obtained in very pure form.
 Chemical evaluation also consists of titration, gravimetric analysis, chromatographic analysis,
spectrophotometer analysis, etc.
 Chemical tests are also helpful for the identification of crude drugs.
 The estimation of chief constituents or group of active constituents is an integral part of chemical
evaluation e.g. total sennosides in senna, morphine in opium, citral in lemon grass oil etc.
 The chemical tests also help in proper identification of varieties of the crude drugs e.g. The
solution of lead acetate or lead subacetate is used specifically for chemical identity of gums.

Physical Method of Evaluation

Following are methods of physical evaluation.
(A) Determination of moisture content
(B) Determination of Viscosity
(C) Determination of Melting point.
(D) Determination of Optical rotation.
(E) Determination of Refractive Index
(F) Determination of ash content
(G) Determination of Extractives

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(H) Determination of volatile oil content
(I) Physical methods are used for evaluation wherever they are possible.
(A) Moisture content determination:
 The % of active chemical constituents is always given on an air-dried basis of the drug.
 A simple method to calculate is weighing drug and comparing the weight after placing in
desiccators for 15 mins.
 Moisture content is determined by heating the drug in an oven at 105°C till constant weight.
 The drugs which contain volatile oil, their moisture contents are determined by Toluene
distillation method.
 The excess moisture is harmful to the crude drugs because in its presence chemical constituent of
drug gets hydrolyzed.
 If drug contains excess moisture bacteria, fungi, insects attack the drug & cause deterioration.

Drugs Moisture content %

Aloe W/W
Digitalis Not more than 10% W/W
Starch Not more than 5% W/W
Not more than 15% W/W

(B) Determination of viscosity

 The viscosity of a liquid is constant at a given temp.
 Viscosity is an indication of the purity of the drug.
 It is determined, at 25°C, by using any viscometer the common one is "Ostwald Viscometer" the
viscosity of liquid paraffin should not be less than 64-centimetre stokes
 It is particularly important to detect purity of certain drugs like Honey, Castor Oil, Shark Liver Oil
etc.

(C) Determination of melting point

 It is one of the criteria to determine quality and purity of crude drugs.
 Crude drugs contain a number of chemicals; therefore, their melting point is not sharp but it is in a
range. e.g.

Drug Melting point

Hard paraffin 50 - 57 deg 0C
Beeswax 62 - 65 deg 0C
Cocoa Butter 30 - 33 deg 0C
Colophony 75 - 85 deg 0C

(D) Determination of optical rotation

 Optical rotation is determined by the polarimeter. Certain crude drugs can rotate plane of
polarized light to right (dextrorotatory drug) or to left (laevorotatory drugs.).
 It is determined by using sodium vapour lamp at 250°C Optical rotation is one of the criteria to
determine the quality & purity of the drug.

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Name of drugs Angle of optical
Honey rotation
Clove oil + 30 to - 150
Caraway oil 0 to -1.5°
+70° to + 800

(E) Refractive Index

 When a ray of light passes from one medium to another of different density it bends from the
original path.
 Thus the ratio of the velocity of light in the vacuum to its velocity in substance is refractive index
of substance.
 Refractive index varies with the wavelength of the light.

Drugs Refractive Index

Arachis oil 1.4678 to 1.4698
Clove oil 1.5300 to 1.5310

(F) Ash content

 The residue remaining after incineration (burning) is known as ash content of the drug.
 The ash represents inorganic is a chemical, salt & soil attached to the drug.
 It is a criterion to determine quality & purity.

Drugs Total ash

Aloes 5% W/W
Cannabis 15% W/W
Ginger 6% W/W

 Acid insoluble ash is the part of total ash, which is insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid.
 Soil & sand attached to the drug is determined by acid insoluble ash content.
 Useful for drugs where soil contamination is very common.

Drugs Acid insoluble ash

Cannabis Not more than 5% W/W
Cardamom Not more than 3.5%
Agar W/W
Not more than 1% W/W

(G) Extractives
 Extract value is criteria to determine quality and purity of the crude drug.
 Different types of Solvents are used to prepare extracts of the crude drug because different
chemicals are soluble in the different solvent.
 The solvent is evaporated and weight of extractive is determined.
 There are following types of extractives:

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(a) Water soluble extractive: Water is a good solvent for sugar, mucilage, plant acids, it is used for those
drugs, which contain chemicals.
e.g.
Drugs Water-soluble extractives.
Aloes Should not be less than 25% W/
Senna leaves Should not be less than 30%
Ginger W/W
Should not be less than 10%
W/W
(b) Alcohol soluble Extractives: Alcohol is a good solvent for resins, tannins; it is used for the drug
which contains tannins.
 Generally, 95% ethyl alcohol is used for determination of alcohol soluble extractives.
 Sometimes dilute alcohol may be used according to the solubility of chemicals of drugs.

