Environmental Sudarshan Gurjar

Sudarshan Gurjar’s Environment for UPSC & Other Competitive Exams 2021
10. Environment Pillar#1-A) Protected Area Network
10. Environment Pillar#1-A) Protected Area Network 1

10.1 National Park 3
10.2 IUCN 4
10.2.1 IUCN and India 4
(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page1

10.2.2 IUCN protected area categories: 4
10.2.3 IUCN Red List 5
10.2.4 IUCN criteria 5
10.2.5 IUCN Red list categories 5
🐅
10.3 Project Tiger 6
10.3.1 National Tiger Conservation Authority(NTCA) 7
10.3.2 Powers and functions of NTCA 7
10.3.3 Structure of a Tiger Reserve 7
10.3.5 Methods for Tiger Census 8
10.3.6 Tiger Census, 2014 9
10.3.7 Tiger Census, 2018 9
10.3.8 M-STrIPES 10
10.3.9 Protection Status: 10
10.3.10 Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP) 10
10.4 National Park & Tiger Reserve in India→ State wise 11
Jammu & Kashmir 11
Ladakh 11
Himachal Pradesh 11
Uttarakhand 12
Haryana 12
UttarPradesh 13
Rajasthan 13
Bihar 14
Assam 14
Arunachal Pradesh 15
Meghalaya 16
Nagaland 16
Manipur 16
Mizoram 17
Tripura 17
Sikkim 18
West Bengal 18
Gujarat 18
Maharashtra 19
Karnataka 20
Orissa 20
Chhattisgarh 21
AndhraPradesh 21

For More Visit -https://upscpdf.com/
Kerala 21
TamilNadu 22
Telangana 23
Goa 23
Jharkhand 23
MadhyaPradesh 23
Andaman & Nicobar 24
10.5 Misc. topic→ Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) of Protected area report
2021 24
Some PRE Questions 25
10.1 National Park
• It comes under IUCN Category II

• Large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large scale ecological processes, along with
the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a
foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational,
recreational and visitor opportunities.
• A national park has more restrictions as compared to a wildlife sanctuary.
• National parks can be declared by the State government 👨‍🦲 by Notification. No alteration of the
boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution passed by the State Legislature.
• The main objective of a national park is to protect the natural environment of the area and
biodiversity conservation.
• The landscape, fauna, and flora are present in their natural state in national parks.
• Their boundaries are fixed and defined.
• Here, no human activity is allowed.
• Grazing of livestock and private tenurial rights are not permitted here.
• Species mentioned in the Schedules of the Wildlife Act are not allowed to be hunted or captured.
https://upscpdf.com/
• No person shall destroy, remove, or exploit any wildlife from a National Park or destroy or
damage the habitat of any
• wild animal or deprive any wild animal of its habitat within a national park.
• They cannot be downgraded to the status of a ‘sanctuary’.
10.2 IUCN
➢ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

➢ Established in 1948.
➢ It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education.
➢ It has a membership of over 1400 governmental and non-governmental organizations.
➢ IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, (and plays a role in the
implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity.
➢ It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature and the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre.
10.2.1 IUCN and India
▪ India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land area, accounts for 7-8% of all
recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals.
(ভারত,একটি এক বিচিত্র পরিসর বিশ্বের জমির শুধুমাত্র 2.4% সঙ্গেদেশ,সব রেকর্ড করা প্রজাতির 7-8%,
গাছপালা 45,000 ওভার প্রজাতি এবং পশুদের 91.000 প্রজাতি সহ জন্য অ্যাকাউন্ট)
▪ India became a State Member of IUCN in 1969
10.2.2 IUCN protected area categories:
▪ Category Ia – Strict Nature Reserve

▪ Category Ib – Wilderness Area
▪ Category II – National Park
▪ Category III – Natural Monument or Feature
▪ Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area
▪ Category V – Protected Landscape/Seascape/Area
▪ Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources
● The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List)
was founded in 1964.
● It has evolved to become the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global
conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.
● A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations.
10.2.3 IUCN Red List
● The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List)
was founded in 1964.
● It has evolved to become the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global
conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.
● A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations.
10.2.4 IUCN criteria
● The IUCN system uses a set of five quantitative criteria to assess the extinction risk of a given
species.
● In general, these criteria consider:
1. The rate of population decline. (জনসংখ্যা হ্রাসের হার)
2. The geographic range. (ভৌগলিক পরিসীমা)
3. Whether the species already possesses a small population size (mature individuals only).
প্রজাতিটি ইতিমধ্যে স্বল্প জনসংখ্যার আকার ধারণ করেছে (কেবলমাত্র পরিপক্ক ব্যক্তি)
4. Whether the species population is very small or lives in a restricted area. (প্রজাতির জনসংখ্যা খুব
কম বা একটি সীমিত অঞ্চলে বাস করে কিনা)
5. Whether the results of a quantitative analysis indicate a high probability of extinction in the
wild. (পরিমাণগত বিশ্লেষণের ফলাফল বন্যের বিলুপ্তির উচ্চ সম্ভাবনা নির্দে শ করে কিনা )
10.2.5 IUCN Red list categories
● Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups:
1. Extinct (EX)– No known individuals remaining.
2. Extinct in the wild (EW)– Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population
outside its historic range.
3. Critically endangered (CR)–

Extremely high risk of extinction in
the wild; Population decline- more
than 90% in the last 10 years or three
generations.
4. Endangered (EN)– High risk of
extinction in the wild; Population
decline: >70% in the last 10 years or
three generations.
5. Vulnerable (VU)– High risk of endangerment in the wild; Population decline: >50% in the last
10 years.
5. Near threatened (NT)– Likely to become endangered in the near future.
6. Least concern (LC)– Lowest risk (Does not qualify for a more at-risk category; widespread
and abundant taxa are included in this category.)
7. Data deficient (DD)– Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction.
8. Not evaluated (NE)– Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
🔢The “Red Data Books'' published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) contain list of: (UPSC CSE 2011)
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and3 (b) 2only (c) 2 and3 (d) 3only
🐅Project Tiger
10.3
● 🧔Centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1973.

● The project aims at ensuring a viable population of tigers in their natural habitats and protecting
them from extinction..
● Project Tiger is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
10.3.1 National Tiger Conservation Authority(NTCA)
● Boss? Ministry of Environment & Forest

● The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006 provided for creating the National Tiger
Conservation Authority.
● The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body.
● The Minister of State for Environment and Forests is the Vice-chairperson.
10.3.2 Powers and functions of NTCA
● Approval of Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by States 👨‍🦲.

● Laying down normative standards for tiger conservation,
● Providing information on several aspects which include protection, tiger estimation, patrolling,
etc.,
● Ensuring measures for addressing man-wild animal conflicts and fostering coexistence with local
people,
● Preparing annual report for laying before Parliament,
● Ensuring agricultural, livelihood interests of people living in and around Tiger Reserves.
10.3.3 Structure of a Tiger Reserve
● Tiger reserves which are governed by Project Tiger have two zones:
1. Core zone:
● Critical inviolate tiger habitat areas
● It has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary
● It is kept free of all biotic and human disturbances
2. BufferZone:
● Surrounds core zone.
● It aims at promoting coexistence between wildlife and human activity.
● The livelihood, developmental, social and cultural rights of the local people are recognised in
this zone.
[Note: The alteration of boundaries or denotification of Tiger Reserves can be done by state
governments but only with the prior approval of NTCA and National Board for WildLife.]
10.3.4 Tiger Census
● Indian Tiger Census is conducted by NTCA in collaboration with the Wildlife Institute of India
(WII). (The Wildlife Institute of India (WII), an autonomous institution under the Ministry of
Environment Forest and Climate change, Government of India, was established in 1982.Dehradun)
● Conducted after every 4 years (2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018).
● In the case of tigers, every individual tiger will have a unique stripe pattern— just like our
fingerprints. (Camera trapping method scans stripes)
● Where the camera trappings are unavailable because of logistical constraints, DNA extracts from
scat (poop) samples are collected for analysis. (July 29th- Global Tiger Day)
10.3.5 Methods for Tiger Census
1. PugmarkTechnique:
● Most popular technique
● A tiger leaves a distinct pugmark on the ground, different from that of others in the big cat family.
● This is the cheapest technique and can assess the number, sex ratio and age (young or adult) of
large cats but it is not very reliable as its accuracy is not very good.
2. Camera trapping Method:
● Heat and motion sensitive cameras with night vision facilities are installed in tiger areas and left
for several days to capture images of individual tigers.
● Accuracy is almost the same as the Pugmark method.
● But it does not involve a labour survey done in the Pugmark method, therefore there is no local
employment generation.
● Also cameras cannot be installed at every place that is likely to have tigers.
● Also, there is no certainty that the tiger would walk into a camera range.
● Salty, hot and humid areas=> Damage to camera
● Costlier method than Pugmark.
3.Poop/scat Method: Poop/scat (droppings of the tiger) is analyzed by DNA sampling to arrive at
a more accurate count.
4.Radio Collar Method: Tigers are captured and are fitted with a radio collar. (This method fails
when the concerned tiger enters the salty water)
5.Double-sampling Method: First count by Pugmark technique, then reconfirmation by Camera
trapping method;
10.3.6 Tiger Census, 2014
● “Status of Tigers in India, 2014” report by NTCA Findings:

● India is home to world’s 70% of the world's tigers.
● 30% increase from 2011; 2226 tigers in 2014 (1706 in 2010; 1411 tigers in 2006)
● Karnataka has the highest number of tigers.
● The tiger population has increased in Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.
● The Mudumalai-Bandipur-Nagarhole-Wayanad belt across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala:
570 tigers. (world’s single largest tiger population)
● Decline in population in states such as Odisha, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh due to poaching
and insurgency.
10.3.7 Tiger Census, 2018
● This is the first time neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan took part in the
census because they constitute a larger tiger range in the Indian subcontinent.
● This collaboration ensured that there is no double counting of tigers that move between national
borders and it will be possible to count how many are shared between the countries.
● Parks sharing borders:
1. Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan: Manas National Park in Assam.
2. Valmiki Tiger Reserve in Bihar: Chitwan National Park in Nepal.
3. Pilibhit Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh: Shuklaphanta National Park in Nepal.
⇒Findings of tiger census, 2018 - ‘Status of Tigers in India –2018’
● There has been a 33 per cent jump in the number of tigers from 2014.
● The number of tigers increased from 2,226 in 2014 to 2,967 in 2018.
● Madhya Pradesh saw the highest number of tigers at 526, closely followed by Karnataka at 524
with Uttarakhand at number 3 with 442 tigers.
● India achieved its commitment to the St.Petersburg Declaration, of doubling Tiger population,
much in advance to the 2022 deadline.
● Chhattisgarh and Mizoram saw a decline in their tiger numbers while tiger’s numbers in Odisha
remained constant.
10.3.8 M-STrIPES
● M-STrIPES = Monitoring System for Tigers-Intensive Protection and Ecological Status.

● Android software for collecting, archiving and analyzing data.
● Forest guards in tiger reserves are equipped with personal digital assistants and GPS devices to
capture data relating to tiger sightings, deaths, wildlife crime and ecological observations while
patrolling.
● M-STrIPES maps the patrol routes of forest guards, and the resulting data are then analyzed in a
geographic information system.
🔢The term ‘M-STRIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC CSE 2017)
(a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna
(b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves
(c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System
(d) Security of National Highways
10.3.9 Protection Status:
⚾⚾🎓✋Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List: Endangered.
⚾⚾🎓✋Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES): Appendix I.
10.3.10 Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP)
● Tigers are scattered among 13 Asian Tiger Range Countries (TRCs): Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russian Federation,
Thailand, andVietnam.
● To solve the tiger crisis, which represents the larger Asian biodiversity crisis, the TRCs,
international organizations, and civil society came together on a collaborative platform within the
framework of the Global Tiger Initiative (GTI) at St. Petersburg,Russia
● After a two-year process of sharing knowledge and best practices and developing a common
vision, a GTRP was developed, with the shared goal of doubling the number of wild tigers globally
by 2022.
10.4 National Park & Tiger Reserve in India→ State wise
(#for Tiger Reserve 🐅be used)

Jammu & Kashmir
Salim Ali NP, Dachingham NP, Kishtwar NP (#पश्चिम से पर्बा

ु में लिखा हुआ है )
❏ Dachigam National Park➡Marsar lake (Kashmiri Stug-CR; Snow Leopard-VU)
❏ Kishtwar National Park is a national park located in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and
Kashmir, India. ➡It is bounded to the north by Rinnay river, south by Kibar Nala catchment, east
by main divide of Great Himalaya and west by Marwa river.
❏ Salim Ali National Park or City Forest National Park was a national park located in
Srinagar. (Himalayan Serow-VU)
Ladakh
❏ Hemis National Park is a high altitude national park in the eastern Ladakh Union Territory
of the Republic of India. Globally famous for its snow leopards.
❏ The park is bounded on the north by the banks of the Indus River, and includes the
catchments of Markha river.
Himachal Pradesh
Inderkilla NP
Khirganga NP
Pin valley NP
Great Himalayan NP
Simbalbara NP
❏ Great Himalayan NP, is one of India's national parks, is located in Kullu region in the state
of Himachal Pradesh. Tirthan flows through Great Himalayan National Park in H.P. (Himalayan
Tahr-NT; Himalayan Brown bear-CR)
❏ Simbalbara NP is a national park in India, located in the Paonta Valley of Sirmour District,
Himachal Pradesh, along its border with Haryana. The vegetation consists of dense Sal forests.
❏ Pin Valley NP is a National park of India located within the Lahaul and Spiti district, in the
state of Himachal Pradesh, in far northern India. within the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve.
Uttarakhand
Govind Pashu Vihar NP

Gangotri NP
Valley of Flower NP
Nanda Devi NP
Rajaji NP🐅
Corbett NP🐅
❏ Rajaji NP ➡three wildlife sanctuaries in the area namely, Chilla, Motichur and Rajaji
sanctuaries were merged into one.➡three districts of Uttarakhand: Haridwar, Dehradun and Pauri
Garhwal.➡The Ganga and Song rivers flow through the park. (Asian Elephant-EN) (Corbett 🐅
Reserve@Ramganga River;Motichur, Chilla, Rajaji WLS)
❏ Valley of Flower NP is an Indian national park, located in North Chamoli, in the state of
Uttarakhand and is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and the variety of flora.
(Sambar,Slag-VU; Asean Black Bear- VU)
❏ Govind Pashu Vihar NP situated in the Uttarkashi district in the Indian state of
Uttarakhand. This is the place from which the Indian Government has inaugurated the Snow
Leopard Project 2009.(Bearded vulture-NT)
❏ Gangotri NP ➡nearby Kedarnath WLS, Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary. (White Bellied
Musk Deer-EN)
❏ Corbett NP is the oldest national park in India and was established in 1936 as Hailey
National Park to protect the endangered Bengal tiger. It is located in Nainital district and Pauri
Garhwal district of Uttarakhand and was named after Jim Corbett. #MAX TIGER DENSITY
Haryana
Kalesar NP
Sultanpur NP
❏ Kalesar NP is a popular destination for leopards, panthers, and elephants. (Siberian
Crane-CR; Great White Pelican & Flemingo- LC)
UttarPradesh
Dudhwa 🐅 Reserve is a protected area in Uttar Pradesh that stretches mainly across the
Lakhimpur Kheri and Bahraich districts and comprises the Dudhwa National Park, Kishanpur
Wildlife Sanctuary and Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary. The protected area is home for tigers,
leopards, Asiatic black bears, sloth bears, Swamp deer, rhinoceros, elephants & Pilibhit 🐅
Reserve(T*2 Award)
Rajasthan
Sariska NP 🐅
Keoladeo NP
Desert NP
Ranthambore NP 🐅
Mukundra hills NP🐅 @Darrah NP
❏ Desert NP➡Great Indian Bustard-CR – Rajasthan, Gujarat, Pakistan, Heaviest of the flying
bird (State bird of Rajasthan)
❏ Ranthambhore was established as the Sawai Madhopur Sanctuary in 1955 by the
Government of India and was declared one of the Project Tiger reserves in 1973. known for its
Bengal tigers. Other fauna include the Indian leopard, nilgai, wild boar, sambar, striped hyena,
sloth bear,
❏ Sariska NP ➡Alwar district, Rajasthan, Apart from the Bengal tiger, the reserve includes
many wildlife species including Indian leopard, jungle cat.
❏ Keoladeo NP or Keoladeo Ghana National Park formerly known as the Bharatpur Bird
Sanctuary in Bharatpur, Rajasthan. (siberian Crane-CR; Great Spotted Eagle-VU; Sarus
Crane-VU)
⇒Feb,2021- Bansi Paharpur sandstone-Pink coloured, high in demand. Illegal mining since 2016
has Damaged area. So, the Rajasthan state government shifted the boundary of Bharatpur's
Bandh Baretha wildlife sanctuary to make room for mining. These stones are also to be used for
Ram Mandir, Ayodhya.
⇒Oct,2020- A month and half long special drive to uproot the invasive lantana bushes in the
famous Sajjangarh wildlife sanctuary in Rajasthan’s Udaipur district has helped in ecological
restoration of grasslands and saved biodiversity. The sanctuary is famous for Long-billed vulture,
commonly known as the Indian vulture (Critically Endangered).
🔢Which of the following are the tiger reserve?
1. Nanda Devi NP
2. Rajaji NP
3. Keoladeo NP
4. Darrah NP
5. Sariska NP
(a) 1&2 (b) 1,3 & 5 (c) 2,4 & 5 (d) 1,2,3 & 5
🔢With reference to India’s Desert National Park, which of the following statements are correct?
1.It is spread over two districts.
2.There is no human habitation inside the Park.
3.It is one of the natural habitats of the Great Indian Bustard.
Select the correct answer using the code given below; UPSC CSE 2017
1.1 and 2 only 2.2 und 3 only 3.1 and 3 only 4.1, 2 and 3
Bihar
Valmiki NP, Tiger Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary is located at the India-Nepal border in the West
Champaran district of Bihar, India on the bank of river Gandak. The Harsha – Masan River system
originates from the Valmiki Forests and forms Burhi Gandak River down south. River Pandai
flows into Bihar (India) from Nepal in the eastern end of the Sanctuary and meets Masan. ( Bengal
tiger-EN,Indian rhinoceros-VU)
Assam
Manas NP,Orang NP, Nameri NP, Kaziranga NP, Dibru-Saikhowa NP, Dihing Patkai NP
❏ Manas NP (Bengal florican-CR; Assam roofed turtle-EN; Hispid hare-EN; Gee’s
Golden Langur-EN; Pygmy Hog-CR; ⇒ Mar,2021-Recently Himalayan Serow(VU) seen in
this region.
❏ Kaziranga NP which hosts two-thirds of the world's great one-horned rhinoceroses-VU,The
park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern
boundaries, and the Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within
the park are the Diphlu (Wild Water Buffalo-EN; Barasingha(swamp deer)-VU)
❏ Orang NP→ It has a rich flora and fauna, including great Indian rhinoceros, pygmy hog,
Asian elephant, wild water buffalo and Bengal tiger. Pachanoi river, Belsiri river and Dhansiri
River border the park and join the Brahmaputra river.
❏ Dihing Patkai NP Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts. Dehing is the name of the river that
flows through this forest and Patkai is the hill.
❏ Nameri NP Nameri National Park- Elephant
❏ Nameri National Park is a national park in the foothills of the eastern Himalayas in the
Sonitpur District of Assam, India. Nameri shares its northern boundary with the Pakhui Wildlife
Sanctuary of Arunachal Pradesh, The main Rivers are Jia- Bhoroli and Bor Dikorai. Other
tributaries of these two rivers are: Diji, Dinai, Nameri, Khari, Upper Dikiri
❏ Dibru Saikhowa NP is a national park in Assam, India, located in Dibrugarh and Tinsukia
districts. The park is bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit Rivers in the north and Dibru river in
the south. Species include Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, clouded leopard, jungle cat, sloth bear.
Arunachal Pradesh
Mauling NP
Namdapha NP 🐅
Kamlang WLS🐅
Pakki/Pakhui 🐅 Reserve
❏ Namdapha NP is located between the Dapha bum range of the Mishmi Hills and the Patkai
range with a wide elevation. Noa dihing, tributary of brahmaputra. (Namdapha Flying
Squirrel-CR; Clouded Leopard-VU)
❏ Mauling NP is a national park located in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, spread
primarily over the Upper Siang district and parts of the West Siang and East Siang districts. The
Siyom river flows along the Western fringes of the park and several small rivers such as the Siring,
Krubong, Semong and Subong drain into the Siang river near the eastern boundary of the park.
🔢A particular State in India has the following characteristics: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. It is located on the same latitude which passes through northern Rajasthan.
2. It has over 80% of its area under forest cover.
3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes the Protected Area Network in this State.
Which one among the following States has all the above characteristics?
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Assam
(c) Himachal Pradesh
(d) Uttarakhand
🔢In which one of the following States is Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary located? (UPSC CSE 2017)
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Manipur
(c) Meghalaya
(d) Nagaland
Meghalaya
Nokrek NP, Balpakram NP

