HADHRAMOUT UNIVERSITY

Process Dynamics and Control

Instructor: Dr. Osamah A. Bin Dahman

Physical examples of first-order systems

 Examples of first-order systems
 Standard form for first-order system transfer function:

where K p is the steady-state gain and τ is the time constant

 The steady-state gain (𝑲𝒑 ) is the steady-state value that the system attains
after being disturbed by a unit-step input. It can be obtained by setting s = 0 in
the transfer function.
 Stated another way, the steady-state gain of a process corresponds to the
following expression:
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝑲𝒑 =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
 Where 1 and 2 indicate different steady state and (𝒚, 𝒙) denote the
corresponding steady-state values of the output and input variables.

 Time constant (𝜏) is the time required for the response to reach 63 % of the its
ultimate value when the first order system affected by step change.
 Examples of first-order systems

1) Mercury thermometer

𝑌(𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1
 Examples of first-order systems
2) Liquid Level Process

 Consider the system shown in the Figure, which consists of a tank of uniform
cross-sectional area A to which is attached a flow resistance R (valve).
Assume that 𝐪𝐨 , the volumetric flow rate (volume/time) through the
resistance, is related to the head h by the linear relationship:
5.1
A time-varying volumetric flow q of liquid of constant density 𝝆 enters the tank.
Determine the transfer function that relates:
a) Head H(s) to the inlet flow Q(s).
b) Outlet flow 𝐐𝐨 (𝐬) to the inlet flow Q(s).
Unsteady state mass balance:

Steady state mass balance:

 Examples of first-order systems

3) Liquid-Level Process with Constant-Flow Outlet

 The resistance shown in the previous Figure is replaced by a constant-flow

pump. The same assumptions of constant cross-sectional area and constant
density that were used before also apply here.

 Determine the transfer function that relates the head H(s) the inlet flow Q(s).
Unsteady state mass balance:

Steady state mass balance:

 Examples of first-order systems

4) Mixing Process

 Consider the mixing process shown in Figure in which a stream of solution

containing dissolved salt flows at a constant volumetric flow rate q into a tank
of constant holdup volume V. The concentration of the salt in the entering
stream x (mass of salt/volume) varies with time.

 It is desired to determine the transfer function relating the outlet

concentration Y(s) to the inlet concentration X(s).
Unsteady state mass balance:

Steady state mass balance:

 Examples of first-order systems
5) Heating Process

Continuous stirred-tank heater

 Consider the heating process shown in the Figure. A stream at temperature

𝑻𝒊 is fed to the tank. Heat is added to the tank by a heater Q. The tank is well
mixed, and the temperature of the exiting stream is T. The flow rate to the
tank is constant at w.
 Determine the transfer function that relates:
a) 𝐓(𝐬) and Q(𝐬)
b) 𝐓(𝐬) and 𝐓𝐢(𝐬)
Unsteady state energy balance:

Steady state energy balance:

If we assume that q is constant (and so q = qs)
 Examples of first-order systems
6) CSTR with constant holdup

 Consider a simple liquid phase irreversible reaction where chemical species

A reacts to form species B. The reaction can be written as A B. Assume
that the rate of reaction is first order with respect to compound A,
𝐫 = −𝐤𝐂𝐀
where r is the rate of reaction of A per unit volume, k is the reaction rate
constant , and CA is the molar concentration of species A.
 Determine the transfer function that relates: 𝑪𝑨 (𝒔) and 𝑪𝑨𝒊 (𝒔)
Unsteady state mass balance:

Steady state mass balance:

0
What if the Process Model is Nonlinear ?

 Before transforming to the deviation variables,

linearize the nonlinear equation.
 Transform to the deviation variables.
 Apply Laplace transform to each term in the equation.
 Collect terms and form the desired transfer functions.
Use Taylor Series Expansion to Linearize
a Nonlinear Equation
 In general, the linearization of a nonlinear function is
accomplished using a Taylor series expansion truncated to
include only the linear terms.
 Thus for a single variable function:

 This expression provides a linear approximation of f(x) about

x = xs.
 The closer x is to xs , the more accurate this equation will be.
 The more nonlinear that the original equation is, the less
accurate this approximation will be.
 For functions of two variables, we have:
 (1)

(2)

(3)
Subtracting the steady-state case in Eq. (3) from Eq. (2), we can convert the
original differential equation to deviation variables:
 Linearize a Nonlinear Term

 E / RT
e  A nonlinear term

 Linearization of
the nonlinear
term using a
Taylor series
approximation