Drugs Alcohol soluble

Benzoin extractives
Asafoetida Not less than 90% W/W
Ginger Not less than 50% W/W
Not less than 4.5% W/W

(H) Determination of volatile oil content:

Several drugs contain volatile oil. For determination volatile oil content or %% of volatile oil, Kjeldhal
distillation method or Toluene distillation method is used.
Drugs Volatile oil content (% W/W) Not less
Fennel than
Cardamom 1.4% W/W
Caraway 4% W/W
2.5% W/W

Different chromatographic techniques such as thin layer chromatography (TLC) high-

performance liquid chromatography (HPCL), gas chromatography, column chromatography, gel
permeation chromatography, affinity chromatography, as well as techniques like spectrophotometric
method, radioimmunoassay are used very frequently for physical evaluation of crude drugs.

Ques.4 Discuss in detailed about alkaloids.

Ans- Occurrence of Alkaloids
 Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms. The name
was derived from the word alkaline and was used to describe any nitrogen-containing base.
 Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and
animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites) Many
alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to
other organisms.
 They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in
entheogenic rituals.
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 Examples are the local anaesthetic and stimulant cocaine, the stimulant caffeine, nicotine, the
analgesic morphine, or the antimalarial drug quinine.
 Some alkaloids have a bitter taste.
 Physiologically active compounds.
 Insoluble or sparingly soluble in water.
 Crystalline solids, a few are Amorphous,
 Form double salt with compounds of Hg, Au, Pt, and other heavy metals.

Alkaloid Classifications
The classification of the alkaloids is complex and may be guided by a set of rules that take into account
the structure and other chemical features of the alkaloid molecule, its biological origin, as well as the
biogenetic origin where known. For example, where the biosynthesis pathway of an alkaloid is unknown,
it may be grouped based on structural similarities with known compounds, including non-nitrogenous
compounds, or by the organism(s) from which the alkaloid was isolated.
Pyridine group: piperine, coniine, trigonelline, arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine, cytisine, lobeline,
nicotine, anabasine, sparteine, pelletierine.
Pyrrolidine group: hygrine, cuscolygrine, nicotine. Tropane group: atropine, cocaine, ecgonine,
scopolamine, catuabine.
Indolizidine group: senecionine, swainsonine.
Quinoline group: quinine, quinidine, dihydroquinine, dihydroquinidine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine,
cevadine.
Isoquinoline group: opium alkaloids (papaverine, narcotine, narceine), pancratistatin, sanguinarine,
hydrastine, berberine, emetine, berbamine, oxyacanthine.
Phenanthrene alkaloids: opium alkaloids (morphine, codeine, thebaine, oripavine)
Phenethylamine group: mescaline, ephedrine, dopamine.
Indole group: tryptamines: serotonin, bufotenine, psilocybin.
Ergolines: ergine, ergotamine, lysergic acid.
 Beta: carbolines: harmine, harmaline, tetra hydro harmine.
 Yohimbans: reserpine, yohimbine.
 Vinca alkaloids: vinblastine, vincristine. Kratom) alkaloids: mitragynine, 7-hydroxy mitragynine.
 Tabernanthe iboga: ibogaine, voacangine, coronaridine. Strychnosnux-vomica: strychnine,
brucine.

Purine group: Xanthines, caffeine, theobromine, theophylline.

Terpenoid group: Aconitum alkaloids: aconitine.
 Steroid alkaloids: (containing a steroid skeleton in a nitrogen containing structure).
 Solanum alkaloids: (e.g. potato and tomato) (solanidine, solanine, chaconine).
 Veratrum alkaloids: (veratramine, cyclopamine, cycloposine, jervine, muldamine).
 Fire Salamander alkaloids: (samandarin), thers: conessine. Quaternary ammonium compounds
muscarine, choline, neurine.
 Miscellaneous: capsaicin cynarin, phytolaccine, phytolaccotoxin.
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Distribution of Alkaloids in Nature
Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by higher plants-about 10 to 25%
of those contain alkaloids. Therefore, in the past the term "alkaloid" was associated with plants.
The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is inhomogeneous over the
plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves
(black henbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (Rauwolfia serpentina) or bark (cinchona).
Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may contain different alkaloids.
Besides plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungi, such as psilocybin in the fungus of
the genus Psilocybe, and in animals, such as bufotenin in the skin of some toads. Many marine organisms
also contain alkaloids. Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin, which play an important role in
higher animals, are similar to alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called
alkaloids.
Distribution in Plants
1. Dicots are richer in alkaloids then Monocot.
2. Families rich in alkaloids:
 Apocynaceae
 Solanaceae
 Rubiaceae
 Papaveraceae

3. Families free from alkaloids:

 Rosaceae
 Labiatae

E.g., Parts of plants containing Alkaloids

 All Parts: e.g., Datura.
 Barks: e.g., Cinchona
 Seeds: e.g., Nut Vomica.
 Roots: e.g., Aconite.
 Fruits: e.g., Black pepper.
 Leaves: e.g., Tobacco.
 Latex: e.g., Opium.

Identification Tests for Alkaloids

The qualitative chemical tests used for detection of alkaloids depend on the character of alkaloids to
give precipitate as salts of organic acids or with compound of heavy metals like Hg, Au, Pt, etc.
1. Test by Dragendorff reagent (Potassium-bismuth-iodide solution):
Alkaloids give reddish-brown precipitate with this reagent.
2. Test by Mayer reagent (Potassium-mercuric-iodide solution):
Alkaloids give cream colour precipitate with this reagent.