❏ Nokrek NP, the core area of Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, is a national park nearTura Peak in
West Garo Hills district of Meghalaya, India. All important rivers and streams of the Garo Hills
region rise from the Nokrek Range, of which the river Simsang, known as Someshwari when it
emerges into Bangladesh at Baghmara, is the most prominent. Rongbang Dare WaterFall. Nokrek
is also an important habitat of the Asian elephant. (Red panda-EN; Stump-tailed macaque-VU)
❏ Balpakram NP is a national park in the south of Garo Hills in Meghalaya, India.
Gyaneshwari River, Indian elephant.
Nagaland
Itanki NP➡Among the species that inhabit the park are the rare hoolock gibbon-EN, golden
langur, hornbill.
Manipur
Sirohi NP
Keibul Lamjao NP
❏ Sirohi NP famous shirui lily (Lilium maclineae).
❏ Keibul Lamjao national park is characterized by many floating decomposed plant materials
locally called phumdis. (Sangai deer/dancing deer-EN)
🔢Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that
supports a rich biodiversity? (UPSC CSE 2015)
(a) Bhitarkanika National Park
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park
(d) Sultanpur National Park
Mizoram
Murlen NP
Phawngpui NP
❏ Murlen NP is a national park located in the Champhai district Mizoram in India. Tupui NP
❏ Phawngpui NP provides habitat for a range of birds including the rare Blyth's
tragopan-VU, Mrs. Hume's pheasant-NT, which is the Mizoram state bird.
Tripura
Clouded leopard NP
Rajbari NP
❏ Rajbari NP is a national park in the Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura, India. (Trishna
WLS)
🔢Consider the following pairs (UPSC CSE 2014)
1. Dampa Tiger Reserve : Mizoram
2. Gumti Wildlife Sanctuary : Sikkim
3. Saramati Peak : Nagaland
Which of the above pairs is /are correctly matched?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3only C. 1 and 3only D. 1, 2 and 3
⇒ Malayan Giant Squirrel found in parts of NE, could vanish post-2050 due to Jhum poaching.
says Zoological Survey of India. "Near-Threatened" in the IUCN list.
Sikkim
Kangchenjunga NP→ Asian Wild Dog-EN
West Bengal
Singalila NP, Neora valley NP, Gorumara NP, Jaldapara NP, Buxa NP( 🐅)
Sunderban 🐅 Reserve
❏ Jaldapara NP→ Torsa river, joins kaljani and meets Brahmaputra→ Chilapata Forests is an
elephant corridor → The park holds the largest rhino population in India after Kaziranga National
Park in Assam
❏ Neora Valley NP is situated in the Kalimpong district, West Bengal→ Neora River→ It is
the land of the elegant red panda.
❏ Buxa NP→ Raidak and Jayanti river, tributaries of brahmaputra→Indian leopard, Bengal
tiger, clouded leopard, giant squirrel.
❏ Gorumara NP→ The park is located on the floodplains of the Murti River The major river
of the park is the Jaldhaka river, a tributary of the Brahmaputra river system. The park is rich in
large herbivores including Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Asian elephant, sloth bear, chital, and sambar
deer.
❏ Singalila NP→ River Rammam and River Sirikhola flow through the park.
🔢Consider the following areas: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. Bandipur
2. Bhitarkanika
3. Manas
4. Sundarbans
Which of the above are Tiger Reserves?
(a) 1 and 2only (b) 1, 3 and 4only (c) 2, 3 and 4only (d) l, 2, 3 and 4
Gujarat
Marine NP, Gir NP, Blackbuck NP, Vansda NP

❏ Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, also known as Sasan Gir.Shetrunji River→ The
four reservoirs of the area are at four dams, one each on Hiran, Machhundri, Raval and Shingoda
rivers, including the biggest reservoir in the area, the Kamleshwar Dam, dubbed 'the lifeline of
Gir’.(Asian lion-EN)
❏ Blackbuck National Park at Velavadar is situated in the Bhavnagar District of Gujarat state,
India. (Macqueen Bustard-VU)
❏ Vansda NP → Ambika River
❏ Marine NP in the Gulf of Kutch is situated on the southern shore of the Gulf of Kutch,
There are 42 islands on the Jamnagar coast in the Marine National Park, most of them surrounded
by reefs. The best known island is Pirotan Island.
⇒ Recently Naliya Great Indian Bustard sanctuary in Kutch, Gujarat is in News as forest Fire is
there.
🔢A sandy and saline area is the natural habitat of an Indian animal species. The animal has no
predators in that area but its existence is threatened due to the destruction of its habitat. Which one
of the following could be that animal? (UPSC CSE-2011)
(a) Indian wild buffalo
(b) Indian wildass
(c) Indian wild boar
(d) Indian Gazelle
🔢With reference to the wetlands of India, consider the following statements:
1. The country’s total geographical area under the category of wetlands is recorded more in
Gujarat as compared to other States.
2. In India, the total geographical area of coastal wetlands is larger than that of wetlands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2012)
(a) 1only (b) 2only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Maharashtra
Sanjay Gandhi NP, Chandoli NP, Gugamal NP, Pench NP, Tadoba NP( 🐅 ), Navegaon NP
🐅 reserve:- Melghat, nagzira, Sahyadri, Bor
❏ Tadoba NP →Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve→ It is Maharashtra's oldest national park. the
Andhari River. the Moharli and Kolsa ranges. Indian leopards, sloth bears, gaur, nilgai,
❏ Gugamal NP is part of Melghat Tiger Reserve. The area is rich in wild mammals including
Bengal tiger, Indian leopard
❏ Chandoli NP lies between the Radhanagiri and Koyna Wildlife Sanctuaries and forms the
southern part of the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. Warna river
❏ Pench NP → Pench River→ Satpura range. The Bengal tiger is the main cat species.
⇒ 10 Apr, 2021- Navegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra= Some miscreants started a
forest fire.
Karnataka
Anshi NP 🐅
Kudremukh NP
Bannerghatta NP
🐅
Nagarhole NP
Bandipur NP🐅
Kali NP🐅
Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS 🐅

Bhadra TR 🐅
❏ Anshi / Kali Tiger Reserves→ Kali River, Dandeli WLS
❏ Nagarhole NP is a national park located in Kodagu district and Mysore district in
Karnataka, India. It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. the Brahmagiri hills. Kapila River,
Lakshman Tirtha river.
❏ Bandipur NP part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.Kabini river, species like Indian
elephants, gaurs, tigers, sloth bears
❏ Kudremukh NP Three important rivers, the Tunga, the Bhadra, and the Nethravathi. (Lion
tailed Macaque-EN)
Orissa
Simlipal NP 🐅
Bhitarkanika NP
Satkosia NP 🐅
❏ Bhitarkanika NP→ Brahmani, Baitarani, Pathsala & Dhamra River. Gahirmatha beach.
(Olive Ridley sea turtle-VU)
❏ Simlipal NP→ Barehipani falls; Hadgarh, Kuldiha WLS. (Mugger Crocodile-VU)

🔢Two important rivers —one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name in
Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha —merge at a place only a short distance from the
coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and
biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) Bhitarkanika (b) Chandipur-on-sea (c) Gopalpur-on-sea (d) Simlipal
Chhattisgarh
Guru Ghasidas NP
Indravati NP 🐅
Kanger Ghati NP
Achanakmar TR 🐅
Udanti & Sitanadi TR 🐅
❏ Indravati NP Wild buffalo-EN
❏ Kanger Ghati NP→ Kolab River
AndhraPradesh
Sri Papikonda NP
Sri Venkateshwara NP
Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam 🐅
❏ Sri Venkateshwara NP is located near Seshachalam hills, Tirumala hills. (White Backed
vulture-CR; Yellow throated bulbul-VU)
❏ Papikonda NP→ Black-beiled tern-EN; Pale-capped pigeon-VU: oriental darter-NT
Kerala
Silent valley NP
Anamudi NP
Eravikulam NP
Pampadum shola NP
Mathikatton Shola NP
Periyar NP 🐅
Parambikulam TR 🐅
❏ Eravikulam NP→ Lakkam waterfalls. (Nilgiri Tahr-EN; Nilgiri Langur-VU;
Raorchestes resplendens-CR; Nilgiri Marten-VU)
❏ Silent Valley NP is part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Kunthipuzha River (Indian
Pangolin-EN; Black footed grey langur-VU)
❏ Anamudi Shola NP is located in Idukki district, Kerala.
❏ Periyar NP is located near Cardamom, Pendulum hill. Periyar, Pamba River. (Indian
Elephant-EN; Salim Ali fruit bat-EN)
TamilNadu
Guindy NP
Mudumalai NP 🐅
Mukurthi NP
Srivilliputhur-Meghamalai TR 🐅
Anamalai NP 🐅
Gulf of Mannar NP
Sathyamangalam TR 🐅
Kalakad Mundanthurai TR 🐅
❏ Mudumalai NP Indian vulture-CR; White-Rumped vulture-CR
❏ Gulf of Mannar NP→ Thoothukudi & Dhanushkodi. (Dugong/Sea Cow-VU; Indo pacific
bottlenose dolphin-NT)
❏ Guindy NP→ Indian star tortoise-VU; Blackbuck
⇒ Feb,2021-Srivilliputhur-Meghamalai TR recently added. It is the 51st TR. near Meghamalai
Mountain.
🔢With reference to "dugong", a mammal found in India, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
1. It is a herbivorous marine animal.
2. It is found along the entire coast of India.
3. It is given legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection)Act, 1972.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. UPSC CSE 2015
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2only (c) 1 and3 (d) 3 only
Telangana
Mrugavani NP
Mahavir Harina Vanasthali NP
Nagarjunsagar Srisailam 🐅
Kawal TR 🐅
Amravati TR 🐅
Goa
Mollen NP
Bhagwan Mahavir Sanctuary
Jharkhand
Betla NP(#Palamu NP)

Hazaribagh TR 🐅
MadhyaPradesh
Sanjay NP 🐅
Bandhavgarh NP 🐅
Panna NP 🐅
Mandla Plant fossil NP
Kanha NP 🐅
Satpura NP🐅
Van Vihar NP
Omkareshwar MP
Dinosaur NP
Madhav NP
Pench NP 🐅
Kumho WLS
❏ Kanha TR → “the Jungle Book” by Rudyard Kipling ⇒ ⇒ Nascot of NP- Bhoorsingh the
Barasingha.
❏ Bandhavgarh NP- Before Corbett highest Tiger density.
❏ Panna TR→ Kenghariyal WLS, Ken River.
❏ Satpura NP → Panchmari
⇒ Mar-2021- Night Safari start at Bandhavgarh, Kanha & Pench NP
🔢If you want to see gharials in their natural habitat, which one of the following is the best place
to visit? UPSC CSE 2017
(a) BhitarkanikaMangroves
(b) Chambal River
(c) Pulicat Lake
(d) Deepor Beel
Andaman & Nicobar
Saddle peak NP
North button NP
Middle button NP
South button NP
Rani Jhansi Marine NP
Mt. Harriet NP
Mahatma Gandhi MAine NP
Campbell NP
Galathea NP
10.5 Misc. topic→ Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) of Protected area report
2021
- Boss? Ministry of Environment & Forest

- Best performers- HP's Tirthan Wildlife Sanctuary & Great Himalayan National Park
- Most Bogus- Turtle wildlife sanctuary, UP.
Some PRE Questions
🔢Consider the following : (UPSC CSE 2012)

1. Black-necked crane
2. Cheetah
3. Flying squirrel
4. Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
🔢If you travel through the Himalayas, you are Likely to see which of the following plants
naturally growing there? UPSC CSE 2014
1. Oak
2. Rhododendron
3. Sandalwood
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
🔢Which one of the following is the national aquatic animal ofIndia? UPSC CSE 2015
(a) Saltwater crocodile
(b) Olive ridley turtle
(c) Gangetic dolphin
(d) Gharial
🔢Which one of the following National Parks has a climate that varies from tropical to
subtropical, temperate and arctic? UPSC CSE 2015
(a) Khangchendzonga National Park
(b) Nanda devi National Park
(c) Neora Valley National Park
(d) Namdapha National Park
🔢Consider the followingStates: UPSC CSE 2015
1 . ArunachalPradesh
2 . Himachal Pradesh
3 . Mizoram
In which of the following states do “Tropical WetEvergreen Forests” occur?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
🔢What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found inIndia? UPSC CSE 2016
1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
3.It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
🔢Recently, for the first time in our country, which of the following States has declared a
particular butterfly as ‘State Butterfly’? UPSC CSE 2016
(a) ArunachalPradesh (b) HimachalPradesh (c) Karnataka (d) Maharashtra
🔢In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the `Great Indian
Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? UPSC CSE 2016
(a) Sand deserts of northwest India
(b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir
(c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat
(d) Western Ghats
🔢In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply? UPSC CSE 2017
(a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger.
(b)It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and now it is
impossible to prevent its extinction.
(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India.
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context.
🔢Recently there was a proposal to translocate some of the lions from their natural habitat in
Gujarat to which one of the following sites ? UPSC CSE 2017
(a) Corbett National Park
(b) Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
(c) Mudumalai WildlifeSanctuary
(d) Sariska National Park
🔢From the ecological point of view, which one of the following assumes importance in being a
good link between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats? UPSC CSE 2017
(a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve

(b) Nallamala Forest
(c) Nagarhole National Park
(d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve
🔢 Which one of the following national parks lies completely in the Temperate alpine zone?
(UPSC CSE 2017)
(a) Manas national park
(b) Namdapha national park
(c) Neora valley national park
(d) Valley of flower national park
🔢Consider the following statements:
1. Asiatic lions are naturally found in India only.
2. Double-humped camels are naturally found in India only.
3.One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India Only.
Which one of the statements given above is/are correct? UPSC CSE 2017
(a) 1only (b) 2only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
🔢Consider the following pairs: Wildlife: Naturally found in
1. Blue finned mahseer : Cauvery River
2. Irrawaddy dolphin : Chambal river
3. Rusty spotted cats : Eastern ghats
Which one of the pairs given above are correctly matched? UPSC CSE 2017
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
🔢Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger
Habitat”? UPSC CSE 2017
1.Corbett 2.Ranthambore 3.Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam 4.Sunderbans
🔢With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
1.The leader of an elephant group is a female
2.The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
3.An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
4.Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
1.1 and 2 only 2.2 and 4 only 3.3 only 4.1,3 and 4 only
🔢Which of the following Protected Areas are located in the Cauvery basin? 1.Nagarhole National
park
2.Papikonda National park
3.Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
4.Wayanad Wildlife sanctuary
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
1.1 and 2 only 2.3 and 4 only 3.1,3 and 4 only 4.1,2,3 and 4
🔢Which one of the following protected areas is well-known for the conservation of a sub-species
of the Indian swamp deer (Barasingha) that thrives well in hard ground and is exclusively
graminivorous?
1.Kanha National Park
2.Manas National Park
3.Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
4.Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary
🔢With reference to India’s biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned
minivet and White- throated redstart are
1.Birds 2.Primates 3.Reptiles 4.Amphibians
🔢Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?
1.Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
2.Gangotri National Park
3.Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
4.Manas National Park
Select the correct answer using the code given below
1.1 and 2 only 2.2 and 3 only 3.3 and 4 only 4.1 and 4 only
Next Handout- EF1B1_HDT_Wetland_BR_Mangrove
Pillar-1B: Wetland,BR,Mangrove & Project Elephant
11 Wetland 31
11.1 National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) 31
11.2 Uses of wetlands 32
11.3 Ramsar Convention 33
11.4 International organization partners 33
11.5 A wetland can be considered to be internationally important if any of the following
criteria apply 34
11.6 The Montreux Record (Use ⭐ symbol for Montreux record) 34
11.7 Ramsar Sites in India 35
Kerala 35
Tamilnadu 35
AndhraPradesh 35
Odisha 36
West Bengal 36
Maharashtra 36
Gujarat 36
Madhya Pradesh 36
Tripura 36
Manipur 36
Assam 36
Rajasthan 37
Uttarakhand 37
Bihar 37
J&k 37
Ladakh 37
Himachal Pradesh 37
Punjab 37
UttarPradesh 38
11.8 Misc. topic→Karuna Abhiyan-2021 38
12 Biosphere Reserves 39
12.1 Introduction 39
12.2 Functions Of Biosphere Reserves 40
12.3 Structure and functions of BR 40
12.4 Criteria for World Network of Biosphere Reserves 41
12.5 Biosphere Reserve in India 42
Nilgiri Biosphere reserve 43
Nanda Devi BR 43
(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1B_Wetland_BR_Mangrove→ Page 29
Gulf of Mannar BR 43
Pachmarhi BR 44
Achanakmar-Amarkantak BR 44
Cold desert BR 44
Dihang-Dibang BR 44
Simlipal BR 44
Agasthyamala BR 44
Dibru-SaikhowaNational Park 45
12.4 Man And The Biosphere (MAB) Programme 45
12.5 Biodiversity Hotspots 45
12.6 Hottest Hotspots: 46
12.6.1 Eight hottest hotspots: 47
12.7 Biodiversity Hotspots In India 47
13 Mangrove 48
13.2 Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) 49
Odisha 49
West Bengal 49
Andhra Pradesh 50
TamilNadu 50
Andaman & Nicobar 50
Kerala 50
Karnataka 50
Goa 50
Maharashtra 50
Gujrat 51
13.3 Importance of Mangroves 51
13.4 Mangroves for the Future (MFF) 51
• Established in 2006 51
14 Project Elephant 53
🐘
14.1 Project Elephant 53
14.2 Objectives: 53
14.3 Elephant Corridor 54
14.4 MIKE Programme 54
14.5 Haathi Mere Saathi Campaign 55
🐘 Odisha 55
🐘 West Bengal 55
🐘Andhra Pradesh 55
🐘Chattisgarh 55
🐘Meghalaya 55
🐘Nagaland 55
🐘Assam 55
🐘Arunachal Pradesh 55
🐘Jharkhand 56
🐘UttarPradesh 56
🐘Karnataka 56
🐘Kerala 56
🐘TamilNadu 56
Shivalik Elephant Reserve 56
Nilgiri Elephant corridor 57
11 Wetland
• A wetland is a place where the land is covered by water. Marshes, ponds, the edge of a
lake/ocean, the delta at the mouth of a river, low-lying areas that frequently flood — all of these
are wetlands.
• Wetlands are also considered the most
biologically diverse of all ecosystems,
serving as home to a wide range of plant and
animal life.
11.1 National Wetland Conservation

Programme (NWCP)
• The Government of India operationalized the National Wetland Conservation Programme

(NWCP) in close collaboration with the concerned State Government during the year 1985/86.
• Under the programme 115 wetlands have been identified till now by the Ministry which requires
urgent conservation and management initiatives.
• The main wetland types are swamp, marsh, bog, and fen.
• subtypes include mangrove forest, carr, floodplains,sink, and many others.
• Many peatlands are wetlands.
➔ A swamp is a wetland that is forested. Swamps are considered to be transition zones
because both land and water play a role in creating this environment.
➔ A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species.
Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams, where they form a transition
between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are often dominated by grasses, rushes
➔ A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material.
➔ Fen: Peat rich areas that receive nutrients from the water that flows through them (surface
runoff, groundwater). Typically flooded in the winter and dominated by mosses, sedges, rushes,
and shrubs. Streams and/or pools may be present.
➔ If woody plants are present they tend to be low-growing shrubs, and then sometimes called
carrs. Carrs are wetlands that are dominated by shrubs rather than trees.
11.2 Uses of wetlands
• Water storage (flood control)

• Groundwater replenishment
• Shoreline stabilisation and storm protection
• Water purification
• Reservoirs of biodiversity
• Pollination
• Wetland products
• Cultural values
• Recreation and tourism
• Climate change mitigation and adaptation
11.3 Ramsar Convention
• The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an international treaty for

the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
• It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in 1971.
• Every three years, representatives of the Contracting Parties meet at the Conference of the
Contracting Parties (COP).
• COP12 was held in Punta del Este, Uruguay, in 2015.
• COP13 was held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, in October 2018.
• China will host the next Ramsar COP14 in 2021.
• The 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day
• There are over 2,300 Ramsar Sites on the territories of 171 Ramsar Contracting Parties across
the world.
• The countries with the most Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
• Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.
11.4 International organization partners
• The Ramsar Convention works closely with six other organizations known as International
Organization Partners (IOPs). These are:
• Birdlife International
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
• Wetlands International
• WWF International
• Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
• Other Partners
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),
• Convention on the Conservation of MigratorySpecies of Wild Animals
• Convention on MigratorySpecies (CMS),
• World Heritage Convention (WHC) and
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
• Project funding is done by various groups like multilateral development banks, bilateral donors,
UN agencies such as UNEP, UNDP,Non-governmental organisations etc.
11.5 A wetland can be considered to be internationally important if any of the following

criteria apply
• "it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type
found within the appropriate biogeographic region."
• "it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological
communities."
• "It supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological
diversity of a particular biogeographic region."
• "it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge
during adverse conditions."
• "It regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds."
• "it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on
which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
11.6 The Montreux Record (Use ⭐ symbol for Montreux record)

• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Ramsar wetlands of
international importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or
are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human
interference.
• It is a voluntary mechanism to highlight specific wetlands of international importance that are
facing immediate challenges.
• It is maintained as part of the List of Ramsar wetlands of international importance
• The Montreux Record was established in 1990
??? If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it
imply? [2014]
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the
wetland as a result of human interference.
(b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity
within five kilometres from the edge of the wetland.
(c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain
communities living in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diversity therein should not be
destroyed.
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’.
11.7 Ramsar Sites in India
presently there are 42 ramsar sites in India.
Kerala
Vembanad lake ⛱
Sasthamkotta lake
Ashtamudi lake ⛱
(#⛱→lagoon )
❏ Vembanad lake→Kochi port; India’s largest lake; Vallarpadam, Willington IS, Vypin,
Mulavukad; Nehru trophy boat race organises here; pamba,periyar, achankovil river; kumarakom
bird sanctuary
❏ Ashtamudi lake→Syzygium travancoricum(plant); kollam district; neendakara port; kallada
river; Muroe Is.
Tamilnadu
Point-calimere WLS→Spoon billed Sandpiper-CR
AndhraPradesh
Kolleru lake
🔢Which of the following are lagoon lake?
1. Vembanad lake
2. Ashtamudi lake
3. Sasthamkotta lake
4. Kolleru lake
Select the correct option: (a) 1,2 & 3 (b) 2,3 &4 (c) 1,2 & 5 (d) 1,2,3,4
Odisha
Chilka lake⛱
Bhitarkanika mangrove
❏ Bhitarkanika mangrove→Gahirmatha WLS; Abdulkalam Is. (Wheeler Is.)
❏ Chilika lake→Puri,khurda,ganjam district; Nalbana bird sanctuary; Daya river;
(Spoon-billed sandpiper-CR; Green sea turtle-EN; Lesser flamingo-NT; Irawody
dolphin-EN). On the south of Chilika rushikulya river flows where Olive ridley turtles are
found.
West Bengal
Sundarban delta
East Kolkata Wetland
Maharashtra
Nandur Madhmeshwar
Loktak lake(2020)
Gujarat
Nal Sarovar→Indian wild Ass-NT
Madhya Pradesh
Bhoj Wetland→Upper lake(Bhoj tal)+Lower lake; (Sarus crane-VU; Black necked stork-NT;
White stork-LC)
Tripura
Rudrasagar lake→three striped roof turtle-CR
Manipur
Loktak lake ⭐
Assam
Deepor Beel→Pabitra WLS; (Spot billed Pelium-NT; Baer’s Pochard-CR)
● Mandarin duck- Migratory species from Russia Korea Japan China- spotted in
Maguri-Motapung beel, a wetland in Eastern Assam. Other endemic species in this
wetland-black-breasted parrotbill and marsh babbler.
Rajasthan
Keoladeo wetland ⭐
Sambhar lake
Uttarakhand
Asan barrage→Asan river; Yamuna River
Bihar
Kanwar lake→ Oxbow lake⇒Largest oxbow lake; Gandak lake; Dolphin observatory.
J&k
Wular lake
hokera/Hokersar lake
Surinsar-Mansar lake(Latest)
Ladakh
Tsokar lake(Recent)
Tso moriri lake→Bar headed goose-LC; Black necked crane-NT
Himachal Pradesh
Chandratal
Pong dam/Maharana pratap
renuka
Punjab
Nangal WLS
Roper wetland
Beas Conservation centre
Harike wetland
Kanjli wetland
Keshopur Miani
❏ Beas Conservation centre→Indus river dolphin-EN; Gharial-CR
⇒ Feb,2021- Recently Ghariyal from Chhatbir Zoo(Chattisgarh) released to Beas River
UttarPradesh
⇒ Recent Site→Sur Sarovar

❏ Parvati Arga→Oxbow lake; Part of Sarayu River
11.8 Misc. topic→Karuna Abhiyan-2021
⇒ Gujarat govt initiative to save the lives of birds who get injured by kite flying (13k birds
rescued last year!).Helpline number 1962.
🔢Match the column:

1. Kawar Tal→Yamuna River
2. Parvati Arga→Sarayu river
3. Asan Barrage→Yamuna River

Select the Incorrect Option: (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c)1 & 2 (d) 1,2 & 3
PRE Question
🔢Wetlands→Confluence of rivers
1. Harike wetland→Beas and Satluj
2. Keoladeo Ghana NationalPark→Banas and Chambal
3. Kolleru Lake→Musi and Krishna
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CSE 2012)
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3only C. 1 and 3only D. 1, 2 and 3
12 Biosphere Reserves
12.1 Introduction
• Biosphere Reserves are large areas of biodiversity where flora and fauna are protected.
• These regions of environmental protection roughly correspond to IUCN Category V Protected
areas.
• The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves of India, which protect larger
areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary).
• Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for representative parts of
natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine
ecosystems or a combination thereof
• The Indian government has established 18 biosphere reserves in India.
• 12 of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves,
based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
• Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) is an intergovernmental scientific programme.

• launched in 1971 by UNESCO,
• aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and
their environments.
12.2 Functions Of Biosphere Reserves
● Conservation of genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes preserving the traditional
lifestyle and resources of the local people.
● Sustainable economic, cultural, social and ecological developments.
● Restoration of any damage caused to ecosystems and habitats.
● Generation of a lot of scientific information for specific scientific studies and research.
● Helps in sharing knowledge through site specific training and education.
● Development of community spirit in the management of natural resources.
12.3 Structure and functions of BR
• Core Zone : Core zone must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species,
including higher order predators.
• contain centers of endemism.
• Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important
genetic reservoirs having exceptional scientific interest.
• The core zone is to be kept free from human pressures
• Buffer Zone: These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing
value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, etc.
• Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR,
are likely to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.
• Transition Zone : The transition area is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. • This is
usually not a delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation knowledge and
management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere
reserve.
• This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and areas for intensive recreation and
other economic uses characteristics of the region.
The level of restriction in the increasing order is Biosphere Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries and
National Parks.
12.4 Criteria for World Network of Biosphere Reserves
•It should encompass a mosaic of ecological systems representative of major bio geographical
regions, including a graduation of human interventions
•It should be of significance for biological diversity conservation
•It should provide an opportunity to explore and demonstrate approaches to sustainable
development on a regional scale
•It should have an appropriate size to fulfill the three functions of biosphere reserves
(conservation, development, logistic support)
•It should include these functions through appropriate zonation, recognizing core, buffer, and outer
transition zones.
Criteria For Designation Of BRs
● A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of
nature conservation.
● The core area should be typical of a bio-geographical unit and large enough to sustain viable
populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
● Areas having rare and endangered species and indigenous varieties of biota.
● Areas having potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for
harmonious use of the environment.
12.5 Biosphere Reserve in India
1. Cold desert BR
2. Nanda devi BR
3. Khangchendzonga BR
4. Manas BR
5. Dibru Saikhowa BR
6. Dihang-Dibang BR
7. Nokrek BR
8. Sundarban BR
9. Simlipal BR
10. Achanakmar-Amarkantak BR
11. Seshachalam BR
12. Gulf of Mannar BR
13. Agasthyamalai BR
14. Nilgiri BR
15. Pachmarhi BR
16. Rann of Kutch BR
17. Panna BR
18. Great Nicobar
➔ Oldest BR in India was the Nilgiri Biosphere reserve(2000); And latest BR in India is
Panna Biosphere Reserve(2020).
Nilgiri Biosphere reserve
• The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is an International Biosphere Reserve in the Western Ghats and
Nilgiri Hills ranges of South India.
• Mudumalai, Mukurthi, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Silent Valley national parks the Wayanad
,Karimpuzha, Aralam (Kerala) wildlife sanctuaries, Sathyamangalam
• It includes the Bengal tiger, Indian leopard , Black panther , Gaur, Indian elephant, Mongoose,
Malabar giant squirrel, Lion-tailed macaque, nilgiri langur, Gray langur and Nilgiri tahr.
• It has the largest population of two endangered species- lion-tailed macaque and nilgiri tahr.
• About 80% of flowering plants reported from Western Ghats occur in Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve.
🔢Which of the following protected areas are under nilgiri BR?
1. Karimpuzha
2. Agasthyamalai
3. Kalakkad
4. Meghamalai
5. Periyar
Select the correct option:
(a) 1 only (b) 1,2 & 3 (c) 2,3 &5 (d) 1,2,3 & 5
🔢Which BR has two endangered species and 80% flowering plant reported?
(a) Nilgiri (b) Nanda Devi © Manas (d) Meghamalai
Nanda Devi BR
Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks
Gulf of Mannar BR
• in the Coromandel Coast region.

• The chain of low islands and reefs known as Ramsethu, also called Adam's Bridge, which
includes Mannar Island, separates the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north
between Sri Lanka and India.
• The Malwathu Oya (Malvathu River) of Sri Lanka and the estuaries of Thamirabarani River
and Vaipar River of South India drain into the Gulf.
• The dugong (sea cow) is found here.
Pachmarhi BR
• Bori Sanctuary (518.00 km2)

• Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37 km2).
• Satpura National Park (524.37 km2)
• The highest peak is Dhoopgarh.
Achanakmar-Amarkantak BR
• The reserve is also the source of three major river systems: the Narmada, the Johilla and the Son
River.
Cold desert BR
It includes: Pin Valley National Park; Chandratal; Sarchu; Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary.
Dihang-Dibang BR
• Rare mammals such as Mishmi takin-EN, red goral-VU,red panda, Asiatic black bear.
• The Mouling National Park and the Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary.
Simlipal BR
• part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve

• includes three protected areas — Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadagarh Wildlife Sanctuary
• Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary
• Barehipani Falls
⇒ Mar,2021- Recently a massive fire in the Similipal Biosphere was seen.
Agasthyamala BR
• border of Pathanamthitta, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram Districts in Kerala and

Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu,
• Inclusion of adjoining areas of Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
• Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries (kerala).

• Kanikkarans are the Original tribal Settlers in Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve.
Dibru-SaikhowaNational Park
Originally created to help conserve the habitat of the rare white-winged wood duck-EN.
🔠? Consider the following pairs: [2013]
1. Nokrek Biosphere Reserve: Garo Hills
2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake: Barail Range
3. Namdapha National Park: Dafla Hills
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
12.4 Man And The Biosphere (MAB) Programme
● Launched in 1971 by UNESCO.

● It provides a platform for cooperation on research and development, capacity building and
networking to share information, knowledge and experience on three interlinked issues:
❏ Biodiversity loss,
❏ Climate change and
❏ Sustainable development.
● For implementation of its interdisciplinary work on the ground, MAB relies on the World
Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR).
There are currently 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries, including 21 transboundary sites,
that belong to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
12.5 Biodiversity Hotspots
● A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region which has high biodiversity but that is under
threat from destruction mainly due to human activities.
● The concept of biodiversity hotspot was given by Norman Myers in 1988 in his two articles in
“The Environmentalist”.
● Myers listed two criteria for a region to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot: a. It must have at least
1,500 vascular plants as endemics— which is to say, it must have
➔ a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words,
is irreplaceable.
➔ It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be
threatened.
● Myers originally recognised 25 hotspots but now 36 sites around the world follow his criteria.
● Conservation International has concluded the importance of biodiversity hotspots as- “Around
the world, 36 areas qualify as hotspots. They represent just 2.4% of Earth’s land surface, but they
support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics — i.e., species found no place
else — and nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile and amphibian species as endemics.”
🔠? Three of the following criteria have contributed to the recognition of Western Ghats, Sri
Lanka and Indo Burma regions as hotspots of biodiversity: [2011]
1. Species richness
2. Vegetation density
3. Endemism
4. Ethno-botanical importance
5. Threat perception
6. Adaptation of flora and fauna to warm and humid conditions
Which three of the above are correct criteria in this context?
(a) 1, 2 and 6 only (b) 2, 4 and 6 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 3, 4 and 6 only
12.6 Hottest Hotspots:
● Hottest hotspots are the areas which have much more endemism and richness in biodiversity
than other hotspots.
● There are five factors considered for designating a hotspot as hottest hotspot:
1. Endemic plants,
2. Endemic vertebrates,
3. Endemic plants/area ratio
4. Endemic vertebrates/area ratio and
5. Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent.
12.6.1 Eight hottest hotspots:
1. Madagascar
2. Philippines
3. Sundaland
4. Brazil’s AtlanticForest
5. Caribbean
6. Indo-Burma
7. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
8. Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests ofTanzania/Kenya
12.7 Biodiversity Hotspots In India
1.Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2.Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands
(and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)
3.Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei,
Philippines)
4.Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)
13 Mangrove
13.1 Introduction
• Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral तटीय (near the seashore) forest ecosystem.
• These are mostly evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats,
tidal creeks, backwaters (coastal waters held back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical and
subtropical regions.
• Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, and the trees may vary in height from 8 to 20 m.
They protect the shoreline from the effect of cyclones and tsunamis.
• Since mangroves are located between the land and sea, they represent the best example of
ecotone.
• Mangroves are salt tolerant trees, also called halophytes, and are adapted to harsh coastal
conditions.
• They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of waterlogged mud.
• They produce pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome the respiration problem in the anaerobic
soil conditions.
• Mangroves grow below the high water level of spring tides.
13.2 Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)
• Mangroves occur in a variety of configurations. Some species (e.g. Rhizophora) send arching
prop roots down into the water.
• While others (e.g. Avicennia) send vertical “Pneumatophores” or air roots up from the mud.
নিউম্যাটোফোর: রাইজোফোর, সুন্দরী গাছপালা, যা জলাবদ্ধ অঞ্চলে বৃদ্ধি পায়, মূল শিকড় থেকে বিশেষ বজ্র শিকড়
জন্মায়, তাকে নিউম্যাটোফোর বলা হয়। এগুলো পেগ আকারের, যা উপরের বাতাস বেরিয়ে আসে। তাদের
অনেকগুলি ছোট কোল রয়েছে যার নাম নিউমোডাডেস। যেমন- চিজোফোরা, সুন্দরি ইত্যাদি।
Heritiera littoralis
• Mangroves exhibit Viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. seeds germinate in the tree itself (before
falling to the ground).
• The seed germinates and grows from its own resources while still attached to its parent.
• Vivipary
Odisha
Subarnarekha
Bhitarkanika
Dhamra
Kalibhanjdia Is. (Mangrove Genetic Resources centre)
Mahanadi
DeviKauda
Chilika lake
West Bengal
Sundarban delta
Andhra Pradesh
Coringa WLS→TungaBhadra River, Korangi River

East Godavari
Krishna
TamilNadu
Pulicat→Arani River
Kaznuveli→Pabr River
Pichavaram→Kollidam, Uppanar river
Andaman & Nicobar
North Andaman; Nicobar
Kerala
Kannur→ located on Northern Kerala

Vembanad lake→Pamba River
Karnataka
Karwar→Kali nadi; Sharavati river

Honnavar
Kundapura→Panchyangovalid; chakra river; kolluru river
Mangalore forest division→Netravati river; Gurupura river
Goa
Goa
Maharashtra
Lake Vaitarna
Vasai Manori
Mumbra→Ulhas river
Vikhroli
Undalika revdanda
Shrivardhan
Veldur→Vashishti river
Vijaydurg→devgad; Vafhotar river
Achra
Malavar
Gujrat
Rann of Kutch
Khambhat region
Dumas ubharat region→near tapi
13.3 Importance of Mangroves
• Mangrove plants have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, pneumatophores which help
to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas (where it is already
occurring),stabilise the coastal shores, and provide a breeding ground for fishes.
• Mangroves moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands.
• They Prevent coastal soil erosion.
• They Protect coastal lands from tsunamis, hurricanes and floods.
• Mangroves enhance the natural recycling of nutrients.
• Mangrove Supports Numerous Florae, avifauna and wildlife.
• Provide a safe and favourable environment for breeding, rearing of several fishes.
• Theysupplywoods, firewood,medicinal plants and edible plants to local people.
• They Provide numerous employment opportunities to local communities and augment their
livelihood.
13.4 Mangroves for the Future (MFF)
• Established in 2006
• Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a unique partner-led initiative to promote investment in
coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable development.
• Co-chaired by IUCN and UNDP, MFF provides a platform for collaboration among the many
different agencies, sectors and countries which are addressing challenges to coastal ecosystems and
livelihood issues.
• The goal is to promote an integrated ocean-wide approach to coastal management and to build
the resilience of ecosystem-dependent coastal communities.
• Member countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan,
Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam
→ Objectives: To achieve its goal of conservation, restoration and sustainable management of
coastal ecosystems as key natural infrastructure which support human well-being and security,
MFF implements actions guided by three main objectives.
1.Improve, share and apply knowledge to support the conservation, restoration and sustainable use
of coastal ecosystems.
2.Strengthen Integrated Coastal Management institutions and empower civil society (including
local communities) to engage in decision-making and management that conserves, restores and
sustainably uses coastal ecosystems.
3.Enhance coastal governance at all levels (regional, national, provincial, district and community)
to encourage integrated management programmes and investments that are ecologically and
socio-economically sound, and promote human well-being and security.
🔢Which one of the following are Agasthyamala biosphere reserve?

(a)Neyyar, peppara and shendurney wildlife sanctuaries and kalakad mundanthurai tiger reserve
(b)Mudumalai sathyamangalam and Wayanad wildlife sanctuaries and silent valley national park
(c)Kaundinya gundla bh rameshwaram and papikonda wildlife sanctuaries and mukurthi national
park
(d)Kawal and Shree Venkateshwara wildlife sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-srisailam tiger
reserve
🔢Which one of the following national parks lies completely in the Temperate alpine zone?
(a) Manas national park
(b) Namdapha national park
(c) Neora valley national park
(d) Valley of flower national park
🔢Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned innews?

(a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.
(b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows.
(c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides.
(d) None of these
14 Project Elephant
14.1 🐘Project Elephant

• Project Elephant was launched in 1992.
• It is a centrally sponsored scheme.
• It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of the
Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).
14.2 Objectives:
• to assist states having populations of wild elephants and to ensure long term survival of identified
viable populations of
elephants in their natural habitats
• addressing man-animal conflict.
• Developing scientific and planned management measures for conservation of elephants.
• Protecting the elephants from poachers, preventing illegal ivory trade and other unnatural causes
of death.
14.3 Elephant Corridor
• An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/narrow strip of forested (or otherwise) land that
connects larger
habitats with elephant populations and forms a conduit for animal movement between the habitats.
• There are 101 identified corridors in India (published by the Wildlife Trust of India in
collaboration with Project Elephant and the U.K.based NGO Elephant Family, 2017)
• Coal mining and iron ore mining are the two “single biggest threats” to elephant corridors in
central India.
• Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are mineral-rich states, but also have the highest number of
elephant corridors in the country, which makes them known for elephant-man conflicts.
• Habitat loss leading to fragmentation and destruction caused by developmental activities.
14.4 MIKE Programme
● MIKE= Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants.

● Established under CITES.
● CITES-MIKE prog. Started in South Asia in 2003.
● Monthly data collected from all sites and submitted to sub-regional office
⇒ MIKE sites in India
• 1. Chirang Ripu (Assam )
• 2. Dihing Patkai (Assam)
• 3. Eastern Dooars (WB)
• 4. Deomali (Arunachal Pradesh)
• 5. Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
• 6. Mayurbhanj (Orissa)
• 7. Mysore (Karnataka)
• 8. Nilgiri (T N)
• 9. Shivalik (Uttarakhand)
• 10. Wayanad (Kerala)
14.5 Haathi Mere Saathi Campaign
• MoEF&CC in partnership with the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI).

• Aims to improve conservation and welfare prospects of the elephant - India’s National Heritage
Animal.
• It will also help in increasing awareness among people and developing not just friendship but also
companionship between people and elephants.
• Unlike the tiger, which faces the threat of extinction, the elephant faces threats of attrition.
• Campaign motto: ‘take Gajah (the elephant) to Prajah (the people)’.
🐘Odisha
Mayurbhanj; Sambalpur; Baitarani; South Odisha; Mahanadi
🐘West Bengal
Mayurjharna; Eastrn Duars
🐘Andhra Pradesh
Rayla
🐘Chattisgarh
Lemru; Badalkhar; Tamorpingla
🐘Meghalaya
Garo; Khasi
🐘Nagaland
Itanki
🐘Assam
Chirangpu; Kaziranga-Karbi anglong; Dhansiri Lunding; Sonitpur; Dihing patkai
🐘Arunachal Pradesh
Kameng; South Arunachal
🐘Jharkhand
Singhbhum
🐘UttarPradesh
Shivalik
🐘Karnataka
Bandipur; Mysore; Dandheli
🐘Kerala
Nilambar; Wayanad; Anamudi; Periyar
🐘TamilNadu
Nilgiri; Coimbatore; Annamalai; Srivilliputtur
🔢With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
1. The leader of an elephant group is a female
2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? UPSC CSE 2018
1.1 and 2 only 2.2 and 4 only 3.3 only 4.1,3 and 4 only
Shivalik Elephant Reserve
- Nov,2020- The Government of India has asked the Uttarakhand government to consider
avoiding sensitive areas of the Shivalik Elephant Reserve while exploring land suitable
for use for the expansion of Dehradun’s Jolly Grant Airport.
- The area proposed for the expansion is a part of the Shivalik Elephant Reserve and it falls
within a 10-km radius of Rajaji National Park.
Nilgiri Elephant corridor
- Oct,2020- The Supreme court upheld a 2011 order of the madras high court on the Nilgiri
Elephant corridor, affirming the right of passage of the animals and the closure of
resorts in the area.
- The supreme court’s order to seal and close 27 resorts operating in corridors used by
elephants in the Nilgiris is a necessary step to restore the ecology of the spaces.
- Weak regulation of ecotourism is severely impacting important habitats of elephants.
- It’s the state’s duty to protect “Keystone Species” like elephants, which are very much
important to the environment.
- Fragmentation of forests makes it all the more important to preserve migratory corridors.
- The movement of elephants is essential to ensure that their populations are genetically
viable, and help regenerate forests on which other species, including tigers, depend.
Mains Question
GSM3 (Mains Question)- What is wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the
context of wetland conservation. Cite two examples of Ramsar sites from India.
Next Handout: Pillar 2A Ecosystem
Pillar_2A1_Ecology_&_Ecosystem_&_Pillar_2A2_function_Of_Ecosystem
20 Ecology & Ecosystem 59

20.2 What is the Environment ? 59
20.3 Levels of Ecological Organisation 59
20.4 Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment 63
20.4.1 Ecosystem:Concept, Types & Functions 63
20.4.2 Components of an ecosystem 63
20.4.2.1 Abiotic components (Nonliving) 64
20.4.2.2 Biotic components 66
20.5 Ecotone 67
20.6 Edge effect 68
21. Functions of an Ecosystem 69
21.2 Energy Flow 69
21.2.1 Food chain 69
21.2.2 Food web 71
21.3 Ecological pyramids 72
21.3.1 Pyramid of numbers 72
21.3.2 Pyramid Of biomass 72
21.3.3 Pyramid of energy 73
213.4 Limitations of pyramids 74
2.4 Ecological Succession 75
21.4.1 Orderly sequence of primary succession 76
21.4.2 Process of Ecological succession 76
21.4.3 Different types of Succession 80
21.5 Biotic Interactions 80
21.5.1 Some characteristics of Interaction: 83
21.6 Biogeochemical cycles 84
21.6.1.Water cycle/hydrological cycle 84
21.6.2.Carbon cycle 85
(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_2A_Ecology_&_Ecosystem→ Page 58
2.6.3. Phosphorus cycle 87