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3. Test by Wagner reagent (iodine-potassium-iodide solution):
Alkaloids give Brown colour precipitate with this reagent.
4. Test by Hager reagent (Saturated solution of picric acid):
Alkaloids give yellow colour precipitate with this reagent.
5. Test by Tannic acid:
Alkaloids give buff colour precipitate with this acid.
6. Test by Picrolonic acid:
Alkaloids give yellow colour precipitate with this acid.
Isolation of Alkaloids
Extraction of Alkaloids
1. Stass Otto method
Powdered plant material
↓ Defatted with non – polar solvent
Defatted plant material
↓
Moist with water and treated with NH3, Dil. Lime solution (Free Alkaloid)
↓ Extracted with organic solvent like chloroform,
either
Extract, Concentrate it
↓
Dissolved in Dil. Acid (Alkaloidal salt)

Aqueous phase Organic phase impurities

↓
Basified with ammonia or sodium
Bi – carbonate or Dil. KOH

Aqueous phase Organic phase (Free Alkaloid)

↓
Evaporate to dryness
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↓
Curde Alkaloids
2. Manske’s Method
Powdered Crude Material
↓ Defatted with non – polar solvent
Defatted Crude material
↓ Extract with methanol
Methanol Extract
↓ Concentrate
Dissolve in water and acidify it upto pH 2 (Alkaloidal salt)
↓
Steam Distillation to remove traces of methanol
↓
Stand for several days in refrigerator OR
Boiled with paraffin
↓ Filter
Filtrate
Shake with organic solvent like chloroform or
ether

Aqueous phase (Alkaloidal salt) Organic phase

↓
Basified with ammonia or sodium
Bi – carbonate or Dil. KOH

Aqueous phase Organic phase

↓
Evaporate to dryness
↓
Crude Alkaloids
Purification of Alkaloids
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1. Direct crystallization from solvent
2. Repeated acid base treatment
3. Fractional crystallization
Ephedrine & Pseudoephedrine oxalates Atropine &Hyoscyamineine
Oxalates
Crystallization from water
Crystallization from

Acetone/Ether

Ephedrine oxalate Pseudoephedrine Oxalate Atropine Oxalate Hyoscyamine

Oxalate
Crystals Solution Crystals
Solution
4. Chromatographic techniques
5. Gradient pH technique
Therapeutic effects and pharmaceutical applications of alkaloids
S. No. Alkaloid Pharmacological Action
1. Ajmaline Antiarrhythmic
2. Atropine, Scopolamine, Anticholinergic
3. Hyoscyamine Stimulant, Adenosine receptor antagonist
4. Caffeine Antitussive, analgesic
5. Codeine Remedy for gout
6. Colchicine Antiprotozoal agent, Emesis
7. Emetine Vasoconstriction, hallucinogenic, Uterotonic
8. Ergot alkaloids Analgesic
9. Morphine Stimulant, nicotinic acetylcholine, receptor
10. Nicotine agonist.
11. Physostigmine Inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase.
12. Quinidine Antiarrhythmic.
13. Quinine Antipyretic, antimalarial
14. Reserpine Antihypertensive
15. Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant
16. Vinblastine, vincristine Antitumor.
17. Vinacamine Vasodilating. Antihypertensive.
Yohimbine Stimulant, aphrodisiac.

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Short Answers
Ques.1 Write down the scope of pharmacognosy.
Ans- Scope of Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is an applied science, which plays an important role in the development of different
discipline of science. It is an important link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry. There are
different types of drugs that derived from plants such as
 Herbal drugs, derived from specific parts of medicinal plant
 Compounds isolated from nature
 Nutraceuticals, or "Functional foods"

A vast scope of Pharmacognosy in the isolation of different phytoconstituents. For example, isolation of
penicillin, isolation of reserpine from rauwolfia, isolation of vinca alkaloid different phytoconstituents
present in the plant species shows its different physiological activity.
Production of natural products: Compounds from natural source play significant roles modem
medicine:
 They provide several extremely useful drugs that are difficult, if not impossible, to produce
commercially by synthetic means
 Natural source also supplies basic compounds that may be modified slightly to render them more
effective or less toxic
 Their utility as prototypes or models for synthetic drugs possessing physiologic activities like the
originals
 Some natural products contain compounds that demonstrate little or no activities themselves but
which can be modified by chemical or biological methods to produce potent drugs not easily
obtained by other methods, for example, formation of Taxol from Baccatin III.

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Ques.2 Give the alphabetical classification of crude drugs.
Ans- Alphabetical Classification
 It is the simplest way of classification of any disconnected items.
 The crude drugs are arranged according to the alphabetical order/form of their Latin and English
names.
 Some of the Pharmacopoeias, dictionaries and reference books which classify crude drugs
according to this system are as follows
 Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 1955 (Latin)
 Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 1966 (English)
 British Pharmacopoeia (BP) (English)
 British Pharmacopoeia Codex (BPC) (English)
 United States of Pharmacopoeia (USP) (English)
 European Pharmacopoeia (Latin)

Advantages
 It is a simple method, in this system location, tracing and addition of the drug are easy.
 No technical person is required for handling the system.

Disadvantages
 Scientific nature of the drug cannot be identified by this method, whether they are organised or
unorganised drug.
 This system does not help in distinguishing the drugs of plant, animal and mineral sources.

Examples:
Acacia Datura Jalap Rauwolfia
Agar Digitalis Kalmegh Scilla
Amla Ephedra Kino Senna
Bael Ergot Lemon peel Tobacco
Benzoin Eucalytus Linseed Urgenia
Beeswax Fennel Methi Vasaka
Benzoin Ginger Mustard Withania
Beeswax Gokhru Nutmeg Yeast
Catechu Honey Orange peel
Cinchona Ipecac Picrorhiza
Cinnamon Isapgol Quassia wood

Ques.3 Write a short note on morphological classification of crude

drugs.
Ans- Morphological Classification
Here the crude drugs are arranged (Grouped) according to the part of the plant or animal
represented into organised (Cellular) drugs and unorganised (Acellular) drugs.
Organised drugs (Cellular)

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Drugs are the direct parts of the plant and are divided into leaves, barks, wood, rhizome, seed,
fruit, flower, stem, hair and fibres.
Plant Parts Drugs
Leaves Datura, Senna, Vasaka, Digitalis.
Barks Cinnamon, Cinchona, Kurchi.
Wood Quassia, Sandalwood, Red sanders.
Roots Rauwolfia, Liquorice, Ipecae.
Rhizomes Ginger, Podophyllum, Turmeric.
Flowers Clove, Saffron, Pyrethrum.
Seeds Nux vomica, Linseed, Isapgol.
Fruits Fennel, Coriander, Dill.
Stems Ephedra
Hair and Fibres Cotton, hemp, Jute.
Unorganised drugs (Acellular)
Drugs are the products of plant, animal and mineral source and they are divided into dried latex,
dried juice, dried extracts, gums, resins, fixed oils and fats, waxes, volatile oil, animal products, minerals
(solids, liquids, semi-solids etc).
Plant, Animal, Mineral Drugs
Dried latex Opium, Papain
Dried Juice Aloe, Kino
Dried extracts Agar, Catechu, Pectin
Gums Acacia, Tragacanth, Stericulia
Resins Benzoin, Colophony, Asafoetida
Fixed oils and fats Castor, Chaulmoogra, Cotton seed
Waxes Beeswax, Spermaceti
Volatile oils Coriander, Cinnamon, Clove
Animal products Bees wax, Shark liver oil, Gelatin
Minerals Bentonite, Kaolin, Tale

Morphology of Higher Plants

1. Flower
It is the essential reproductive organ of a plant. For an inexperienced observer two characteristics of a
flower are particularly noteworthy: the size and the colour. Although the flowers are of great botanical
importance, they are only a minor source of drugs used in phytotherapy or pharmacy e.g., chamomile
(Matricaria recutita) L. (Asteraceae).
2. Fruit
Caraway (Carum carvi L.) (Umbelliferae)
3. Seed
Coffee (Coffea arabica) (Rubiaceae)
4. Leaves
The leaves function as collectors of the sun's energy and its assimilation. A characteristic key of a species
is the way how the leaves are arranged on the stem which they may be: Alternate spiral, Alternate
Distichous, Opposite Decussate or Whorled.
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Ques.4 Differentiate between taxonomical classification &
pharmacological classification of crude drugs.
Ans- Taxonomical Classification
In this system the drugs are arranged according to taxonomical studies. The drugs are arranged according
to their phylum, order, family, genus, and species. It is a purely type of botanical classification or
biological classification and restricted mainly to crude drugs from plant source.
Phylum Order Family Drugs
Angiosperms Liliflorae Liliacae Colchicum, Asparagus
(Monocotyledons) Dioscorea, Vanilla
Microspermae Dioscoriaceae
Papaverales Papaveraceae Opium
Angiosperms (Dicotyledons) Rosales Rosales Almond, Rose oil
Leguminaceae Glycyrihiza, Senna
Rutales Rutaceae Bael, Lemon, Orange
Rhamnales Rhamnaceae Cascara
Malvales Malvaceae Cotton
Umbelliferae Umbelliflorae Coriander, Caraway, Fennel
Gentianales Loganiaceae Nuxvomica
Gentianeae Chirata
Apocyanaceae Kurchi, Strophanthus

Advantages
 Easy for classification of crude drugs.
 Botanical names are same and unique throughout the world.
 Scientific names of plants are helpful as common names are confusing and different in the
commercial landscape business.

Disadvantages
 The system is criticized for its failure to recognize the organised/unorganised nature of crude
drugs in their morphological studies.
 The system fails to face into an account chemical nature of active constituent and therapeutic
significance of crude drugs.
 (Hyoscyamus, Datura, Belladonna, Stramonium) are considered with other members of
Solanaceae.
 The drugs obtained from plants having alternate leaves, flowers, seeds, capsules

5. Pharmacological Classification
The crude drugs are grouped according to the pharmacological action (Therapeutic action) of their chief
active constituents (most important) or therapeutic uses.