21.6.4. Nitrogen cycle 88
20 Ecology & Ecosystem
20.1 Introduction
● The term ‘ecology’ was first coined in 1869 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
● It was derived from two Greek words, ‘Oikos’, meaning home or estate and ‘logos’ meaning
study.
● Ecology may be defined as the scientific study of the relationship of living organisms with
each other and with their environment.
● It studies the interactions among organisms and their environment.
● Study of interaction between populations and intraspecific relationships.
● Study of structure and composition of the community and interspecific interactions between
members of the community.
20.2 What is the Environment ?
● The environment may be defined as the surroundings

or conditions in which an organism lives or operates.
● The environment broadly includes living and
non-living components ie. biotic and abiotic
components.
● All organisms depend on their environment for
survival.
● Every living organism is constantly interacting with
its environment comprising air, light, water, land or
substratum and the various kinds of living organisms.
20.3 Levels of Ecological Organisation
1. Individual/ Organism
● An individual (organism) is a living being that has the ability to act or function independently.
● Individuals make the basic unit of study in ecology.
● The organisms of a similar type have the potential for interbreed and produce fertile offspring,
which are called species.
● An organism is fully adapted to its environment.It has a definite series of stages like birth,
hatching, growth, maturity, aging, and death.
Autecology the ecological study of a particular species.
2. Species प्रजाति
● A group of similar organisms which is capable of interbreeding and producing offspring are
referred to as species.
● Interbreeding and reproduction are possible only for organisms belonging to the same species.
3. Habitat of an organism आवास
● The physical environment in which an organism lives is called its habitat.
● Each organism has specific needs for its survival and lives wherever the surroundings provide
for those wants.
I. Space
II. Food
III. Water
IV. Shelter
⇒ Keystone species
A keystone species is a species which has a disproportionately large effect on its natural
environment relative to its abundance, a concept introduced in 1969 by the zoologist Robert T.
Paine. Indicator species, organisms—often a microorganism or a plant—that serves as a measure
of the environmental conditions that exist in a given locale.
Species प्रजाति
● A group of similar organisms which is capable of interbreeding and producing offspring are
referred to as species.
● Interbreeding and reproduction are possible only for organisms belonging to the same species.
4. Niche
● It refers to the functions that a species performs in its habitat.
● In other words, a niche can be considered as the ‘occupation’ of the species while habitat refers
to its ‘address’.
• A niche cannot be shared by two species as sharing would lead to competition between the
species until one of the species gets displaced.
Types of Niche
1. Habitat niche- place where an organism lives
2. Food niche-includes consumption, decomposition, and competition for food
3. Reproductive niche-mode and time of reproduction of organisms
4. Physical & chemical niche- temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other
requirements.
5. Adaptation अनकुूलन
helps it to survive in its environment.
● Some examples are gills in fishes which help them to survive in water, thick fur of animals
which enable them to survive cold environments, etc.
• Desert plants have thick cuticles on their leaf surfaces and stomata arranged in deep pits to
minimize water loss; a special photosynthetic pathway that keeps the stomata closed during day
time; spines instead of leaves
• Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Plants. In some plants adapted to very dry (desert) conditions,
the stomata are closed during the daytime and open at night. These plants are said to show the
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway
• Mammals in cold climates have short ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
• Chaperone (protein)
• kangaroo rat adaptations
6. Evolution विकास
• Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species.
• It happens in order to make the organism better suitable to the present environment Evolution
• Evolution involves the processes of natural selection, adaptation, variation etc
Speciation is the process by which new species are formed, and evolution is the mechanism by
which speciation is brought about. Geographic isolation leads to speciation.
Extinction
• The primary reason behind extinctions is environmental change or biological competition.
• Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changing
environment.
• At present, the 6th Mass Extinction (Anthropogenic Extinction– human induced) is in progress.
7. Community समदाु य
● Many populations having different kinds of organisms sharing the same environment
constitute a community.
● The organisms that survive in an environment have adaptations and variations to suit their
surroundings.
● Climate plays an important role in deciding the community of a region as it influences the
environment of the region. Synecology the ecological study of whole plant or animal
communities.
8. Ecosystem पारिस्थितिकीिंत्र
● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
● It includes the community of living beings along with their physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging materials between them.
● All organisms in an ecosystem are dependent on all other species and the components which
are part of that community.
9. जीवोंम Biomes
● Biomes are divisions of the terrestrial part of the biosphere.
● A biome is characterized by its climate, vegetation, animal life,and general soil type.
● Every biome differs from each other.
● The boundaries and abundance of flora and fauna in a biome are determined by the climate in
the biome.
10. Biosphere
● The biosphere is a part of the earth where life exists.
● It is a zone comprising the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (land).
● It forms a narrow layer around the surface of the earth.
● The Sun is the source of energy for life within the biosphere.
● Air, water, and soil supply the nutrients required for living organisms.
20.4 Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment
● Ecosystem is a unit which has living and nonliving components and their interactions while
being dependent on one another.
● Ecology is the study of ecosystems. It studies the organisms and their relations with each
other and the environment.
● Environment usually refers to the physical surroundings in which an organism lives. An
ecosystem functions with the environment to make a big unit.
20.4.1 Ecosystem:Concept, Types & Functions
● The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
●An ecosystem consists of a community of living beings and their physical environment, which
interact and exchange materials between them. (Open System)
It has many interconnected habitats.
20.4.2 Components of an ecosystem
● The components of an ecosystem are broadly classified into

○ Biotic or living components
○ Abiotic or non-living components
20.4.2.1 Abiotic components (Nonliving)
Physical factors Sunlight, temperature,rainfall, They sustain and limit the

humidity and pressure growth of organisms in an
ecosystem
Inorganic substances Carbon dioxide, oxygen, They play an important role

nitrogen, phosphorus,sulphur, in the growth of living
water, rock, soil and other organisms.
minerals
Organic compounds Carbohydrates, proteins,lipids They form the building

and humic substances blocks of living organisms.
Therefore, they interlink the
biotic and abiotic
components
Sunlight
● Plants use solar energy directly for photosynthesis and food production.
● Animals cannot use solar energy directly. Therefore, they obtain it indirectly by eating plants
or animals or both.
● Sunlight determines the temperature of all places which in turn decides the flora and fauna of
a region
● Energy also determines the distribution of organisms in the environment.

Temperature
Organisms can tolerate only some ranges of temperature and humidity.
● The levels of thermal tolerance of different species determine to a large extent their
geographical distribution.
● Eurythermal organisms - organisms which can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of
temperatures. Plants- Roses, daisies, some vegetables and fruits etc. Animals- Cat, tiger, dog etc.
● Stenothermal organisms - organisms which are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures.
polar bear, frog, lizards, coconut,
▪Homeothermic animals are warm-blooded and maintain a constant body temperature, for
example birds and mammals.
▪Heterothermy is a physiological term for animals that vary between self-regulating their body
temperature, and allowing the surrounding environment to affect it.example- Cold Blooded
animal.
Thermal stratification is the phenomenon in which lakes develop two discrete layers of water
of different temperatures: warm on top (epilimnion) and cold below (hypolimnion). These layers
are each relatively uniform in temperature but are separated by a region of rapid temperature
change (the metalimnion or thermocline).
Water
● Water is essential for all living beings.
● It not only facilitates and provides a medium for the majority of biochemical reactions but
also regulates the body temperature of most of the living organisms.
● Also, water bodies are the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals.
● Euryhaline- organisms that tolerate a wide range of salinities. green crab
● Stenohaline- organisms restricted to a narrow range of salinities. plants and animals most
often found in the brackish waters of estuaries
Soil
● Soil provides water and nutrients in the form of organic and inorganic substances which are
tapped by the roots of plants which grow through the soil.
● The soil of a place is dependent on the climate, the weathering process, whether soil is
transported or sedimentary and how soil developed.
Atmosphere
● All gases essential for living organisms are present in the atmosphere.
● Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, oxygen for respiration and nitrogen for nutrition.
● Human beings and animals use oxygen for respiration.
● The amount of gases present in the atmosphere are regulated through biogeochemical cycles.
20.4.2.2 Biotic components
Producers (autotrophs): उत्पादक

● Producers are mainly the green plants and some bacteria and algae.
● They are also known as autotrophs/ self-nourishing organisms.
● The food for the entire ecosystem is provided by plants through the process of photosynthesis.
● Plants utilise sunlight, water, CO2 and nutrients for photosynthesis.
Consumers (Heterotrophs/ phagotrophs): macroconsumers उपभोक्ता
● They are called heterotrophs as they are incapable of producing their own food. They
consume food synthesized by the autotrophs.
● They can be grouped into three broad categories based on food preferences:
○ Herbivores - feed directly on plants, e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.
○ Carnivores - animals which eat other animals, eg. lion, cat, dog etc.
○ Omnivores - organisms which feed on both plants and animals, e.g. humans, pigs and
sparrows, etc.
Consumers can also be classified as:
1. Primary consumers: herbivores which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow, rabbit, deer, etc.
2. Secondary consumers: organisms who feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves, tigers, etc.
3. Tertiary consumers: organisms which feed on secondary consumers e.g. lions eating wolves,
humans, etc.
Decomposers(saprotrophs):
● Decomposers are bacteria and fungi
which obtain energy and nutrients by
decomposing dead organic substances
(detritus) of plants and animals.
● The products in the decomposition
process are reused and recycled by the
producers.
● Earthworms, nematodes, and
arthropods etc. are also known as detritus
feeders.
● They help in the decomposition of organic matter and are called detritivores.
20.5 Ecotone
● Ecotone = transition zone of two or more diverse

ecosystems.
● For e.g. the mangrove forests is a transition zone
between marine and terrestrial ecosystem
● Ecotone is referred to as the zone of tension-because
it inherits the conditions intermediate to the adjacent
ecosystems, and therefore has more competition among
species for available resources.
● Example-Wetlands.
● An ecotone can have a sharp vegetation transition, with a distinct line between two
communities.
● For example, a change in colors of grasses or plant life can indicate an ecotone.
● Also, a change in physiognomy (physical appearance of a plant species) can be a key
indicator.
🔠? Which one of the following terms describes not only the physical space occupied by an
organism, but also its functional role in the community of organisms? [2013]
(a) Ecotone (b) Ecological niche (c) Habitat (d) Home range
🔠? Which one of the following is the correct sequence of ecosystems in the order of decreasing
productivity? [2013]
(a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
(b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
(c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands
20.6 Edge effect
● Sometimes in an ecotone, the number and population density of some of the species is much
greater than either community. This is called the edge effect.
● The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge
species.
● In terrestrial ecosystems, the edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
● For example, the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between a
forest and a desert.
● Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit pronounced edge effects.
● As the edge effects increase, the ecotone allows for greater biodiversity.
🔠? The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the following major categories of
ecosystem services provisioning, supporting, regulating, preserving and cultural. Which one of
the following is supporting service? [2012]
(a) Production of food and water (b) Control of climate and disease (c) Nutrient cycling and crop
pollination (d) Maintenance of diversity.
21. Functions of an Ecosystem
21.1 Introduction
● Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems. They perform certain functions.These are:
(i) Energy flow through food chain
(ii) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
(iii) Ecological succession or ecosystem development
21.2 Energy Flow
● Energy helps organisms in their functioning

and metabolic activities.
● Energy flows from the producers to the
consumers in a unidirectional way.
● Food chains and food webs show the energy
flow in an ecosystem.
● The biotic and abiotic components of an
ecosystem are linked through them
21.2.1 Food chain
● A chain of interdependence of plants and

animals for food is called a food chain.
● A food chain also shows the transfer of
energy from plants to other organisms. Energy
transfer is always unidirectional.
● Based on the source of their nutrition or
food, organisms occupy a specific place in the
food chain that is known as their trophic level.
● The energy transferred decreases through
each successive trophic level.
Types of food chains

There are two types of food chains in nature:
1. Grazing food chain:
● It starts from the green plants at the base of the food chain.
● Herbivores are at the next trophic level and then

carnivores and so on.
● A grazing food chain (GFC)has
Grass (Producer) ---> Goat (Primary consumer)
---> Man (Secondaryconsumer)
2. Detritus food chain:
● It starts from dead organic matter of plants and
animals.
● Microorganisms, detritus feeders, carnivores form
the next trophic levels.
● The Detritus food chain derives its initial energy
from the waste materials and dead organic matter from
the grazing food chain.
🔠? With reference to the food chains in ecosystems,
which of the following kinds of organism is/are known
as decomposer organisms/organisms? [2013]
1. Virus
2. Fungi
3. Bacteria
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
21.2.2 Food web
● It is a network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.

● This interconnection of food chains happens when one of the consumers is a member of many
food chains at a time.
● Food webs provide more realistic models of energy flow through an ecosystem.
● A food web has all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in an
ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of the food.
● More complex the web, the more stable the ecosystem is.
⇒ GPP vs NPP Gross Primary Production Net Primary Production
● The total rate at which the solar energy is stored by the process of photosynthesis in the green
plants is called Gross Primary Production(GPP).
● GPP is also known as total photosynthesis.
● A part of the gross primary productivity is utilized by plants for its own metabolism.
● The remaining amount is called Net Primary Production (NPP). It is stored by the plant and is
made available to the consumers.
🔠? With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider the following statements: [2013]
1. A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain of organisms feed upon each other.
2. Food chains are found within the populations of a species.
3. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each organism which are eaten by others.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
21.3 Ecological pyramids
● Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem.

● Producer forms the base whereas the top carnivore forms the tip of the pyramid.
● There are three types of ecological pyramids:
1. Pyramid of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity
21.3.1 Pyramid of numbers
● This pyramid represents the total number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
● Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of numbers can be either upright or
inverted.
● Upright pyramids are generally seen in a grassland ecosystem where grasses are in abundance
and top carnivores are the least in numbers.
● Inverted pyramid: In a forest, trees (producers) form the base and provide food to herbivore
birds. Parasites and hyperparasites form the widertipof pyramid.
● Pyramid of numbers is not a good representation of the trophic structure of an ecosystem as

counting the numbers of organisms in each level is a difficult task.
21.3.2 Pyramid Of biomass
● In the pyramid of biomass, individuals in each trophic level are weighed (total dry
weight)instead of being counted.
● It represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level.
● Standing crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. It is expressed as
the gm/unit area or kilo cal/unit area.
● Upward pyramids of biomass are mostly found in terrestrial ecosystems where the biomass of
producers (autotrophs) is maximum and therefore they have a wide base.
● Inverted pyramids are generally found in aquatic ecosystems where producers are small
phytoplanktons who grow rapidly but have the least biomass therefore a small base.
21.3.3 Pyramid of energy
● Energy pyramid is the most common parameter to compare the functional roles of the trophic
levels in an ecosystem.
● An energy pyramid reflects the conversion of
solar energy to chemical energy and heat
energy at each trophic level.
● As there is loss of energy at each trophic
level, the pyramid is always upward, with a
large energy base at the bottom.
● Energy pyramid concept helps in explaining
the phenomenon of biological magnification,
the tendency for toxic substances to increase in
concentration progressively at higher levels of the food chain.
● The amount of energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:
1.At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
2.A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higher trophic
level as heat.
⇒ Ecological efficiency
● It is defined as the efficiency of transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next
trophic level.
● Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed a 10%
rule.
● E.g. If autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will
be able to store 10 cal. and carnivores 1 cal.
213.4 Limitations of pyramids
● It does not take into account the same species

belonging to two or more trophic levels.
● It assumes a simple food chain, which never exists
in nature.
● It does not accommodate a food web.
● Moreover, saprophytes are not given any place in
ecological pyramids even though they play a vital
role in the ecosystem.
⇒ Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or
other substances in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when the rate of loss of the substance
from the body of the organism through catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in living
organisms), or excretion is lower than the rate of accumulation of the substance. As persistent
organic pollutants like DDT are long lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the
environmental levels of the pollutant are not high.
⇒ Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each

trophic level with the passage of time. In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must
have a long biological half-life (long-lived), must not be soluble in water but must be soluble in
fats. E.g. DDT. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants
that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time.
Polychlorinated biphenyl
2.4 Ecological Succession
● It is a process by which one community is replaced by another community over a period

of time.
● The changes are brought about by both the biotic and abiotic components in the
community.
● The extent of change is influenced by the physical environment.
● The first plant to colonize an area is called the pioneer.
● The final stage of the succession is called the climax community.
● A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and long lasting.

● The stage leading to the climax community is called the successional stage or serre.
● Each transitional community that is formed and
replaced during succession is called a stage in
succession or seral communities.
21.4.1 Orderly sequence of primary succession
➔ Pioneer stage: Pioneer species / community; High

growth rate but short life span; Ex-Bare rock &
Lichens.
➔ Intermediate stage: Seral community/ temporal
community. Ex- grasses, shrub
➔ Climax community: Terminal or final
community; stable, mature and more complex and long lasting. Ex- Shade tolerant trees.
Types of serre Explanation
Hydrosere Succession in aquatic habit
Xerosere Succession in dry habit
Lithosere Succession on bare rock surface
Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy areas
Helosere Succession starting in saline soil or water
Senile Succession on microorganism on dead matter
Eosere Development of vegetation in an era
21.4.2 Process of Ecological succession
1. Nudation: the development of bare areas is the initial prerequisite. The cause of nudation
may be topographic (soil erosion,
landslide, volcanic activity etc.),
climatic and biotic(human being and
pathogen)
2. Invasion: This is the successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The species
actually reaches this new site from any other area.
3. Competition and coaction: After aggregation of a large number of individuals of the
species at the limited place, there develops competition mainly for space and nutrition.
Individuals of a species affect each other’s life in various ways and this is called
coaction. The species, if unable to compare with other species, if present would be
discarded.
4. Reaction: This is the most important stage in succession. The mechanism of the
modification of the environment through the influence of living organisms on it, is known
as reaction. As a result of reaction, changes take place in soil, water, light conditions,
temperature etc of the environment. Due to all these the environment is modified,
becoming unsuitable for the existing community which sooner or later is replaced by
another community (seral communities). The whole sequence of communities that
replaces one another in the given area is called s sere, and various communities
constituting the sere as seral communities.
5. Stabilization (climax): This is the final stage of development, climax community is
nearly stable and will not change so long as the climate and physiography remain the
same. However, the environment as well as community are in a dynamic state. Some
ecologists (Gleason,1929) have talked of retrogressive succession in which continuous
biotic influences have some degenerating influence on the process. Due to destructive
effects on organisms, sometimes the development of disturbed communities does not
occur and the process of succession instead of progressive becomes retrogressive. For
example, forests may change to shrubby or grassland communities. This is called
retrogressive succession.
⇒ Ecological succession is characterised by the following;
● Increased productivity,
● The shift of nutrients from the reservoirs,
● Increased diversity of organisms with increased development of niche, and
● A consequent increase in the complexity of food webs.
● Succession occurs faster in areas existing in the middle part of a large continent.
● This is because, here all communities and seeds of plants belonging to the different
species would reach much faster, establish, and ultimately result in the climax
community.
● During succession, some species colonise an area and their populations become more
numerous, whereas populations of other species decline and even disappear.
● There are two types of successions such as;
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
★ Primary succession:
● It takes place in a region where a community never existed previously.
● Such regions include emerging islands, newly formed deltas, newly created
ponds, reservoirs etc.
● The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
● A pioneer species has a short lifespan though it may have a high growth rate.
● The collection of pioneer species that form in a bare region is called the pioneer
community.
★ Secondary succession:
● When an existing community is destroyed, another community forms at the same
place. Such a process through which a community develops after the destruction
of an existing community is called secondary succession.
● The removal or destruction of the existing community takes place due to natural
disasters like forest fires, volcanoes etc. pr due to human activities like tilling or
harvesting.
● In secondary succession, the species that invade depend on the condition of the
soil, availability of water, the environment as also the seeds or other propagules
present.
🔠? In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses as a part of an ecological succession
because of: [2013]
(a) Insects and fungi (b) Limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients (c) Water limits and fire (d)
None of the above
★ Primary vs Secondary Succession
● It is difficult to observe primary succession, unlike secondary succession. This is
because there are very few places on Earth that do not already have communities
of organisms.
● Primary succession is very slow as compared to secondary succession. This is
because soil formation takes a long time in primary succession while secondary
succession starts on soil that is nutritious.
★ Seral community
● In the succession process, the pioneer community after some time gets replaced
by another community with different species combinations.
● This second community gets replaced by a third community and so on.
● This process continues sequentially in which a community is replaced previously
by another community.
● Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during
succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
● The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area is
called sere(s).
★ Climax community
● The final community which is established by ecological succession and is in near

equilibrium with the environment is the climax community.
● The climax community that is established is stable, mature, more complex and
long-lasting.
● As long as it is undisturbed, a climax community remains relatively stable in
dynamic equilibrium with the prevailing climate and habitat factor.
21.4.3 Different types of Succession
● Autogenic and Allogenic:

➔ When succession is caused by living inhabitants of that community itself, the
process is called autogenic succession, while change is brought about by external
forces known as allogenic succession. An allogenic succession can be brought
about in a number of ways which can include: Volcanic eruptions; Meteor or
comet strike; Flooding; drought.
● Xerarch and Hydrarch
➔ Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low for example on bare
is known as Xerarch.
➔ Succession that takes place in a water body, like ponds or lakes is called
Hydrarch.
● Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
➔ Succession in which the green plants (initially) are much greater in quantity is
known as autotrophic succession and the ones in which the heterotrophs are
greater in quantity are known as heterotrophic succession.
21.5 Biotic Interactions
● The individuals in a biological community of an area or ecosystem interact with one

another in a number of ways.
● The interactions that occur among different individuals of the same species are termed as
Intraspecific interaction.
● The interactions among individuals of different species in a community are called
Interspecific interaction.
1. Amensalism: It is a type of negative association. In amensalism, one species is harmed

by the other species which remains unaffected by the presence of the other species. For
example, the bread mould fungus Penicillium produces penicillin, an antibiotic substance
that inhibits the growth of a variety of Bacteria. Penicillium benefits apparently by having
greater availability of food when the competition because of the bacteria is removed. Ex-
Black walnut trees produce chemicals which prevent other trees from growing near them.
2. Predation: Predators act as conduits for transferring energy from one trophic level to
another. They keep prey populations under control. The introduction of an exotic species
into an area may become invasive if there are no natural predators. Predators also help in
maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition
among competing for prey species. Prey species (plants and animals) are adopted in
various ways to prevent being captured by the predator.
3. Parasitism: One species is harmed and the other benefits. The parasite lives in/on
another living species called the host from which the parasite gets its nourishment and
often shelter. The parasite is benefited and the host is harmed. Parasites have special
adaptations to counteract and neutralise the mechanisms of the host species. Eg. The
cuscuta plant has no leaves. Tapeworm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many bacteria,
many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common parasites of humans. Ex- fleas and
mosquitoes feed on blood from other organisms. In this type of parasitic relationship, the
host needs to stay alive and it is not damaged greatly. Ectoparasites- Parasites that feed
on the external surface of the host organism are called ectoparasites. Eg.- lice on humans
and ticks on dogs.
Endoparasites- Endoparasites
are those that live inside the host
body at different sites such as a
tapeworm that lives inside its
host. Brood Parasitism- Brood
parasitism in birds is a
fascinating
example of parasitism in which
the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host incubate them. Eg.- cuckoo
and crow.
4. Competition: This is an interaction between two populations in which both species are
harmed to some extent. Competition occurs when two populations or species, both need a
vital resource that is in short supply. The vital resource could be food, water shelter,
nesting site mates or space. For instance, in some shallow south American lakes visiting
flamingos and resident fishes compete for their common food, the zooplankton in the
lake. Two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot coexist
indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually. This may be
true if resources are limited, but not otherwise. It can not be ruled out the occurrence of
interspecific competition in nature, but species facing competition might evolve
mechanisms that promote coexistence rather than exclusion. Eg.- resource partitioning. If
two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid competition by choosing,
for instance, different times for feeding or different foraging patterns. Resource
partitioning- Species with similar resource requirements can coexist because they use
limited resources: at different times, in different ways, in different places.
5. Commensalism: The interaction where one species is benefitted and the other is neither
nor harmed is called commensalism. Some species benefit by utilising the shelter or
transport of another species. For example, epiphytes live on the surface of other plants
like ferns, mosses and orchids and use the surface of trees for support and for obtaining
sunlight and moisture. The tree does not benefit from this relationship and is not harmed
as well. Other examples- barnacles growing on the back of a whale, cattle egret and
grazing cattle in close association, sea anemone and clownfish etc.
6. Mutualism: Both the species are benefitted in this interaction. In some interactions,
mutualism is so strong that the species involved in the interaction cannot survive without
each other. Such an association is called a symbiotic relationship. Some examples are,
such as, Lichens-algae and fungus; Mycorrhizae- fungus and roots of higher plants;
Plants and animals- animals help in pollination and plants provide food. The ants obtain
food and shelter, and the acacia depends on the ants for protection from browsing
animals.
21.5.1 Some characteristics of Interaction:
1. Both the species benefit in mutualism and both lose in competition in their
interaction with each other.
2. In both parasitism and predation, only one species benefits (parasite and predator,
respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other species( host and prey,
respectively).
3. Predation, parasitism, and commensalism share a common characteristic-the
interacting species live closely together.
21.6 Biogeochemical cycles
● The movement of nutrients from the environment into plants and animals and again back to the
environment is known as nutrient cycling.
● Nutrients are absorbed from the soil by green plants which are passed onto primary consumers
and thereafter to secondary and tertiary consumers.
● When the producers and consumers die, nutrients are released back into the soil by detritivores
from the dead remains of organisms.
● Nutrient cycle can be of two types
1. Gaseous - atmosphere or the hydrosphere is the main reservoir
2. Sedimentary - earth's crust is the main reservoir.
21.6.1.Water cycle/hydrological cycle
● Water is essential for life.

● It not only provides transportation for nutrient cycling, but also acts as a solvent medium for
the uptake of nutrients by various organisms.
● Precipitation (rain, snow, slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth.
● Water received from the atmosphere on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water
vapour resulting from direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration.
● This continuous movement of water in the biosphere is called the water cycle (hydrological
cycle).
● The driving forces for the water cycle are solar radiation and gravity.
● Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in the water cycle. These two
processes alternate with each other.
● Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by the sun's heat energy. Plants
also transpire huge amounts of water.
● Water remains in the vapour state in air and forms clouds which drift with wind.
● Clouds meet with the cold air in the mountainous regions above the forests and condense to
form rain precipitate which comes down due to gravity
21.6.2.Carbon cycle
● Almost all the carbon in nature is derived from carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
● It is highly soluble in water. Therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon
dioxide.
● It is vital for the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants.
Steps in global Carbon cycle
1. Photosynthesis:
● Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis.
● A part of the food made is used by plants for their own metabolism.
● Rest of the food is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores,
heterotrophs, including human beings and microorganisms as food.
● Forests act as reservoirs of CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long
due to their long life cycles.
● A very large amount of CO2 is released through forest fires.

2. Respiration:
● Respiration is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2 and water.
● The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by living organisms
(plants, animals, decomposers etc.).
● Thus CO2 is released into the atmosphere through this process.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living
things. ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and
releases it to fuel other cellular processes.
3. Decomposition:
● All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plants is not metabolized by them
completely.
● A major part is retained by them as their own biomass which becomes available to
decomposers on their death.
● The dead organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms and CO2 is released into the
atmosphere by decomposers.
4. Combustion: Burning of biomass releases
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
5. Impact of human activities: Since the
industrial era, large scale deforestation and ever
growing consumption of fossil fuels by growing
numbers of industries, power plants
and automobiles are primarily responsible for
increasing the emission of carbon dioxide.
6. Storage in long term cycle:
● Some carbon accumulates as un-decomposed
organic matter in marshy soil or as insoluble
carbonates in ocean bottom where it remains buried for millions of years.
● The carbonate rocks may be uplifted geologically and exposed to erosion, releasing the carbon
compounds into streams and rivers.
● When fossil fuels such as coals, oil and
natural gas etc. are burned, the carbon stored in
them is released back into the atmosphere as
carbon-dioxide
2.6.3. Phosphorus cycle
● Phosphorus is a major constituent of

biological membranes, nucleic acids and
cellular energy transfer systems.
● Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth.
● The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of
phosphates.
● When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and
are absorbed by the roots of the plants .
● Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants.
● The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed by phosphate solubilizing bacteria
releasing phosphorus.
👉Differences between carbon cycle and phosphorus cycle
● Unlike the carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into the atmosphere.
● Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs.
● Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.
21.6.4. Nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen is an essential component of protein required by all living organisms including

human beings.
● Our atmosphere contains nearly 78% of nitrogen but it cannot be used directly i.e in its
elemental form by the majority of living organisms.
● Therefore, the atmospheric nitrogen needs to be fixed i.e converted to ammonia, nitrites and
nitrates so that it is taken by various organisms.
● Like carbon dioxide, nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to
gaseous phase through the activity of a wide variety of organisms.
Agents of nitrogen fixation Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed mainly by three agents:

1. Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria. Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the
root nodules of leguminous plants. b. Free Living e.g.
I. Nostoc
II. Azotobacter Cyanobacteria
2. Industrial activities e.g. manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers
3. Atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lightning
Processes in nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia,
nitrites and nitrates.
● Nitrification:
○ It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and
Nitrococcus bacteria respectively.
○ Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can convert nitrite into nitrate.

●Assimilation:
● In this process, nitrogen fixed by plants is converted
into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA
etc.
● These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
●Ammonification:
● Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste
products such as urea and uric acid.
● These waste products as well as dead remains of
organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia
by the bacteria. This process is called ammonification.
● Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.
Examples of ammonifying bacteria contain bacillus,
proteus, clostridium,
●Denitrification:
● Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification.
● Denitrifying bacteria (e.g. pseudomonas) live deep in soil near the water table as they like to
live in an oxygen free medium.
● Denitrification is the reverse of nitrogen fixation.
NEXT HANDOUT PILLAR_2B1_Biome
Pillar_2B1_Biome
22 Biome 93
22.1 Factors affecting biomes 93
22.1.2 Tundra Biome 94
22.1.3 Taiga or Boreal Biome 95
22.1.4 Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA 95
22.1.5 Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate) 96
22.1.6 Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate) 96
22.1.7 Tropical RainForest Biome 96
22.1.8 Desert Biome 96
22.1.9 Grasslands 97
22.1.8 (Continued) Desert 98
22.1.9 Desertification 99
Desertification in India 100
Control Measures 101
22.1.10 Forest 102
📝 Global Assessment of Forest 2020 103
Forest in India 104
Social Forestry 105
AgroForestry 106
Urban Forestry 108
Global Framework for Conservation of Forest 110
Conservation Forestry in India 110
Green Highway Policy→ 2015 111
PESA Act, 1996→ Panchayat extension to Scheduled Area Act, 1996 112
CAMPA Act,2016 113
Deforestation 113
📝 India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2019 115
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_2B_Biome_Coral_reef→ Page 92
22 Biome
22.1 Introduction
● Biome is an abbreviation for biological home.

● Biome means an assemblage of plant and animal communities with minimum common
characteristics.
● All the areas of biomes are characterized by more or less uniform environmental conditions such
as climate, soil etc.
22.1 Factors affecting biomes
(i) Day and night hours which are responsible for the duration of photosynthesis.
(ii)Mean temperature as diurnal and annual variation which decides the extreme conditions.
(iii) Length of growing season.
(iv) Precipitation, its total amount and spatio-temporal variation
(v) Wind speed, direction, duration and frequency.
(vi) Soil types
(vii) Slope
(viii) Drainage Types of biomes Biomes are classified in various ways.
There are five major biomes in the world.
1. Forests
2. Grasslands
3. Deserts
4. Tundra
5. Aquatic
⦁ Forest
• Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)
• Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe – British Type Climate)
• Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
• Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)

• Tropical RainForest Biome
⦁ Tundra
• Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome
⦁ Grassland
• Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
• Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
(Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands)
⦁ Desert
Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome
22.1.2 Tundra Biome
• There are two types of tundra – arctic and

alpine.
• Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the treeline. E.g. High ranges of the Himalayas,
Andes, Alps etc.
• There are no trees in the tundra (due to permafrost).
• The lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks.
• Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, arctic
willow live in the tundra region.
• Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.

• Mammals have a large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.
● It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia,Siberia and the island group
of ArcticOcean.
Climate: 1. Long winters with little daylight.
2. Short summers with long daylight hours.
3. Precipitation is less (25 cm or less per year), that too mostly in the form of snow
22.1.3 Taiga or Boreal Biome
• Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are rather poor. This is because:
✓ The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments
✓ The litter derived from conifer needles (leaf) decomposes very slowly and is not rich in
nutrients (humus content is low).
• conifers do not shed their leaves frequently. The predominant vegetation is an evergreen
coniferous forest with species such as spruce, fir and pine.
• The conifers require little moisture and are best suited to this type of subArctic climate.
• The productivity of boreal forest is lower than those of any other forest ecosystem.
• Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel,
and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
22.1.3 Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)
• Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep.
• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous.
• The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
• Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring.
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
22.1.4 Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
• Supports luxuriant vegetation.

• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).
• On the highlands, various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses are important.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
22.1.5 Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leaved evergreen trees (mostly
evergreen oaks).
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the plants enables
them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and prolonged
droughts.
• They are, in short, xerophytic (drought tolerant).
22.1.6 Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
• Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry
deciduous forest; tropical deciduous forest. Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair,
mulberry are some of the important species
22.1.7 Tropical RainForest Biome
• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rainforest.

• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony,
dyewoods etc.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
• All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement (canopy).
• Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the host): An epiphyte is a plant
that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients
from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
22.1.8 Desert Biome
• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or

drought-resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for
ground water.
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to
reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while
they lie dormant.
22.1.9 Grasslands
● Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees.
● There are two main divisions of grasslands:
(1) tropical grasslands or savannas
(2) temperate grasslands
● A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem.
● They are also known as tropical grasslands and found in a wide band on either side of the
equator on the edges of tropical rainforests.
● Savannah can also be said to be a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland.
● Primarily they are situated in South America, Africa andAustralia.
Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
Distribution
● African Savannah- West african Region surrounding Sudan.
● South American Savannah- Called Cerrado (Brazil), Llanos (Colombia and Venezuela)
and Campos (Southern Brazil).
● Australian Savannah- Situated adjacently southward to the Northern monsoon line of
Australia.
● Indian Savannah- Parts of North Karnataka, Telangana and South Maharashtra region
temperate grasslands
Distribution:
● They are also called Granaries of the world.
● The temperate grasslands in different regions are called by different names. They are
○ The US prairies.
○ Russian steppes,
○ Veldts of Africa,
○ Pampas of South America (mostly located in Argentina andUruguay),
○ Steppes of Eurasia
○ Downs of Australia
○ Pustaz of Hungary
○ Canterbury of New Zealand Deserts
22.1.8 (Continued) Desert
● Almost 33% of the earth’s surface area is desert, getting less than 25 cm precipitation (Overall-
It include both hot and cold desert, not necessarily as a continuous belt like Taiga)
● Around 20% of these are sandy deserts located between 25-30 degree north and south latitude.
● The desert biome is characterised by very low rainfall (usually less than 25 cm per year) that
comes as short, hard showers.
● This biome covers almost 20% of the earth.
● True Desert~ 14%, another ~ 15 % earth land surface possesses some desert-like characteristics.
→ Hot vs cold deserts
● Deserts that receive rain as the main form of precipitation are called hot deserts while those
which receive snow as their main form of precipitation are called cold deserts.
● The hot deserts of the world are located in the south-west U.S.A., Mexico, Chile, Peru, Africa
(Sahara desert), Asia (Rub’Al Khali, Thar etc) and central and Western Australia (Tanami Desert,
Gibson Desert, Great Victoria Desert, Simpson Desert etc).
● Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic, Greenland, Iran, Northern and Western China.
● Some famous cold deserts are: – Antarctica, Atacama, Gobi, GreatBasin, Namib, Iranian,
Taklamakan, Patagonia etc.
Hot desert Climate:
● Hot and dry summers, warm temperatures throughout the year.
● Average temperature: 20-25 degrees Celsius.
● The extreme maximum temperature for Hot Desert ranges from 43.5 to 49° C. Flora:
● Plant life is rare in hot and dry deserts; mostly small trees and shrubs.
● The plants must adapt themselves for harsh conditions and be able to obtain and conserve water.
● The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias, cacti, many other
succulents and hardy grasses.
● Many of the small plants are annuals.
Plant adaptations include-
● Small or no leaves
● reduced leaf surface area to reduce evaporation from the plants,
● loss of leaves during long dry spell,
● small hairs on the leaf surfaces,
● Succulent leaves and stems
● Ability to store large amounts of water.
● Well developed root system
● Annuals germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season
● Waxy/Thick skin to prevent water loss
22.1.9 Desertification
• Desertification is defined as "the reduction or destruction of a land's biological capacity, which

can eventually lead to desert-like conditions."
• Man-made desertification has affected about 76.15 percent of the total Indian desert area.
Another 19.5 percent of the total area is decertified in some form or another. This region is mostly
concentrated in eastern Rajasthan, in the north-east to southwest range, parallel to the Aravallis
foothills.
• In semi-arid and arid areas, the pressure is intensified due to dry climate, slow regeneration,
overgrazing and mining and so on.
• Desertification is a systemic phenomenon caused by excessive tree felling that presents itself in
the affected region as a loss of soil fertility, increased aridity, and temperature extremes.
Causes
Although desertification can develop from natural causes alone, in a majority of instances human
intervention promoted arid conditions in already dry areas. This can happen in any climatic zone or
ecosystem, resulting from exploitative interaction of man with the natural ecosystem. Most of the
deserts of recent origin have resulted from any one or more of the following human activities. •
Soil erosion, drought, and deterioration of soil fertility result in stunted plant growth due to
uncontrolled grazing and overexploitation of grazing land, as well as indiscriminate cutting of trees
and forest resources.
• Excessive mining for limestone, coal, or other minerals in arid and semi-arid areas, resulting in
the loss of green and tree cover, and extensive destruction of conditions conducive to vegetation
growth.
• Uneconomic agricultural land use on marginal lands, causing soil erosion and impacting
neighbouring productive lands.
• Extensive and uneconomic exploitation of water supplies resulting in seepage, decrease in the
water table and soil salinisation issues.
Desertification in India
• In India, about 76.15% of the total desert area has resulted from manmade desertification
processes. Another 19.5% of the total area is subjected to medium or slight desertification.
• This area is concentrated mostly along the eastern Rajasthan in the northeast to southwest zone
parallel to the foothills of Aravalis.
• The predominant processes of desertification in this belt are the expansion of sand cover and
shifting sand dunes by wind erosion.
• Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India: It is one of the outcomes of MoEFCC
sponsored national project entitled, “Desertification Status Mapping of India”, executed by the
Space Applications Centre (SAC), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• This Atlas presents Desertification /Land Degradation Status Maps depicting Land Use, Process
of Degradation and Severity Level along with area statistics consolidated for the entire country as
well state-wise for 2011-13 and 2003-05 time frame and reports the changes.
• It reveals that 96.40 mha area of the country is undergoing the process of land degradation i.e.,
29.32% of the Total Geographic Area (TGA) of the country during 2011-13.
• The most significant process of desertification/ land degradation in the country is Water Erosion
(10.98%). The second most significant process is Vegetation Degradation (8.91%), which is
followed by Wind erosion (5.55 %).
Control Measures
• India is a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

• In 2001, the National Action Plan for Combating Desertification was developed in order to take
appropriate action in resolving desertification issues.
• The following are some of the major programmes currently in place to address the issues of land
degradation and desertification:
» Integrated Watershed Management Programme,
» National Afforestation Programme,
» National Mission for Green India,
» The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme,
» Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Project and Flood Prone River,
» National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas,
» Desert Development Programme,
» Fodder and Feed Development Scheme-component of Grassland Development including Grass
Reserves, Command Area Development and Water Management programme etc.
Natural Desertification:
• In the Asia and pacific region an area of about 4.361 lakhs ha has resulted from natural
desertification. These areas can be classified as subtropical, cool coastal, rain shadow and interior
continental deserts.
• Polar regions of the world also represent a type of desert, where water is no doubt present in
plenty, but being in the form of ice, it is not available for plants and animals.
• The Gobi desert of north western Asia is a cold desert. The Ladakh region of Jammu and
Kashmir covering an area of 0.7 lakh sq. km and located at an altitude of about 11,000 feet where
extreme cold conditions prevail for about 5-6 months in a year, is also a cold desert.
22.1.10 Forest
- (Definition) According to UNEP/FAO, any 1 hectare land that has more than 10% of
canopy density and height more than 5 meters and is of natural in origin can be
considered as forest.
- According to MOEFCC→ FSI→ Any 1 hectare of land more than 10% of canopy density
irrespective of origin is considered as Forest. Min mapping unit= 1 hector
Significance:
1. CO2 sink→ help in stabilising global warming
2. gene pool centre
3. Biodiversity
4. formation of soil Genesis
5. infiltration of water
6. cultural significance
7. food and fodder
8. Eco tourism
classification of forest
Based on latitudinal 1. topical up to 30 degree

2. temperate 30 degree latitude to 45 degree
3. and boreal forest 45 degree and above that is Tiger and
24 hour
based on temperature 1. Megatherm

2. Mesothermal
3. Microthermal
4. Xerophyte
5. Hekistotherm
Best on rainfall 1. Evergreen forest

2. semi urban forest
3. Moist deciduous
4. dry deciduous
5. dry Thon deciduous
based on canopy density 1. dense forest→ >70%-100%

2. moderate dense→ 40-70%
3. open forest→ 10-40%
4. Shrub→ <10%
📝Global Assessment of Forest 2020

Boss? FAO (HQ-Rome) → Published as SOFO report
SOFO report→ Key Point:
- In Spite of Global Conservation measures there was a ⏬ decrease in global Forest cover.
- The quality & biodiversity of forests has considerably declined. (⏬CO2 sink)
- Highest ⏬ is experienced in tropical region particularly South Asia, South East Asia,
South America(Brazil, Bolivia).
- Recent trend of ⏬ can be recorded in equatorial forest.
- Major cause for ⏬ in tropical forest;- 1) ⏫Expansion of Agri, 2) mining, 3)

Infrastructural expansion ⏫.
- Forest of higher latitude is experience decline ⏬ in temperature due to lambering and
recent event of forest fire.
- There is considerable less ⏬ in primary forest in last decade.
- Migration of forest communities from their region.
- Failure of laws to protect the forest.
Recommendation of SOFO:
1. Route/path of sustainable development is through forest → tagline of SOFO.
2. Forest conservation is an integral part of achieving SDG.
3. Conservation of forest can only be achieving through community participation.( Joint
Forest Management)
4. Awareness about forest conservation.
5. Equitable distribution of benefit of forest resources.
6. Forest under Protected Area.
7. Use of technology in monitoring & assessment.
8. Implementation of laws & conventions like CITES for protecting endangered species.
Forest in India
Q. Examine the condition of forests during ancient & medieval periods in India.
⇒ Forest during british:

1. 1865→ Forest Act
2. 1893→ Forest Act
3. 1927→ Indian Forest Act
4. 1952→ National Forest Policy→ only looked into basic forest cover but upto 1972 there
was no law for conservation.
Social Forestry
- (Definition) Democratic way of ⏫ forest cover is known as social forestry. Important

component of community based Forest management. It is related to sustainable
development.
Objective:
Components/ Programmes:
- Agroforestry→ Plantation of trees done as Agri.
- Community Forestry→ Done on community land
- Extension Forestry→ Done on open land outside settlement.
- Urban Forestry→ Done on urban land.