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 Bitter − Quassia, Cinchona, Gentian
 Carminatives − Dill, Clove, fennel, Coriander
 Emetics − Ipecac
 Anti-amoebic − Kurchi, Ipecac
 Bulk Laxatives − Agar, Isapgol
 Purgatives − Senna, Castor oil
 Expectorant − Liquorice, Vasaka, Ipecac
 Antitussive − Opium
 Bronchodilators − Ephedra, Tea
 Cardio-tonics − Digitalis, Squill, Strophanthus
 Cardiac depressant − Cinchona, Veratrum
 Antihypertensive − Rauwolfia
 Central analgesics − Opium
 CNS stimulants − Coffee
 CNS depressants − Opium
 Antispasmodics − Bellodonna
 Anticancer − Vinca, Podophyllum, Cochicum
 Antirheumatics − Aconite, Guggul, Colchicum
 Anthelmintics − Vidang, Quassia, Male fern
 Astringents − Catechu
 Antimalarials − Cinchona, Artemisia
 Local anesthetics − Coca

Advantages
 The special advantage is that if even chemical constituents of the crude drugs are not known they
can be classified properly based on therapeutic or pharmacological uses.

Disadvantages
 Regardless of morphology, taxonomical status or chemical nature, the drugs are grouped together,
provided they exhibit similar pharmacological uses.
 Examples: Senna, Castor oil, Jalap, Colocynth are grouped together as purgative laxatives because
of their common pharmacological action.

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S. Pharmacological action Drugs
No. Anticancer Vinca, Taxus, Podophyllum
1 Antimalarial Cinchona, Artemisia
2 Anti asthmatic Ephedra, lobelia
3 Anti-inflammatory Colchicum seed, Turmeric
4 Antispasmodic Datura, Hyoscyamus
5 Anti-amoebic Kurchi, ipecac
6 Anthelmintic Quassia, male-fern
7 Astringent Myrobalan, Ashoka bark
8 Purgative Senna, aloe, rhubarb
9 Carminative Coriander, fennel, caraway,
10 Narcotic analgesic cinnamon
11 Expectorant Poppy
12 Cardiotonic Liquorices, Vasaka, balsam
13 Hallucinogens Digitalis, Strophanthus, squill
14 Bitter Cannabis, cocaine
15 Tranquillizer Chirate, Gentian root
16 Rauwolfia

Ques.5 What are the reasons for the adulteration of the drugs?
Ans- Reasons for adulteration
 Scarcity of the drugs.
 The high price of the drug in the market, e.g., Clove, Cinnamon, Cardamom.
 It is very common with the contraband drugs. e.g., Opium.

Adulteration can be characterized by the following conditions:

1. Inferiority: It is a natural substandard condition (e.g., where a crop is taken whose natural constituent
is below the minimum standard for that drug) which can be avoided by more careful selection of the plant
material.
2. Spoilage: It is a substandard condition produced by microbial or other pest infestation, which makes a
product unfit for consumption, which can be avoided by careful attention to the drying, and storage
condition.
3. Deterioration: It is an impairment of the quality or value of an article due to destruction or abstraction
of valuable constituents by bad treatment or aging or to the deliberate extraction of the constituents and
the sale of the residue as the original drugs.
4. Admixture: It is the addition of one article to another through accident, ignorance, or carelessness.
e.g., inclusion of soil on an underground organ or the co-collection of two similar species.
5. Sophistication: It is the deliberate addition of spurious or inferior material with intent to defraud; such
materials are carefully produced and may appear at first sight to be genuine. e.g., powder ginger may be
diluted with starch with addition of little colouring material to give the correct shade of yellow colour.
6. Substitution: It is the addition of an entirely different article in place of that which is required. e.g.,
supply of cheap cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.

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Ques.6 Enlist the methods of adulteration.
Ans- Method of Adulteration
1. Replacement of Exhausted Drug
 It is very common with costly drugs which contain volatile oils as active constituents, like Clove,
Ginger, Fennel, Tea etc.
 The active chemical constituents are exhausted from these drugs and exhausted drug is adjusted
properly (with artificial colour, perfume) and mixed with genuine drug.

2. Substitution by Similar looking but inferior drugs

 Any drug or varieties which do not comply with minimum standards laid down by the official
books are known as inferior drugs or inferior varieties.
 The inferior varieties hence contain lesser active constituents and are cheaper in cost also.
Examples: Digitalis purpurea leaves are adulterated with inferior D. thapsi leaves.

3. Substitution by artificially manufactured substances

 This method is used for costly drugs.
 E.g., Nutmeg is substituted with crafted softwood.
 The addition of invert sugar to honey.

4. Substitution by substandard commercial varieties

 In this method, the genuine drug is mixed with a local substandard commercial variety.
 E.g., Capsicum annum is used to mix with capsicum minimum.
 Seeds of Strychnous nuxblanda are used as an adulterant in the seeds of Strychnous nuxvomica.

5. Presence of vegetative matter from the same plant

 Sometimes ignorantly or intentionally other parts associated with the drug are added with the drug
are added with the drug.
 E.g., Clove stalks are used as an adulterant in cloves.
 Presence of stem parts with Aconite roots.
 Parts florescence of fennel, caraway, and coriander are used to mix in fennel, caraway, and
coriander respectively

6. Addition of synthetic chemicals to enhance the natural characters

 Addition of Citric acid to Lemon grass oil.
 Benzyl benzoate is added to Peru balsam.

7. Harmful adulteration
 This is a dangerous type of adulteration where harmful substances are added to genuine drugs.
 E.g., Rodent faecal material is added to Cardamom seeds.
 Addition of amber coloured glass pieces to Colophony.

8. Addition of powder
 This is very normal with powdered drugs.
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 E.g., Addition of Dextrin to Powdered Ipecac.
 Addition of red sanders wood to capsicum powder.

Ques.7 Write a short note on significance of pharmacopeial

standard.
Ans- Significance of Pharmacopeial Standard
Pharmacopoeia
 A book describing drugs, chemicals, and medicinal preparations; especially one issued by an
officially recognized authority and serving as a standard.
 A or stock of drugs.
 Derived from Greek word "Pharmakon" means drug and 'Poeia' means to make.
 It is a legal and official book issued by recognised authorities usually appointed by Government of
each country.
 It comprises list of pharmaceutical substances, formulae along with their descriptions and
standards.

Significance of Pharmacopeial Standard

Pharmacopoeia
 A book describing drugs, chemicals, and medicinal preparations; especially one issued by an
officially recognized authority and serving as a standard.
 A or stock of drugs.
 Derived from Greek word "Pharmakon" means drug and 'Poeia' means to make.
 It is a legal and official book issued by recognised authorities usually appointed by Government of
each country.
 It comprises list of pharmaceutical substances, formulae along with their descriptions and
standards.

List of Pharmacopoeia
 Argentine Pharmacopoeia  Austrian Pharmacopoeia
 Belgian Pharmacopoeia  Brazilian Pharmacopoeia
 British Pharmacopoeia  Chinese Pharmacopoeia
 Egyptian Pharmacopoeia  European Pharmacopoeia
 French Pharmacopoeia  German Pharmacopoeia
 Hungarian Pharmacopoeia  Indian Pharmacopoeia
 International Pharmacopoeia  Italian Pharmacopoeia
 Japanese Pharmacopoeia  Yugoslavian Pharmacopoeia
 Mexican Pharmacopoeia  Netherlands Pharmacopoeia
 Nordic Pharmacopoeia  Polish Pharmacopoeia
 Portuguese Pharmacopoeia  Rumanian Pharmacopoeia
 Russian Pharmacopoeia  Spanish Pharmacopoeia
 Turkish Pharmacopoeia  United state Pharmacopoeia
The Important Pharmacopoeia are
 Indian Pharmacopoeia
 United states pharmacopoeia
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 British Pharmacopoeia

Pharmacopeial Standard
 The authenticity of a crude drug is established
 By the references given in Pharmacopoeia.

Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission

Formation 1945
Headquarters Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Chairman P.K. Pradhan, Secretary (Health & Family Welfare),
Website Government of India.
ipc.nic.in

Ques.8 Give the identification test for alkaloids.

Ans- Identification Tests for Alkaloids
The qualitative chemical tests used for detection of alkaloids depend on the character of alkaloids to
give precipitate as salts of organic acids or with compound of heavy metals like Hg, Au, Pt, etc.
1. Test by Dragendorff reagent (Potassium-bismuth-iodide solution):
Alkaloids give reddish-brown precipitate with this reagent.
2. Test by Mayer reagent (Potassium-mercuric-iodide solution):
Alkaloids give cream colour precipitate with this reagent.
3. Test by Wagner reagent (iodine-potassium-iodide solution):
Alkaloids give Brown colour precipitate with this reagent.
4. Test by Hager reagent (Saturated solution of picric acid):
Alkaloids give yellow colour precipitate with this reagent.
5. Test by Tannic acid:
Alkaloids give buff colour precipitate with this acid.
6. Test by Picrolonic acid:
Alkaloids give yellow colour precipitate with this acid.

Ques.9 Give the distribution of terpenoids.