Outcome of Social Forestry in India:
1. Forests are brought under protected areas.
2. It led to conservation of many species.
3. Generate large scale awareness among people.
4. This awareness created several movements like→ Chipko.
5. Participation of rural & tribal people in conservation.
Limitation:
1. Very much successful in extension & community forestry but not successful in Agro
Forestry and Urban Forestry.
2. More beneficial for big farmers not for marginal farmers.
3. Poor coordination between centre-State.
4. No financial resources for implementation of social forestry.
⇒ After 2010→
- Urban Forestry (Integrated with Urban Planning) → 74th Constitutional Amendment Act.
- National AgroForestry Policy, 2014→ India was the first country to have an Agroforestry
policy.
AgroForestry
- (Definition) Agroforestry is the planting of trees as a part of agriculture.

Objective:
→ Benefit Environment→ tree cover, soil conserve, water bodies
→ Economic→ Rural development, Raw material industry
Advantage:
- Help in sustainable Agri.
- Climate smart Agri
- Doubling income of farmer
- Help in rural development
- Reduce migration from rural to urban
Implementation:
- Subsidies given to farmers.
- Credit given to farmers.
- Tree varieties suggested to farmers.
- Kisan Sabha & Kisan Mela→ Awareness among farmers.
Implementation:
- Agro Silviculture
- Agro Horticulture
- Agro Silvi Horti
- Agro Silvi Pasture
- Agro Aqua forest
Major challenges in AgroForestry
1. Issue in financial capability in farmers.
2. Poor awareness.
3. Lack of institutional support.(R & D)
4. Not having any kind of insurance cooperation.
5. Poor R & D in the forest.
6. No scientific implementation.
Urban Forestry
- (Definition) It is an integrated, city wide approach to the planting, care and management
of trees, forests, and natural systems in the city to secure multiple environmental and
social benefits for urban dwellers.
- It concentrates on all tree dominated as well as other green resources in and around urban
areas, such as woodlands, public and private urban parks and gardens, urban nature areas,
street tree and square plantations, botanical gardens and cemeteries.
Importance of urban Forestry
- Environmental Benefits: It includes reduction in temperature rise in urban areas,

removal of other air pollutants, recharge of groundwater and stabilization of soil. India
has pledged to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 -3.0 billion tonnes of CO2
equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030 and urban forestry will have
an important contribution towards achieving it.
- Social and Psychological Benefits: Urban trees enhance the beauty and environmental
quotient of a city and are among the most important features contributing to the aesthetic
quality of residential streets and community parks. Urban parks and peri-urban forests are
an important recreational facility. Urban green spaces can enhance cultural activities by
providing venues for local festivals, civic celebrations, political gatherings and theatrical
performances. It can reduce stress and improve physical health for urban residents as it is
discovered that time spent in nature relieves mental fatigue and the feelings of violence
and aggression that can spring from it.
- Economic Benefits: Landscaping with trees can increase property values and
commercial benefits. In Delhi, poor people gain income from the harvesting and sale of a
number of products from trees growing on land owned by the Municipal Corporation.
Urban forest offers significant benefits in reducing building air-conditioning demand and
reducing energy consumption. Saves municipal expenditures for stormwater management
infrastructure, ozone nonattainment and other costs associated with asthma and other
illnesses related to poor air quality.
Issues with Urban Forestry
- Expensive approach: Urban forestry initiatives conducted on a scale beyond small home
gardens can cost a large amount of money to implement. This is particularly the case if
instant results are wanted as maintenance costs can be very high in such situations.
- Structural damage: The roots of street trees often cause the cracking of roads and
pavements and sometimes water pipes. Urban trees can also cause structural damage to
buildings.
- Threats to Human safety: Poorly planted or inappropriate tree species can serve as a
hazard to urban inhabitants, either directly (through falling branches or the falling over of
the entire tree) or indirectly.
✍Way forward
- Initiatives such as engagement of NGOs, civil society, media and corporate groups are
necessary to extend urban green cover.
- Species must be selected by considering climate, soil type and topography. In recent
times, trees are largely planted for their high growth rate and decorative appearance.
- Need to plant trees that provide multiple benefits to individuals and society, particularly
in-house compounds for providing edible pods, flowers, fruits, leaves etc. and in median
strips between roads for shades and ground water recharge.
- Riverside beautification as well as tree plantation can solve the problem of lack of space.
Tree plantation on the shores of rivers or water channels can increase the urban green
cover and provide space for city dwellers.
- Plan for urban forestry should be integrated into overall planning of the urban areas in
advance otherwise greening of the urbanized area becomes more difficult once the
settlement takes place.
Global Framework for Conservation of Forest
1. UN- strategy for forest conservation (2017-2030)

2. UNFCCC→ REDD→ REDD+ (2015-2030) (Pillar-5A)
3. Conservation of Forest belonging to Wetland(Ramsar) (Pillar_1B)
4. Global partnership for Conservation of critical ecosystems
Conservation Forestry in India
1. Sacred Groves→ Conservation of forest because of belief system, convention tradition,

custom this constitute sacred groves. (More in Pillar 3)
2. Forest Policy→ National Forest Policy, 1952; 1988; 2019 (SDG)
→ NAPCC, 2008(33%)
→ 2015⇒ Green Highway Policy
3. Legislative measures→ Indian forest Act, 1927
→ Wildlife Protection Act,1972→ Forest under protection (More on Pillar 7)
→ The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981 (More on Pillar 7)
→ Forest Rights Act,2006→ Right of forest dweller (More on Pillar 7)
→ CAMPA,2014→ Use of forest for development & public purpose. (compulsory

afforestation management planning authority)
Green Highway Policy→ 2015
- Boss? Ministry of Road & Transport

- Social forestry initiative
- Plantation of trees along the national highway.
- Maintenance of this forest will be by involvement of people along NH.
- Generate employment opportunities.
- 5 Million hectares of additional forest cover.
- Increase Carbon sink (quality of point) REDD+
- PPPP mode: Public-Private-People-Partnership mode
- Financial resource mobilization→ 1% cost of construction of NH→ Natural adaptation
Fund (NAF) set up in 2015.
National forest Policy, 1952 National forest Policy, 1988 National forest Policy,
2019-20
- Classified into:- - Talk about ecological - Objective: 1/3rd forest

1. National forest balance. cover & address problem of
2. Protected Area - Forests considered as forest & stakeholders.
3. Unclassified national heritage. - New Concept:
- Emphasis on balanced use - Decrease soil erosion in the 1. Economic evolution
of land. catchment area of the river. of forest.
- Principle of progressive - Emphasise social forestry. 2. Forest certification
yield. - Mass movement for 3. Forest management
- Protection of wildlife. participation of people. info system.
- People’s interest. - Meeting requirements of - Shift:
- Discourage tribes from people. 1. Timber based forest
practice shifting cultivation. - Conservation of industry.
biodiversity. 2. Identify the concept of
- Efficient utilization of forest production forestry.
produce. 3. Use of production
forestry.
4. Permission to pvt.
Sector for forest
industry→ Providing
opportunity to forest
5. Passive benefit to
tribal
6. Implementation of
PPP model
7. Forest conservation
8. Reduce man animal
conflict.
PESA Act, 1996→ Panchayat extension to Scheduled Area Act, 1996
- Organise panchayats for tribes.

- No activity without approval of gram sabha.
- Tribal living in the forest have better over forest resources.
- Reduce exploitation
- Make mandatory consultation of gram panchayat in case of land use change.
- For the tribes recognised under constitutional prohibition.
CAMPA Act,2016
- Has origin in FCA, 1980. (pillar 7)

- Compensatory afforestation is mandatory.
- Compensatory Afforestation Fund→ to manage CAMPA.
- 2002→ CAF formed by the direction of SC.
- 2004→ CAMPA formed under MOEFCC→ to manage CAF
- 2006-12→ CAF comes under CAG (out of 23000 CR only 1200 CR spent)
- CAF Act 2016 to prevent mismanagement (with effect from 2018)
- Criticism: CAMPA was legalised exploitation of forest.
Deforestation
- Deforestation is a general concept that includes tree felling, lopping, and clearing of
forest debris, as well as grazing, browsing, and trampling of seedlings. It can also be
characterised as the removal or damage of vegetation in a forest to the point that the
forest's natural fauna and flora is no longer supported. Forests have been significantly
reduced as a result of indiscriminate tree felling as a result of industrialization,
urbanisation, and the use of wood for commercial and other purposes.
Causes:
Agriculture
• As the demand for agricultural products grows, more land is cultivated, necessitating the
clearing of grasslands, woods, and marshes, as well as the reclamation of lands under water. As a
result, there is much more ecological damage.
• The forest soil after clearing is unable to support farming for long periods due to exhaustion of
nutrients.
Shifting Cultivation
• Jhoom farming or shifting cultivation, is a 12000-year-old tradition that is a step toward
transitioning from food collection to food production. It is also known as the slash-and-burn
farming process. Approximately 5 lakh hectares of forest are cleared each year for this method
of farming.
• There is a restricted use of tools and a low degree of mechanisation in this method of
cultivation. However, this form of cultivation results in substantial deforestation because the land
is left to nature's mercy to recover after 2-3 years of tilling.
• This form of agriculture was often intended to meet on-site demands or local needs i.e. the
needs of the cultivating villagers.
• Even today, in the states of Tripura, Manipur, Assam, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands shifting cultivation is practiced.
Urbanisation and Developmental Projects
• The human population has increased considerably, so are their requirements. Often urbanisation
and developmental activities lead to deforestation.
• Massive dams, hydroelectric projects, and reservoirs, building of highways and railway lines
are all highly helpful, but they are all related to a variety of environmental concerns. Many of
these projects lead to extensive deforestation.
Fuel (firewood) Requirements
• Firewood has been used as a source of energy for cooking, heating etc.
• Almost 44% of the total global wood produced fulfills the fuel requirements of the world. If
you look at the pattern of how wood is used, you will find that developing countries use 16
percent of the wood they produce for fuel. India consumes approximately 135-170 Mt (million
tonnes) of firewood per year, and 10-15 ha of forest cover are razed to meet the basic fuel needs
of the rural and urban poor.
Raw Material Requirements
• Various industries use wood as a raw material to make boxes, plywood, crates, furniture, paper,
match sticks and packing cases, among other things.
• Industries also obtain their raw materials from plants such as drugs, scents and perfumes, resin,
gums, waxes, turpentine, latex, and rubber, tannis, alkaloids, beeswax.
• This exerted tremendous pressure on the forest ecosystem and their unrestricted exploitation for
various other raw materials is the main cause of degradation of the forest ecosystem.
Other Causes
• Deforestation also results from overgrazing, agriculture, mining, flood, fire, pest, diseases,
defence, and communication activities.
Consequences Soil erosion and flash flood
• A shrinking forest cover coupled with over exploitation of groundwater has accelerated erosion
along the slopes of the lower Himalayas and Aravali hills, making them prone to landslides.
• Water runs off the land due to a lack of forest cover, washing away the topsoil, which is
subsequently deposited as silt in river beds. Forests check soil-erosion, landslides and reduce
intensity of flood and drought.
• A significant portion of India's mining activity takes place in forest areas. Deforestation and
soil erosion are the obvious consequences.
• Since timber is used to support the roofs of mine galleries, underground mining has greatly
diminished forest cover.
• A significant number of abandoned mines are in poor condition and are prone to extensive
gully erosion, causing habitat loss.
Climatic Change and Forests
• Rainfall patterns have been altered as a result of forest destruction. Forests recycle moisture
from the soil into the surrounding atmosphere through transpiration, where it precipitates as rain
again.
• Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken, and water is lost through rapid run off.
• Deforestation results in an immediate lowering of ground water level and in long-term
reduction of precipitation.
• Forests help to balance carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the atmosphere Thus, forests are
called the green respiratory system.
• The greenhouse effect, which is partially caused by deforestation, is one of the
most severe problems of the century. As the snow line has thinned and perennial springs have
dried up, the entire Himalayan ecosystem is endangered and in extreme disarray.
Loss of Biodiversity
• Deforestation has reduced the number of closed forests (based on canopy level), resulting in an
increase in degraded forests.
• Deforestation affects the biota and neighbouring ecosystems due to habitat loss.
📝India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2019

- ISFR is a biennial publication of the Forest Survey of India (FSI), which is part of the
Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change.
- FSI has been tasked with assessing the country's land and tree inventory, including
wall-to-wall forest cover mapping on a biennial basis. The ISFR 2019 report is the 16th
in the sequence.
- For the first time, the qualitative existence of the forest cover was evaluated in the 2019
study, which included a list of biodiversity and the types of plants and trees found. For
the first time, a national forest inventory on forest products was established.
Findings of Report Forest Cover
- Forest Cover (Area-wise): Madhya Pradesh> Arunachal Pradesh> Chhattisgarh>
Odisha> Maharashtra.
- Forest Cover (Percentage): Mizoram (85.4%)> Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%)>
Meghalaya (76.33%).
- The top five states to have shown an increase in forest cover include Karnataka (1,025
sq. km) > Andhra Pradesh (990 sq. km) > Kerala (823 sq. km) > J&K (371 sq. km) >
Himachal Pradesh (334 sq. km).
- Increase in the Tree Cover Tree cover comprises tree patches of size less than 1 hectare
occurring outside the recorded forest area. The country's tree cover is projected to be
95,027 sq. km, or 2.89 percent of its total land area. Maharashtra has seen the largest
rise in tree cover, because of horticulture.
Compared to 2017
- According to the 2019 survey, total forest and tree cover in India increased by 5,188 sq.
km, accounting for 24.56 percent (8,07,276 sq. km) of the country's total area. It was
24.39 percent in the most recent evaluation.
- The nation's tree and forest cover has generally remained between 21 and 25 percent,
falling short of the National Forest Policy of 1988's goal of 33 percent.
NEXT HANDOUT PILLAR_2B2_Aquatic
2B2_HDT_Aquatic
23 Aquatic 117
23.1 Aquatic 117
23.1.1 Freshwater regions 118
23.2 Coral Reefs & Concerns 121
23.2.1 Corals 121
23.2.2 Types of Coral Reefs 122
23.2.3 Global distribution of Coral reef 123
23.2.4 Importance of coral reefs 124
23.2.5 Threats to Coral Reefs 125
23.3 Extent of Coral Bleaching 126
23.3.1 cause of coral bleaching in India 127
23.3.2 Impact of Coral Bleaching 127
23.3.3 Global Initiatives 128
23.3.4 Conservation of Coral Reefs in India 130
23.3.5 Steps to be taken 131
23.4 Eutrophication – Ageing of Lakes 132
23.4.1 Eutrophication and Algal Bloom 133
23.4.2 Mitigation of Eutrophication 133
23.5 ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION 134
23.5.1 About UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 135
23.5.2 Benefits associated with Ecosystem Restoration includes: 135
23.5.3 Why is there a need for ecosystem restoration? 136
23.5.4 Challenges associated with ecosystem restoration 137
23.5.5 ✍Way forward 137
23 Aquatic
23.1 Aquatic
● This biome covers nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface.
● It links all the other biomes.

● This is one of the most important biomes for the survival of species.
● Without water, Earth would have been a large desert.
● It can be classified as
1. Freshwater
2. Marine Aquatic
23.1.1 Freshwater regions
● Such regions have less than 1% salinity.

● The species which are adapted to survive in freshwater cannot survive in other water bodies
which have more salinity.
● Freshwater regions can be again divided into
○ Ponds and lakes
○ Streams and rivers
○ Wetlands
→ Ponds and Lakes
● These regions range in size from
just a few square meters to thousands
of square kilometers.
● Most of the ponds are seasonal
unlike lakes.
● Ponds and lakes may have limited
species diversity since they are often
isolated from one another and from
other water sources like rivers and oceans.
● According to depth and distance from the shoreline, lakes and ponds are divided into three
different “zones”.
→ Streams and rivers

● They have waters which are flowing or in constant motion.
● They change their characteristics during their journey from the source to the mouth.
● The water at the source is cooler and clearer at the source with high oxygen levels. Therefore it
has freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs.
● At the mouth, water is murky and has fish that require less oxygen, such as catfish and carp.
→ Wetlands
● Areas of standing water that support aquatic plants are called wetlands.
● These include marshes, swamps, and bogs.
● Flora include hydrophytes which are plants adapted to moist and humid conditions such as pond
lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce.
● Marsh flora also include such species as cypress and gum.
● Fauna include many species of amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as ducks and waders), and
furbearers.
● More on later
→ Marine regions
● Such regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface.
● Marine regions include the oceans, coral reefs and the estuaries.
● The algae present in the maine regions absorb a lot the atmospheric CO2 and contribute to the
oxygen supply on Earth,
● Almost all the rainfall on Earth is due to the evaporation of water from the marine regions.
→ Oceans
● They are the largest of the water bodies.
● Oceans have four zones - intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic.
● All four zones have a great diversity of species
23.2 Coral Reefs & Concerns
23.2.1 Corals
▪ Coral polyps are small (0.25-12 inches), soft-bodied marine

organisms.
▪ They belong to the group cnidaria
▪ Note: other cnidarians include hydras, jellyfish, and sea
anemones
▪ The coral polyps share a symbiotic relationship with algae called zooxanthellae.
▪ The zooxanthellae(algae) live inside the coral polyps and perform photosynthesis, producing
food & oxygen which is shared with the coral.
● Pirotan Island is a coral island in the Gulf of Kutch, near Jamnagar Marine National
Park (MNP), Gujarat. Since 2010 closed for tourism but now State govt thinking of resuming
▪ In exchange the coral provides the algae with protection and access to light, which is necessary
for photosynthesis.
▪ Coral Reef = Coral Polyp + zooxanthellae
23.2.2 Types of Coral Reefs
▪ The corals secrete calcium carbonate which acts like a

cement.
▪ These bind together coral, sand and pieces of rubble
to form a solid structure known as the reef.
▪ The major types of coral reefs are:
1. Fringing Reefs: These are coral reefs that grow in
shallow waters and in areas of low rainfall runoff,
primarily on the leeward side. They closely border
the coastline or are separated from it by a narrow
stretch of water.
2. Barrier reefs: These grow parallel to the coast,
but are separated from land by a lagoon. Example:
Great Barrier reef, Queensland, Australia
3. Atolls: These grow surrounding (or partly
surrounding) an island which then sinks relative to sea level. Example: Maldives consists of 26
atolls.
1. Fringing reefs
▪ A fringing reef is a coralline platform lying close to shore extending outwards from the mainland.
▪ It is sometimes separated from the shore by a shallow lagoon.
▪ It is widest when fringing a protruding headland but completely absent when facing the mouth of
a stream.
▪ The outer edge grows rapidly because of the splashing waves that continuously renew the supply
of fresh food.
▪ The reefs may be about a mile wide, lying just above the level of low water and sloping steeply
downwards on the seaward side to a depth of about 100 feet .
2. Barrier reefs
▪ A barrier reef is separated from the coast by a much wider and deeper channel or lagoon .
▪ The reef is partially submerged.
▪ It lies above the water level and sand can accumulate on it, a little vegetation is possible.
▪ The barrier reefs have narrow gaps at several places to allow the water from the enclosed lagoon
to return to the open ocean.
▪ Gaps are very useful for shipping and provide the only entrances for ships to enter or leave the
lagoon.
▪ The best known barrier reef is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia.
▪ It is 1.200 miles long, separated from the coast by a channel 110 miles wide in places and over
200 feet deep.
3. Atolls
▪ Atolls are similar to barrier reefs except that they are circular in shape, enclosing a shallow
lagoon without any land in the center.
▪ The encircling ring is usually broken in a few places to allow the free flow of water.
▪ On the inside of the reefs, sand and limestone debris collect and palm trees like coconuts may
grow.
▪ Such palm trees thrive well in the brackish water of the lagoon.
▪ The nuts fall into the water and are distributed widely by floating from one coral island to
another.
▪ The calm waters are useful for fishing and canoeing.
23.2.3 Global distribution of Coral reef
▪ Some of the large atolls, e.g. Suvadiva in the Maldives, west of Ceylon have a lagoon over 40
miles across.
▪ A number of them provide essential air bases for trans-Pacific aircraft.
▪ Coral reefs are mainly found in tropical seas (30°N to 30°S )where the sea is shallow (less than
100m); and warm (usually between 25° and 29°C).
In India, coral reefs are located in 7 regions:
▪ Goa coast
▪ Kerala coast
▪ Palk Bay,
▪ Gulf of Kutch
▪ Gulf of Mannar
▪ Lakshadweep islands
▪ Andaman and Nicobar islands
23.2.4 Importance of coral reefs
▪ Biodiversity:
▪ Coral reefs are extremely productive ecosystems and are called ‘the rainforests of the sea.’
▪ Despite covering less than 0.1% of the ocean floor, reefs host more than 25% of all marine fish
species and other marine animals.
▪ Regulating services:
▪ Coral reefs protect the shoreline and reduce flooding.
▪ Coral reefs contribute to land accretion (opposite of land erosion)
▪ Economic value:
▪ Coral reefs support human life and livelihoods and are therefore important economically.
▪ For example: According to WWF, 1 sq.km of well-managed coral reef can yield an average of 15
tonnes of fish and other seafood annually.
▪ Further, coral reefs support the tourism industry in
countries like Seychelles and Maldives.
▪ Cultural values:
▪ Coral reefs have aesthetic and recreational values
23.2.5 Threats to Coral Reefs
1. Climate Change and its impact on Coral reefs:

▪ With rising global temperatures, mass coral bleaching events and infectious disease outbreaks
have become more frequent.
▪ Bleaching is when corals lose the highly pigmented zooxanthellae from their tissues due to stress
from high sea temperatures and solar irradiation exposing the white calcium carbonate skeletons of
the coral colony.
▪ Ocean acidification:
▪ Carbon dioxide absorbed into the ocean from the atmosphere has been reducing calcification
rates in reef-building and reef-associated organisms by changing chemical
properties of seawater .This can ultimately lead to dissolving coral reefs.
▪ Increased frequency and intensity of tropical storms: Violent storms will lead to coral
breakage, dislocation and degradation from wind and waves
▪ Changes in precipitation: increased precipitation will lead to more freshwater runoff.
▪ Freshwater run-off reduces salinity levels, may cause bleaching, and brings increased nutrients
and sediments, which can lead to disease outbreak.
▪ Altered ocean circulation patterns may lead to lack of food due to dispersal of larvae
2. ENSO:
▪ Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as ENSO-related sea
level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
▪ The consequent exposure to high or low temperatures, increased solar radiation and sea water
dilution by heavy rains could lead to zooxanthellae loss and also cause coral death.
3. Marine Pollution:
▪ Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to increased concentrations of various
chemical contaminants and oil.
▪ Plastic and garbage at the seaside often ends up in the sea and disrupts the coral reefs’ delicate
environment.
4. Overfishing and destructive fishing practices – such as purse seining, fine-mesh fishing,
‘moxy’ nets, cyanide fishing and blast fishing result in unsustainable damage to coral reefs.
5. Coral mining (for example in south and south-east Asia) which involves blasting of reefs and
coral being removed, cause immediate destruction but also result in indirect detrimental effects
such as sand erosion and sedimentation
6. Sedimentation: Erosion caused by construction, mining, logging, and farming has led to
increased sediment in rivers.
▪ The sediment drastically reduces the amount of light reaching coral reefs and destroys them.
▪ Further, destruction of mangroves, which check sediments, have aggravated the problem.
7. Poorly managed tourism has both direct and indirect negative effects on coral reefs.
▪ Snorkelling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs.
▪ Overexploitation of reef species as food, for aquaria and as curios for tourist markets can threaten
the survival of species.
8. Indiscriminate Exploitation of coral reefs for wildlife trade has also emerged as a major threat
to coral ecosystems.
9. Massive outbreaks of predatory starfish, invasive species also pose threat to survival of corals
23.3 Extent of Coral Bleaching
▪ According to a study published in the journal Science, the global proportion of coral being hit by
bleaching per year has increased from 8% in the 1980s to 31% in 2016.
▪ From 1980 to 2016, the number of bleaching events was highest in the western Atlantic,
including Central America and the Caribbean, which experienced 3 times more events than other
regions such as Australasia, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.
▪ Since 1980, 58% of severe bleaching events have been recorded during strong periods of El
Nino.
▪ The last coral bleaching event took place from 2014 to 2017.
▪ It had destroyed nearly 12000km of reefs. Global coral bleaching was also recorded in 1998 and
2010.
▪ In 2016-17, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia suffered extreme coral bleaching which killed
around 50% of its corals.
23.3.1 cause of coral bleaching in India
▪ 1. The corals of Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

▪ These were severely affected by the 2004 Tsunami and have not yet fully recovered.
▪ Other reasons for coral bleaching in these islands include unregulated tourism, fishing and
marine pollution
▪ 2. Coral in the Gulf of Kachchh region:
▪ Siltation and Eutrophication due to developmental activities have been the major cause of
bleaching of corals.
▪ 3. Corals of Lakshadweep islands:
▪ Periodic dredging for boat passage in the lagoons, amongst others, affects the health of corals in
these coral islands.
4. Gulf of Mannar reefs
▪ They are affected due to intense local activities like intensive fishing, illegal harvesting of
protected species which affects the ecological balance, pollution from boats, construction along the
shores etc.
23.3.2 Impact of Coral Bleaching
▪ Ecological Impacts of bleaching:

▪ Decline in marine species diversity
▪ Land masses will be directly exposed to waves leading to a risk of erosion.
▪ Changes in coral communities affect the species that depend on them

▪ Socioeconomic impacts of bleaching
▪ Degraded coral reefs are not able to provide the ecosystem services on which local human
communities depend.
▪ Reefs damaged by coral bleaching can quickly lose many of the features that are important for
the aesthetic(branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art) appeal that is fundamental to reef
tourism.
▪ Thus there is loss of revenue from tourism.
▪ It can drive large shifts in fish communities.
▪ This results in reduced catches for fishers targeting reef fish species, which in turn impacts food
supply and associated economic activities.
▪ Coral reefs are a valuable source of pharmaceutical compounds.
▪ Degraded and dead reefs are less likely to serve as a source for important medicinal resources.
23.3.3 Global Initiatives
▪ 1. International Coral Reefs Initiative (ICRI)

▪ The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is an informal partnership between Nations and
organizations which aims to preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems around the world.
▪ The Initiative was founded in 1994 by eight countries:
▪ Australia, France, Japan, Jamaica, the Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United
States of America.
▪ India is a member of ICRI Main objectives are:
▪ Encourage the adoption of best practice in sustainable management of coral reefs and associated
ecosystems
▪ Capacity Building
▪ Raise awareness at all levels on the plight of coral reefs around the world.
▪ The ICRI declared 2018 as the third International Year of the Reef(IYOR).
▪ 2. Global Coral Reef monitoring network
▪ It is a network under ICRI which works to provide scientific information and communication on
the status of coral reef ecosystems to increase conservation and management for coral reefs
▪ 3. International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)
▪ ICRAN is a strategic alliance of private and public organizations that acts worldwide to address
the management of coral reef ecosystems and the needs of the communities that depend upon
them.
▪ It operates by sharing and promoting traditional knowledge, current research, and best practices
in order to strengthen reef management.
▪ 4. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has included coral reef conservation
and restoration as an ecosystem-based adaptation measure (EBA) for coastal protection.
▪ 5. Coral Triangle Initiative: The six governments of the Coral Triangle – Indonesia, Malaysia,
Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor Leste have established
partnerships to conserve coral reefs and the multitude of species and fisheries they support.
⇒ Mar-2020-About GBR:
• The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which spreads across a length of over 2,300 km and is
roughly the size of Italy, is home to about 3,000 coral reefs, 600 continental islands, 1,625 types of
fish, 133 varieties of shark and rays and 600 types of soft and hard corals.
• Warming ocean temperatures, a sign of climate change, is associated with the deteriorating health
of the Reef.
Importance of GBR: The Great Barrier Reef, which covers roughly 10 percent of the world’s
coral reef ecosystems;
• Supports a range of activities and contributes over AUD $5.6 billion each year to the Australian
economy and
• The Great Barrier Reef is also responsible for creating over 70,000 jobs.
• Protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical storms.
• It is the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for marine food chains and corals also
assist in carbon and nitrogen fixing
• The fishing industry depends on coral reefs because many fish spawn there and juvenile fish
spend time there before making their way to the open sea.
Threats to GBR: In the 2019 Outlook Report prepared by the Australian government, it said that;
• Climate change was the greatest threat to the Reef.
• Other threats included
• coastal development,
• land-based run-off and
• direct human use, such as activities like illegal fishing.

▪ Recent Step taken in Australia to protect Great Barrier Reef:
▪ In 2018, the Australian government has announced its largest-ever investment in the coral reef:
▪ over half a billion Australian dollars ($378 million).
▪ The money will be used to counter water pollution, combat coral-eating starfish, increase public
awareness, boost reef monitoring, and improve the environmental impact of surrounding
businesses.
23.3.4 Conservation of Coral Reefs in India
▪ 1. The protection of coral reefs has been stressed under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and
Environmental Protection Act, 1986 and Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).
▪ Corals are included in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
▪ Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) also takes up the issue of coral reef
habitat destruction
▪ 2. On the recommendations of the National Committee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs
following coral reef areas in the country have been identified for intensive conservation and
management since 1987:
▪ Andaman & Nicobar Islands
▪ Lakshadweep Islands
▪ Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat)
▪ Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)
▪ 3. The coral bleaching Alert System (CBAS) has been initiated by INCOIS since 2011.
▪ This model uses the satellite derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in order to assess the
thermal stress accumulated in the coral environs.
▪ This information yields in drawing the early signs of the intensity and spatial extents of coral
bleaching
▪ 4. Recommendations of Task Force on Islands, Coral Reefs, Mangroves and Wetlands (11th
Five Year Plan 2007-2012)
▪ Initiatives on conservation, development and poverty reduction in coastal areas need to be more
effectively integrated
▪ Development of sustainable alternative livelihoods and viable options for coastal populations to
reduce the pressure on reef resources.
▪ Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
▪ Management of coral reef areas should be improved by increasing the efficiency in use of
funding.
▪ Increase enforcement of existing laws such as those relating to coral mining, while ensuring that
populations are not deprived of livelihood options
▪ Research into current conservation status of food fishes, lobsters, sea cucumbers, ornamental
fishes and other reef-associated biota
▪ Appropriate regulation mechanisms to ensure that fisheries are sustainable, possibly though
introduction of licenses and certification schemes.
▪ Develop mechanisms for managing coral reef information, including monitoring data, and ensure
that these are available to coral reef managers and decision makers.
▪ Coral reef management should be seen much more ‘as a way of life’ rather than a series of
short-term projects.
▪ Based on the recommendations of National Committees on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral
Reefs, 24 wetland, 33 mangrove and four coral reef areas in the country have been identified by
the Ministry for conservation and management
▪ 5. The National Coral Reef Research Centre has been established at Port Blair. Database
Network and Website on Coral Reefs has also been established.
23.3.5 Steps to be taken
▪ 1. It is important to undertake immediate actions to address climate change under the Paris
Agreement’s goal of limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre industrial
temperatures.
▪ 2. Measures to combat local stressors causing coral bleaching:
▪ Regulate tourism
▪ Check water pollution by treating industrial effluents before discharging them into the sea,
reduction is use of chemical fertilizers in farms
▪ Ban fishing and harvesting of protected species.
▪ Regularly service and maintain fishing vessels so that they cause minimum pollution
▪ Regulate construction along the coast

▪ Banning of the quarrying of massive corals.
▪ 3. Coral restoration programs can play an important role in conserving coral reefs.
▪ For example, the innovative Force Blue project is training retired Special Forces soldiers to
transplant endangered coral species
▪ 4. A recent paper published in Nature argues that there should be focus on strengthening the
reefs, to make them immune to pollution (for example through genetic engineering and of restoring
reefs by targeting more resilient corals)
▪ 5. Improved scientific knowledge is required to inform an effective response to threats to coral
Reefs.
▪ 6. Community awareness and education programmes are required to educate and inform the
public, policymakers and other stakeholders of the ecological and socio-economic values of coral
reef ecosystems.
(VERY MUCH IMPORTANT FOR MAINS PERSPECTIVE)
23.4 Eutrophication – Ageing of Lakes
• Lakes receive their water from surface runoff and along with its various chemical substances and
minerals.
• Over periods spanning millennia,
ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate
mineral and organic matter and
gradually, get filled up.
• The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes
promotes the growth of algae, aquatic
plants and various fauna. This process
is known as natural eutrophication.
• Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human activities and the
consequent ageing phenomenon is known as cultural eutrophication.
• On the basis of their nutrient content, lakes are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients),
Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich). A vast majority of lakes in
India are either eutrophic or mesotrophic because of the nutrients derived from their surroundings
or organic wastes entering them
23.4.1 Eutrophication and Algal Bloom
• Eutrophic water body: it is a body of water rich in nutrients

and so supporting a dense plant population, the decomposition
of which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen.
• Eutrophication is the response to the addition of nutrients
such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or artificially,
fertilising the aquatic ecosystem.
• Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria) thrive on the
excess nutrients and their population explosion covers almost the entire surface layer. This
condition is known as algal bloom.
🔠? There is a concern over the increase in harmful algal blooms in the seawaters of India. What
could be the causative factors for this phenomenon ? [2011]
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries.
2. Run-off from the land during the monsoon.
3. Upwelling in the seas.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
23.4.2 Mitigation of Eutrophication
• Treating Industrial effluents domestic sewage to remove nutrient-rich sludge through wastewater
processing.
• Riparian buffer: Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land created near the waterways,
farms, roads, etc. in an attempt to filter pollution.
• Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer zones instead of deposition in water
(Wetlands, estuaries are natural riparian buffers).
• Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorus fertilisers and using them at inadequate levels.
• Nitrogen testing & modelling: N-Testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of fertiliser
required for crop plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.
• Encouraging organic farming.

• Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power plants.
⇒ SIGNIFICANCE OF DEAD CORAL REEF:
According to recent research by the University of Queensland (UQ), Australia, more life can be
supported by dead coral remains than live corals.
→ Key Highlights of research
• Method: Formation of three-dimensional-printed coral stacks called RUbble Biodiversity
Samplers (RUBS) to survey cryptic organisms.
• The 3D-printed coral mimicked surrounding reef rubble and invited unwitting reef organisms to
be monitored.
• By sampling the RUBS’ structures over time, the team was able to identify changes in the cryptic
population.
• Findings: The researchers found the missing link in the coral reef food webs. This data fills
important knowledge gaps, such as how small cryptic animals support coral reefs from the bottom
of the food chain, all the way up to bigger predators.
• This also helped to know the importance of dead coral reef rubble to the ocean ecosystem.
• RUBS technology provides a new opportunity for reef management, particularly for reef
education and awareness. Muthupet→Pamane river, Ramnad.
23.5 ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
- The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) proclaimed 2021–2030 as the Decade on
Ecosystem Restoration.
- (Definition) It is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been
degraded, damaged or destroyed. An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where
living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical
environment.
- Restoration activities may be designed to replicate a pre-disturbance ecosystem or to
create a new ecosystem where it had not previously occurred.
- It involves practices such as restoring vegetation, planting native trees, clearing invasive
species, regenerative (perennial) agriculture, agroforestry etc.
- The concept has gained importance due to the unprecedented pace of degradation of the
world's landscapes and ecosystems because of over-exploitation of natural resources.
23.5.1 About UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
- The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration aims to massively scale up the restoration of

degraded and destroyed ecosystems as a proven measure to fight the climate crisis and
enhance food security, water supply and biodiversity.
- It seeks to: Showcase successful government-led and private initiatives to halt ecosystem
degradation and restore degraded ecosystems; Enhance knowledge exchange to
implement restoration at scale; Connect initiatives working in the same landscape, region,
or topic, to increase efficiency and impact; Create links between ecosystem restoration
and businesses interested in sustainable production and impact investment; Bring a wider
spectrum of actors on board, especially from non-traditional sectors, by demonstrating
the importance of environmental and socio-economic benefits of ecosystem restoration.
- Ecosystems addressed include forests, grasslands, croplands, wetlands, savannahs, inland
water, coastal and marine ecosystems, and even urban environments.
- On land, restoration of at least 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030 is
targeted. A target for coasts and oceans has yet to be set.
- This endeavour builds on regional efforts such as: Initiative 20×20 in Latin America that
aims to restore 20 million hectares of degraded land by 2020, or AFR100 African Forest
Landscape Restoration Initiative that aims to bring 100 million hectares of degraded land
under restoration by 2030.
- The UN Environment and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) will lead the
implementation.
23.5.2 Benefits associated with Ecosystem Restoration includes:
o Socio-Economic Benefits
✓ Poverty Alleviation: Restoring 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030 can
present a boost to rural economies worth US$9 trillion in ecosystem services.
✓ Food security: Healthy soils can store more nutrients and produce higher quality plants.
✓ Enhanced tourism: through revival of natural landscapes.
✓ It can prevent conflict and migration triggered by environmental degradation.

o Ecological Benefits
✓ Climate change mitigation: Restoration could also remove 13 to 26 gigatons of greenhouse
gases from the atmosphere through healthy ecosystems such as forests, mangroves and peatlands.
✓ Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting and restoring ecosystems can help save the 1 million
animal and plant species currently threatened with extinction.
✓ Reviving coastal and marine biodiversity hotspots on Earth: These ecosystems also provide
storm protection, fisheries and carbon storage.
o Fulfilling international commitments: ER can help achieve targets under agreements such as
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris Climate Agreement, Aichi Biodiversity
Targets etc.
23.5.3 Why is there a need for ecosystem restoration?
• Terrestrial Ecosystems:
o Declining Forest Cover: World’s forest area decreased from 31.6% of global land area in 1990
to 30.6% in 2015 and around 70 million hectares of forests has been lost since 2000. This has led
to reduction in carbon sink and loss of habitat for a wide variety of species.
o Declining land fertility: About 20 percent of the planet’s land area has seen a decline in
productivity with fertility losses linked to erosion, soil depletion and pollution. This affects
vegetative cover of forests, croplands, grasslands and rangelands.
o Economic impact of Land degradation: Land degradation across the world causes loss of
biodiversity and ecosystem services worth more than 10 percent of annual global gross domestic
product.
• Aquatic Ecosystems:
o Decrease in wetland areas: Around 70 percent of wetlands have been lost over the last century,
leading to localized biodiversity losses and acute water shortages.
o Impact on oceans and coasts: Climate change and human activities such as overfishing,
pollution, damaging coastal development, degradation of the seabed etc. have severely impacted
marine ecosystems.
It has led to-
✓ Decline in Sea grasses on which dugongs and other marine animals depend.
✓ Rise in Dead zones around major river deltas which affect the fishing industry.
✓ Coral reefs are projected to decline by a further 70 to 90 per cent at a temperature increase of
1.5 degrees Celsius, with larger losses at 2 degrees Celsius. o High Carbon emissions: Between
20 and 50 percent of global blue carbon ecosystems (blue carbon is the carbon captured by the
world's ocean and coastal ecosystems) have already been converted or degraded.
✓ Their loss and degradation cause higher CO2 emissions as compared to terrestrial
deforestation because of their high carbon stocks per hectare.
23.5.4 Challenges associated with ecosystem restoration
• High initial financial Investment: It will take around $ 800 billion to restore 350 million
hectares of land.
• Time taking process: ER needs continuous and long-term efforts to generate desired results.
• Lack of coordination: Usually ecosystems do not confer to geographical boundaries and thus
international coordination is a necessity for restoration efforts.
• Poor understanding of ecosystem characteristics: ER without conducting proper research and
study of specific ecosystems can have undesirable results and cause further degradation.
• Impact on economic activities: ER involves conscious efforts to limit economic activities
involved in over exploitation of natural resources.
23.5.5 ✍Way forward
• Restoring terrestrial ecosystems through afforestation: It should follow certain principles such
as:
o Planting trees on former forest land rather than converting other natural ecosystems such as
grasslands, peatlands or wetlands to forest.
o Planting native tree species that are well adapted to the local climate and soil.
o Involving the local community and consulting experts in the field of ER.
• Fostering political will: to provide momentum for ER at the global, regional, national and local
levels.
• Encouraging global scientific research: to develop and promote good practices in ER.
• Mainstreaming ecosystem restoration into policies and plans: to address current national
development priorities and challenges due to the degradation of marine and terrestrial
ecosystems, biodiversity loss and climate change vulnerability.
• Raising financial resources: by dispersing funds for ER through existing funding mechanisms
of international agreements or establishing separate funds.
• Priority to conserving and preventing further degradation of ecosystems: ER must be viewed as
complementary to these efforts.
Pillar_3_Biodiversity_&_Conservation_Effort
30 Biodiversity 140
30.1 Definition 140
30.2 Origin of the Term 141
30.3 Levels of Biodiversity 141
30.4 Measurement of Biodiversity 142
30.5 Alpha, Beta And Gamma diversity 143
30.6 Biodiversity Depletion 143
30.7 Services Provided by Biodiversity 143
30.7.1 Ecosystem Services 143
30.7.2 Biological Resources of Economic Importance 145
30.7.3 Social Benefits 146
30.7.4 Research, Education and Monitoring 146
30.8 Causes for Loss of Biodiversity 146
30.8.1 Major Reasons for Loss: 147
30.9 Biodiversity Conservation Methods 148
30.9.1 The following methods are used in In-situ conservation: 148
6.9.2 Advantages of Ex-situ conservation: 151
30.9.3 Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation 152
30.10 Human-Animal Conflict 153
Why in the News? 153
Highlights of advisory 153
Causes of Man-animal conflict 154
✍Way Forward to reduce man-animal Conflict 154
Recent initiatives are taken 155
✍Way Forward 155
30.11 CITES: 155
31 Other Conservation Effort 157
🦁
31.1 Asiatic Lion Conservation Project 157
🦁
31.1.1 Asiatic Lions 157
🐤
31.2 Vulture Conservation 157
31.2.1 Causes of population decline : ⏬ 158
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_3A_Biodiversity_&_Conservation_Effort→ Page 139
🐤
31.2.2 VULTURE ACTION PLAN 2020-25 158
🦏
31.3 Rhino Conservation 159
🦏
31.3.1 Indian Rhino Vision- 2020 159
🐆
31.4 Snow Leopard Conservation 159
🐆
31.4.1 Project Snow Leopard 159
31.5 ‍🐱 Sea Turtle Project 161
31.5.1 Context 161
31.5.2 Efforts 161
🐱🐉
31.6 ‍Crocodile Conservation Project 161
8.8.1 Context 161
8.8.2 Efforts 162
🦌
31.7 Project Hangul 162
31.7.1 Context 162
31.7.2 Efforts 162
🐬
31.8 Dolphin Observatory 162
😻
31.9 FISHING CAT 163
🐥
31.10 GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (GIB) 163
🐆
31.11 AFRICAN CHEETAH REINTRODUCTION 163
31.12 Misc. topic→Houbara Bustard: 164
31.13 Misc. topic→Lesser Flamingo birds' 164
30 Biodiversity
30.1 Definition
● Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variability among

living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are a part; this
includes diversity within species, between species and
of ecosystems’.
● Biologists most often define biodiversity as the
"totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region".
30.2 Origin of the Term
● The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist, Raymond
F. Dasmann, in the year 1968. (World Biodiversity Day-3rd March)
● The term's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985.
30.3 Levels of Biodiversity
There are three levels of biodiversity :