Ans- Distribution of Terpenoids
Based on the extensive distribution of terpenoids in the vast plant kingdom they are classified broadly as
follows, namely:
(i) Monoterpenoids: Monoterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of two isoprene units and have the
molecular formula C10H16. Monoterpenes may be linear (acyclic) or contain rings. Biochemical
modifications such as oxidation or rearrangement produce the related monoterpenoids.
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E.g., pinene, nerol, citral, camphor, menthol, limonene.
(ii) Sesquiterpenoids: Sesquiterpenoids are defined as the group of 15 carbon compounds derived by the
assembly of 3 isoprenoid units and they are found mainly in higher plants but also in invertebrates.
Sesquiterpenes, with monoterpenes, are an important constituent of essential oils in plants. Sesquiterpenes
are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and have the molecular formula C15H24.
E.g., Nerolidol, Farnesol.
(iii) Diterpenoids: Diterpenes are a class of chemical compounds composed of two terpene units with the
molecular formula C20H32; they may also be thought of as consisting of four isoprene units. They are
biosynthesized by plants, animals, and fungi via the HMG-CoA, with geranylgerany1 pyrophosphate
being a primary intermediate. Diterpenes form the basis for biologically important compounds such as
retinol, retinal, and phyto1. They are known to be antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory.
E.g., phyto1, vitamin A1.
(iv) Triterpenoids: Triterpenes are a class of chemical compounds composed of three terpene units with
the molecular formula C30H48 they may also be thought of as of six isoprene units. Animals, plants and
fungi all create triterpenes, with arguably the most important example being squalene as it forms the basis
of almost all steroids.
E.g., There are three main triterpene families: oleane, ursane, and lupane triterpenes.
(v) Tetraterpenoids and Carotenoids: Tetraterpenes are terpenes consisting of eight isoprene units and
have the molecular formula C40H64. Tetraterpenoids (carotenoids) are tetraterpenes that have been
modified by chemical transformations such as oxidation or cyclization.
E.g., 𝛽 Carotene and Lycopene, and Xanthophylls.
(vi) Pentaterpenes: Number of isoprene units are 10 and Molecular formula is C50H80.
(vii) Polyterpenes or rubber: Rubber, which occurs in the latex of the rubber tree, is a polyterpene
hydrocarbon, (C5H8) n in which n is 4,000-5,000, Chemical degradation by oxidation and X-ray
diffraction studies have revealed a repeating unit in rubber.

Ques.10 Write a short note on volatile oil.

Ans- Occurrence of Volatile Oil
 They are present in entire plant or in the part of plant.
 They secreted in special structure such as duct, schizogenous, or lysigenous glands, cells,
trichomes etc.
 They are commonly found in the species of labiatae, rutaceae, piperaceae, zingiberaceae,
myrtaceae, and lauraceae.

Distribution of Volatile Oils

 All parts: Lemon-grass.  Rhizomes: Ginger
 Fruits: Nutmeg, anise.  Leaves: Eucalyptus.
 Buds: Clove.  Wood: Sandal.
 Flower: Lavender

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Classification of Volatile Oil
Types Examples
Alcohol Cardamom, Coriander
Aldehydes Cinnamon
Esters Lavender, Gaultheria
Hydrocarbons Black Pepper
Ketones Spearmint
Phenol Clove
Phenolic-ether Anise
Oxide Chenopodium
Isolation of Volatile Oil
 Hydro-distillation.  Enfleurage.
 Liquid CO2  Ecuelle.

Identification test for Volatile Oil

 Volatile oil + Organic solvents Miscible.
 Volatile oil + Water Immiscible.
 TS of volatile oil containing crude drug + Tincture of Alkane Red colour globule.
 TS of volatile oil containing crude drug + Sudan red III Red colour.

Therapeutic effect and Pharmaceutical application of Volatile Oil

Used as flavouring agents and perfuming agent in pharmaceutical formulation, food, beverages,
and cosmetics.
Also used as medicaments as,
 Cinnamon:  Chenopodium: Anthelmintic.
Carminative.  Eucalyptus: Antiseptic
 Juniper: Diuretics  Jatamansi: Sedative
 Clove: Dental analgesic

Ques.11 Explain tannins.

Ans- TANNINS
A tannin (or tannoid) is an astringent, polyphenolic biomolecule that binds to and precipitates
proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.
Occurrence of Tannins
 They are widely distributed in plants.
 Most families of dicot contain tannins-free species.
 The best-known families of which all species tested contain tannin are:
 Aceraceae, Actinidiaceae, Anacardiacea, Bixaceae, Combretaceae, etc.

Distribution of Tannins
 Bark: e.g., Arjuna, Ashoka.
 Fruits: e.g., Amla, Behada.
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 Leaves: e.g., Tea.
 Seeds: e.g., Coffee.
 Extract: e.g., Pale catechu and Black catechu.

Isolation of Tannins
 There is no single protocol for extracting tannins from all plant material. The procedures used for
tannins are widely variable.
 It may be that acetone in the extraction solvent increases the total yield by inhibiting interactions
between tannins and proteins during extraction.
 By breaking hydrogen bonds between tannin-protein complexes.

Classification of Tannin

Tannin

Hydrolysable Complex Condensed

tannins tannins tannins

Gallotannins

Ellagitannins

Identification tests for Tannins

1. Ferric chloride test:
Hydrolysable tannins bluish colour
Condensed tannins greenish colour
2. Goldbeater's skin test (Ox-intestine):
Soak piece of Goldheater's skin in 2% HCI, wash with water, soak in test solution, wash water, finally
soak with FeSO4 Brown or Black colour.
3. Gelatin test:
Tannins + 1% Gelatin solution in NaC1 White precipitate.
Therapeutic effect and pharmaceutical application of Tannins
 Antioxidant  Anti-diarrhoeal
 Antidot for heavy metals poisoning  Treatment of burn, ulcer, inflammations
 Astringent to spot bleeding  Tannin industry
(haemorrhage)  Refrigerant
 Laxative  Anti-viral
 Dysentery

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Ques.12 Differentiate between resins & glycosides.
Ans- Resins
Resins: In polymer chemistry and material science, resin is a "solid or highly viscous substance" plant or
synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. Resins are usually mixtures of organic
compounds. This article focuses on naturally-occurring resins.
Plants secrete resins and rosins for their protective benefits in response to injury. The resin protects the
plant from insects and pathogens. Resins confound a wide range of herbivores, insects, and pathogens,
while the volatile phenolic compounds may attract benefactors such as parasitoids or predators of the
herbivores that attack the plant.
E.g. Balm of Gilead, balsam, Canada balsam, Boswellia,
copal from trees of Protium copal and Hymenaeacourbaril etc.
Occurrence of Resins
Mostly all-natural resins, occur from plant source.
Distribution in plants
 Rhizomes: e.g., Ginger.
 Fruits: e.g., Capsicum
 Plants exudates: e.g., Myrrh, Asafoetida.
 Roots: e.g., Jalap
 Seeds: e.g., Kala danna
 Flowers: e.g., Cannabis

Isolation of Resins
Pharmaceutical resins are obtained from the plants and animals by one of the following methods.
1. By extraction with alcohol and precipitation with water, e.g., jalap, podophyllum, ipomoea, etc.
2. By distillation for separation of oil, e.g., Copaiba, Colophony
3. By heating the plant part, e.g., guaiacum.
4. As plant exudates by incisions, e.g., myrrh, asafoetida, balsams, etc.
5. By collecting fossil resins, e.g., copal, kauri, etc.
6. By processing the encrustations i.e., shellac.
Classification of Resins
1. Acid Resin: e.g., Colophony, Mirth.
2. Ester Resin: e.g., Benzoin, Storax.
3. Resin Alcohol: e.g.
(a) Oleo Resin: e.g., Canada balsam, Ginger, Capsicum.
(b) Oleo gum Resin: e.g., Asafoetida, guggul.
(c) Gluco Resin: e.g., jalap, kala danna, turpentine.
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(d) Resins: e.g., Gutta purcha
4. Balsam Resin: e.g., Balsam of tolu
Identification test for Resins
1. Catechol solution + Iron salts green colour.
2. Condensed Tannins + Iron salts green colour.
3. Gallic acid + Iron salts blue colour.
4. Ellagic acid + Iron salts blue colour.
Therapeutic effects and pharmaceutical applications of Resins
1 Natural Tannins are used to get leather from animal skin.
2 Tannic acids are used as clarifying agent in alcoholic drinks.
3. Tannins are used in wine industry
4. Tannins are used as anti-corrosive.
5. Tannic acids are used as aroma ingredients.
GLYCOSIDES
These are the condensation products of sugar and aglycon. Glycosides are secondary metabolites
and are also poisonous. These are soluble in water as well as alcohol. Glycolysis have got medicinal
properties and hence most of them are used therapeutically. Example: senna, digitalis, bitter almond, etc.
Occurrence of Glycoside
1. Occur in higher plant tissues in small amounts.
2. Also, in fungal and bacterial cells and animals.
Distribution of Glycosides
 All Parts: e.g., purple grapes.
 Barks: e.g., Wild cherry
 Seeds: e.g., Linseed, Ammi
 Roots: e.g., Liquorice.
 Fruits: e.g., Reetha, Orange.
 Leaves: e.g., Senna, Aloe.

Classification of Glycosides
S. No. Type Examples
1. Phenyl Glucosides Glucovanilline, bearberry
2. Anthraquinone Senna
3. Flavone Hespiridine (Orange or Lemon)
4. Cyanogenic Visnagin (amni visnaga)
5. Glucoalkaloids Solanum
6. Steroids Digitalis
7. Saponins Dioscorin
8. Coumarin Asafoetida
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Identification test for Glycosides

1. General test for steroids
 Liebermann's test

Glycoside in acetic anhydride + Few drops of conc. H₂SO4 Reddish violet Green.
2. Test for deoxy sugars
 Keller-Kilani's test

Glycoside in acetic anhydride containing traces of FeC13, +Conc. H₂SO4, on the wall of tube
Acetic acid layer acquires Bluish-green colour (Digitalis) Acetic acid layer acquires Red
colour (Squill).
Isolation of Glycosides
 Polar substances are soluble in polar solvents.
 The dried plant material is rendered into a moderately coarse powder. The powder is then
extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus with aqueous ethanol. The non-glycosidal impurities which get
extracted along with glycosides are removed by precipitating them with lead acetate solution. The
excess of lead acetate is then removed by passing hydrogen sulphide gas through the extract. Lead
gets precipitated as lead sulphide, which is filtered out.
 The filtrate contains the glycosides. The glycoside can be obtained by removal of the solvent
under reduced pressure or any other suitable procedure. Further purification of the isolated
glycosides is done by column chromatography.

Therapeutic effects and pharmaceutical applications of Glycosides

 Analgesic  Laxative
 GIT irritants  Capillary fragility
 Anti-rheumatic  Cardiotonic

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