1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity and
3. Ecological diversity
⚾Genetic Diversity
● There can be a large number of genetic combinations possible within a particular group of
species.
● E.g. Each human being is very different from all others.
● Genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species.
● Lesser genetic diversity increases the possibility of inbreeding which can eventually lead to the
extinction of the species.
● Wide diversity allows adaptation of some individuals to extreme conditions which in turn decide
the survival of a particular species.
⚾Species Diversity
● Species diversity refers to the number of species of plants and animals that are present in a
region.
● Species diversity consists of
1.Species richness (simple count of species) ( 🐂🐂🐂🐎🐎🐅🐅🐅🦏🐃🐏🐪🐪🦘)
2.Species evenness (how equal the abundances of the species
are)( 🐅🐅🐂🐂🐎🐎🐪🐪🐏🐏🦏🦏)
🔢Assertion-A) Species evenness is higher
Reason-R) Species richness in equal proportion
(a) Both A and R are correct and R explain A
(b) Both statements are individually correct but R does not explain A
(c) A is correct but is R false
(d) A is false but is R correct

● A high level of species richness may indicate the presence of rare species or species that are
unique to an ecosystem.
● Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity.
● India is among the world’s 17 nations that are exceptionally rich in species diversity.
● 17 megadiverse countries are: Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru,
Philippines, South Africa, United States and Venezuela.
⚾Ecological Diversity
● It is the variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in a region.
● It also takes into account the variation in the complexity of a biological community, including
the number of different niches, the number of trophic levels and other ecological processes.
30.4 Measurement of Biodiversity
● Biodiversity is measured in terms of

○ Species richness
○ Species evenness
● The measurement of biodiversity as it indicates the health of an ecosystem.
🔢Three of the following criteria have contributed to the recognition of Western Ghats-Sri
LankaandIndo-Burmaregionsashotspotsofbiodiversity:
1. Species Richness
2. Vegetation Density
3. Endemism
4. Ethno-botanicalimportance
5. Threat Perception
6. Adaptation Of Flora And Fauna To Warm And Humid Conditions
Which three of the above are correct criteria? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) 1,2and 6 (b) 2,4and 6 (c) 1,3and 5 (d) 3,4and 6
30.5 Alpha, Beta And Gamma diversity
● R.H. Whittaker described three terms for measuring biodiversity over spatial scales: Alpha,
beta, and gamma diversity.
● Alpha diversity: It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem at a local scale
expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
● Beta diversity: It is the ratio between regional and local species diversity. In other words, beta
diversity allows us to compare diversity between ecosystems.
30.6 Biodiversity Depletion
There can be three ways in which biodiversity of a region is depleted:

1. Direct ways: Deforestation, hunting, poaching, commercial exploitation.
2. Indirect ways: Loss or modification of the natural habitats, introduction of exotic species,
pollution, etc.
3. Natural causes: Climate change, volcanoes, earthquakes, epidemics etc.
30.7 Services Provided by Biodiversity
30.7.1 Ecosystem Services
• Living organisms provide a variety of ecological services and they are responsible for the
ecosystem's overall health. Thus, biodiversity is a prerequisite for the maintenance and sustainable
utilization of goods and services from ecology as well as from individual species.
i. Protection of water resources:
» Natural vegetation cover assists in maintaining hydrological cycles, regulating water run-off and
acts as a buffer against extreme events such as floods. Removal of vegetation results in silting of
dams and waterways. Wetlands and forest areas act as water purifying systems, while mangroves
trap silt, thus reducing impacts on marine ecosystems.
ii. Soil protection:
» Biological diversity helps in the soil conservation and retention of moisture as well as nutrients.
Removing large areas of vegetation cover has been often seen as accelerating soil erosion,
reducing its productivity, and often resulting in flash floods. Root allows penetration of water to
the subsoil layer. Root also brings mineral nutrients to the surface by nutrient uptake.
iii. Nutrient storage and cycling:
» Ecosystems perform the vital function of recycling of nutrients found in the atmosphere and in
the soil. Plants have the capacity to take nutrients, and after that these nutrients then can form the
basis of food chains, to be used by a wide range of life forms. Nutrients in the soil, in turn, is
replenished by dead matter which is transformed by microorganisms; this may then feed others
such as earthworms which also mix
and aerate the soil and make nutrients more readily available.
iv. Reducing Pollution
» Ecosystems play an important role in maintaining gaseous composition of the atmosphere,
breakdown of wastes and pollutants removal.
» Some ecosystems, mainly wetlands, have the ability to break down and absorb pollutants.
Natural and human made wetlands are being used to filter effluents to remove nutrients, suspended
solids; reduce the BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) and eradicate harmful microorganisms.
Huge quantities of pollutants, however, can be detrimental to the integrity of the ecosystem.
v. Climate stability:
» Vegetation influences climate both at macro and micro levels. Growing evidence suggests that
undisturbed forests help in maintaining rainfall in the vicinity by recycling water vapour at a
steady rate back into the atmosphere.
» Vegetation also has an influence on micro-climate. Vegetation's cooling effect is a natural
phenomenon that helps people to live comfortably. Some organisms are dependent on such
micro-climates for their existence.
vi. Maintaining ecological processes:
» Different species of birds and predators help in controlling insect pests, thus reducing the need
for artificial control measures. Birds and nectar–prone insects which breed in natural habitats are
important pollinating agents of crop and wild plants.
» Some habitats protect important life stages of wildlife populations such as spawning areas in
mangroves and wetlands.
• Without ecological services provided by biodiversity, it would be impossible to get food and pure
air to breathe.
30.7.2 Biological Resources of Economic Importance
i. Food, fibre, medicines, fuel wood as well as ornamental plants:

» Five to six thousand plant species are known to have been used as food by humans. Currently,
approx. 20 species feed the majority of the world's population and just 3 to 4 only are the major
staple crops to most of the population in the world.
» A large number of plant and animal ingredients have application in the treatment of various
ailments. For a long time medicinal plants have been used in India, dating back to the PreVedic
culture. The therapeutic values of herbal medicines led to evolution of Ayurveda which means "life
sciences". It is calculated that at least two-third of the country's population are dependent on herbal
medicines and more than 7000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes.
» Wood is a basic commodity used throughout the world for making furniture and for construction
purposes. Firewood is the primary source of fuel widely used in underdeveloped and developing
economies. Wood and bamboo are useful in making paper.
» Plants have been a traditional source of fibre such as coir, hemp, flax, cotton, jute.
ii. Breeding material for crop improvement:
» Wild relatives of cultivated crop plants possess valuable genes that are of high genetic value in
programmes of crop improvement. Genes of wild crop plants are being used to make new varieties
of cultivated plants. For example: Asian grown rice is protected from four main diseases by genes
contributed by a single wide rice variety.
iii. Future resources:
» There is a marked relationship between the conservation of biological diversity and the finding
of new biological resources. The relatively few developed plant species cultivated currently have
had a large amount of research and selective breeding applied to them.
» Many under-utilised food crops have the potential to become important crops in the coming
times. Local people's knowledge of wild plants is often a source for ideas on developing new plant
products.
30.7.3 Social Benefits
i. Recreation:
» Forests, wildlife, national parks and sanctuaries and gardens have high recreation value.
Ecotourism, photography, painting, and literary activities are closely related.
ii. Cultural values:
• Plants and animals play an instrumental role in the cultural life of humans. Cultures of humans
have co-evolved with their environment and biological diversity can impart a distinct cultural
identity to different communities.
• The natural environment serves the inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and educational needs of the
society, of all cultures. In majority of Indian villages and cities, plants like Tulsi (Ocimum
sanctum), Peepal (Ficus religiosa), are planted and considered sacred.
30.7.4 Research, Education and Monitoring
• There is still much to learn on how to get better use from biological resources, how to maintain
the genetic base of harvested biological resources, and how to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems. •
Natural areas provide excellent living laboratories for such studies, for comparison with other
areas under systems of use and for valuable research in ecology and evolution.
30.8 Causes for Loss of Biodiversity
• Loss of biodiversity occurs when either a specific species is destroyed or the habitat essential for
its survival is broken.
- The four major causes for loss of biodiversity are:
• Habitat loss,
• Over-exploitation,
• Alien species invasions and
• Co-extinctions
• Since the origin and diversification of life on earth there were five phases of mass extinction of
species.
• However, the 'Sixth Extinction' presently in progress is different from the previous episodes as
the current species extinction rates are estimated to be about 100 to 1,000 times faster than the
pre-human times and human activities are responsible for the increasing rates.
• The biodiversity loss can be caused in the following three ways:
» Direct ways: Deforestation, hunting, commercial exploitation. » Indirect ways: Loss of the
natural
habitats, introduction of exotic species, pollution, etc.
» Natural causes: Climate change, Natural disaster.
30.8.1 Major Reasons for Loss:
• The evil quartet is the concept which describes the reasons which cause a decrease in the number
of species. There is loss of biodiversity due to four main reasons which were known as the four
horsemen of the ecological apocalypse. The reasons are overexploitation, loss of habitat,
introduction of the exotic species and co-extinction of species. The researchers investigated these
factors and proposed them as the primary causes of the species' extinction in the future. They are:
• Habitat loss and fragmentation: As a result of cutting and burning forests, draining and filling
wetlands, converting natural areas for industrial uses, human settlements, mines, road construction,
and other growth projects.
» These changes either kill or force out many species from the area causing disruption of
interactions among the species.
» Fragmentation of large forest tracts (e.g., the corridors) affect the species occupying the deeper
part of the forest and are first to disappear.
» The Amazon rainforest (called the ‘lungs of the planet’) is being cut and cleared for cultivating
soybeans or for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle.
• Introduction of exotic species: When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately
for any purpose, some of them turn invasive, and lead to decline or extinction of indigenous
species. Example,
» Congress grass (a tropical American weed) has invaded many of the vacant areas in cities, towns
and villages in India leading to removal of the local plants and the dependent animals.
» Nile perch, an exotic predatory fish introduced into Lake Victoria (South Africa) threatened the
entire ecosystem of the lake by eliminating several native species of the small cichlid fish that
were endemic to this freshwater aquatic system.
» Water hyacinth clogs lakes and riversides and threatens the survival of many aquatic species.
This is common in Indian plains.
» Lantana camara (an American weed) has invaded many forest lands in various parts of India and
wiped out the native grass species.
• Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it
in a mandatory way also become extinct. Example,
» When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites also has the same
fate.
» Coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction
of the other.
• Overexploitation and Pollution: Air pollution, acid rain destroys forests. Acid rain that seeps
into the ground will dissolve nutrients like magnesium and calcium that trees need to thrive.
» Water pollution affects the fish and other aquatic species severely and proves lethal to them.
Toxic and hazardous substances drained into waterways kill aquatic life. Oil spills kill coastal area
birds, plants, and other marine animals.
» Plastic trash entangles wildlife.
30.9 Biodiversity Conservation Methods
Biodiversity conservation efforts can be grouped into two categories:

1. In-situ (on-site) methods:
● It involves protection of plants and animals within their natural habitats or in protected areas
dedicated for protection and maintenance of biodiversity.
2. Ex-situ (off-site) methods:
● These methods involve conserving species outside their natural habitats.
30.9.1 The following methods are used in In-situ conservation:
1. National Parks
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries
3. Biosphere Reserves
4. Biodiversity Hotspots
5. Gene Sanctuary
6. Community Reserves
7. Sacred Groves
● A gene sanctuary is an area where plants/germplasms are conserved under natural conditions.
⚾Gene Sanctuary
● It may include both biosphere reserves as well as national parks.
● India has set up its first gene sanctuary in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya for wild relatives of
citrus.
● Efforts are also being made to set up gene sanctuaries for banana, sugarcane, rice and mango.
⚾Sacred Groves
● Sacred groves are protected forest out of religious belief in fragments which usually have a
significant religious connotation for the protecting community. Hunting and logging are usually
strictly prohibited within these patches. Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and
deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis. Indian sacred groves are
sometimes associated with temples/monasteries/ shrines or with burial grounds. Example: Kavus
of Kerala, law kyntangs of Meghalaya.
● Sacred groves enjoy various degrees of sanctity and protection from local communities.
● Meghalaya tribes completely prohibit any kind of human interference in their sacred groves.
● Whereas Gonds of Central India allow collection of deadwood and dry leaves from sacred trees.
● The groves not only protect floral and faunal diversity of the region but also protect associated
water bodies and prevent soil erosion and desertification. However, the introduction of the
protected area category community reserves under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act,
2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands,
which could include sacred groves.
● Intensity of conservation→ Differs place to place.
● Status of sacred groves→ decline due to→
1) Displacement, 2) Encroaching, 3) Mainstreaming of tribes, 4) Sanskritisation(personification of
nature).
● Measures for improving sacred groves:
- Recognition
- Involvement of tribes
- Right over land→ Recognise
- Awareness and education about sacred groves.
⚾The following methods are used in ex-situ conservation:
1. Botanical Gardens
2. Zoo
3. Gene Banks
4. Seed Bank
5. Tissue Culture
6. Cryopreservation
⚾Zoos
● Species based conservation method.
● Public enjoyment and education + captive breeding.
● The role of zoos in conservation is limited both by space and by expense. Central ⚾Zoo
Authority
● Established in 1992 under Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
● The Authority consists of a Chairman, ten members and a Member Secretary.
● The Authority’s role is more of a facilitator than a regulator.
● Some of its functions include to:
○ Specify the minimum standards for housing, upkeep and veterinary care of the animals kept in a
zoo;
○ Recognise or derecognise zoos;
○ Identify endangered species of wild animals for purposes of captive breeding and assigning
responsibility in this regard to a zoo.
● Sardar Patel Zoological Park -Located near Statue of Liberty, Narmada, Gujarat
● World’s ‘biggest zoo’ 250 acres in Jamnagar, Guj. Name "‘GREENS Zoological Rescue
and Rehabilitation Kingdom’, by Reliance Industries CSR fund, doing PPP for Leopard
rehabilitation.
⚾Botanical Gardens
● Botanic gardens are institutions holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes
of scientific research, conservation, display and education.
● Botanical gardens should always have complete documentation of their collections, control over
plants collected and demonstrate responsible management of their collections.
● Botanical gardens have three main objectives:
1. Recreation: Exhibitions, plant sales, picnics under the trees and relaxing in a natural
environment
2. Education: This includes summer camps for kids, classes and seminars as well as publications
and other ways of sharing information between botanical gardens and horticulture and botany
professionals.
3. Scientific study involving botany, taxonomy and systematics.
⚾Gene Banks
● Gene banks, also known as germplasm banks, are a type of biorepository which preserve genetic
material of plants and animals.
● For plants, this could be through in vitro storage, freezing cuttings from the plant, or stocking the
seeds (e.g. in a seedbank).
● For animals, it involves freezing of sperm and eggs in zoological freezers.
● Plant genetic material is preserved at -196° Celsius in Liquid Nitrogen.
➡Types of Gene Banks
1. Seed bank: It preserves dried seeds at a very low temperature.
2. Tissue bank: In this technique, seedless plants and plants that reproduce sexually are preserved
through particular light and temperature arrangements in a nutrient medium.
3. Cryobanks: A seed or embryo is preserved at very low temperatures (usually in liquid nitrogen
at -196 °C). Mainly for species facing extinction. Indian Seed Vault is a secure seed bank lies in a
high altitude mountain pass on the Chang La seed vault in Ladakh, India. It was built in 2010
jointly by the Defence Institute of High Altitude Research and the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources
6.9.2 Advantages of Ex-situ conservation:
● Animals are fully protected from all kinds of poaching and predation.
● The population of animals can be maintained and distributed in case of threats of becoming
endangered.
● Selective breeding can be done to increase the population of healthier animals.
● The health of animals can be monitored and provided with medical assistance whenever
required.
● These sites can be used for education and tourism.
30.9.3 Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation
● Limitation of animals to caged surroundings which does not match their natural habitats.
● Exposure to various diseases which decreases their chances of survival.
● Limited genetic diversity.
● Expensive to maintain.
● Reintroduction of animals into the wild may be difficult.
🔢Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ method of conservation of flora? (UPSC
CSE 2011)
(a) BiosphereReserve (b) BotanicalGarden (c) NationalPark (d) WildlifeSanctuary
🔢Biodiversity forms the basis for human existence the following ways:
1. Soil Formation
2. Prevention Of Soil Erosion
3. Recycling Of Waste
4. Pollination Of Crops
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a.)1,2and3only (b.)2,3and4only (c.)1and4only (d.)1,2,3and4
🔢Consider the following statements:
1. Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower latitudes as compared to the higher latitudes.
2. Along the mountain gradients, biodiversity is normally greater in the lower altitudes as
compared to the higher altitudes.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2011)
(a) 1only (b) 2only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor2
⇒Nov,2020- HIGH BIODIVERSITY IN GANGA RIVER- Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
in the second phase of its survey of the entire main stem of the Ganga river (the main river
without its tributaries), has found that 49 per cent of the river has high biodiversity. These are the
results of phase I of the survey. The second phase of the survey is to be conducted shortly
30.10 Human-Animal Conflict
Why in the News?
The Standing Committee of the National Board of Wildlife in its 60th meeting has approved the
advisory for management of Human-Wildlife Conflict in the country.
Highlights of advisory
• Empowering Gram Panchayats in matters dealing with the problematic wild animals as per
section 11 (1) (b) of WildLife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Fodder Augmentation and water sources- To reduce HWC (Human-Wildlife Conflict), the
augmentation of fodder and water sources within the forest areas are some key steps.
• Paying compensation- Add-on coverage under the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana for crop
compensation against crop damage due to HWC.
• Identification of hotspots and formulation and implementation of special plans for improved stall
fed farm animals etc.
• Other Proactive measures- The advisory envisages prescribing inter-departmental committees
at local/state level, adoption of early warning systems, creation of barriers, dedicated circle wise
Control Rooms with toll-free hotline numbers which could be operated on 24X7 basis.
• Inclusion of Caracal into the list of critically endangered species for taking up conservation
efforts with financial support under Centrally sponsored Scheme-Development of Wildlife Habitat.
Now, there are 22 wildlife species under the recovery programme for critically endangered
species.
⇒ Jan,2021- Human-Animal Conflict
• It refers to the interaction between wild animals and humans which results in a negative impact
on people, animals, resources, and habitats.
• It occurs when growing human populations overlap with established wildlife territory which
creates competition for space and resources.
Causes of Man-animal conflict
• Rapid Urbanisation- In modern times rapid urbanization and industrialisation have led to the
diversion of forest land to non-forest purposes, as a result, the wildlife habitat is shrinking.
• Extension of development to forests- The expansion of road and rail network through forest
ranges has resulted in animals getting killed or injured in accidents on roads or railway tracks.
• Human Encroachment- The increasing population has also led to many human settlements
coming up near the peripheries of protected areas and encroachment in the forest lands by local
people for cultivation and collection of food and fodder etc., therefore, increasing pressure on
limited natural resources in the forests.
• Decreasing Prey Base: The decreasing size of forests leads to decrease in prey base. This causes
carnivorous animals like Lion and Tiger to enter the area of human settlement in search of prey.
• Lack of animal corridors: Large animals like elephants require
✍Way Forward to reduce man-animal Conflict
• Surveillance- Increased vigilance and protection of identified locations using hi-tech

surveillance tools like sensors can help in tracking the movement of animals and warn the local
population.
• Improvement of habitat- In-situ and ex-situ habitat conservation measures will help in securing
animals their survival.
• Re-locating of animal habitats away from residential and commercial centres will serve to
minimize animal-man conflict for illegal and self interested motives
• Awareness Programmes- To create awareness among people and sensitize them about the Do’s
and Don’ts in the forest areas to minimize the conflicts between man and animal.
• Training programs- Training to the police offices and local people should be provided for this
purpose and the forest department should frame guidelines.
• Boundary walls- The construction of boundary walls and solar fences around the sensitive areas
to prevent the wild animal attacks.
• Technical and financial support- For the development of necessary infrastructure and support
facilities for immobilization of problematic animals through tranquilization, their translocation.
• Part of CSR- Safeguarding Tiger corridors, building eco-bridges and other such conservation
measures can be part of corporate social responsibility.
Recent initiatives are taken
• In a recent order the supreme court held that it was the State’s duty to protect a “keystone
species'' like elephants.
• Recently, the Supreme Court (SC) affirmed the right of passage of the Elephants and the closure
of resorts in the Nilgiris elephant corridor.
• The Odisha Government has started casting seed balls inside different reserve forest areas to
enrich food stock for wild elephants.
• The Uttarakhand government carried out biofencing by growing various species of plants in the
areas in order to reduce the man-animal conflict, prevent wild animals from entering residential
areas, and protect agricultural crops and livestock in areas adjoining the forests.
• The Uttar Pradesh government has given approval to bring man-animal conflict under listed
disasters in the State Disaster Response Fund to ensure better coordination and relief during such
incidents.
✍Way Forward
• All efforts should be concentrated to expand elephant corridors by adopting models consisting of
the acquisition of lands using private funds and their transfer to the government.
• Adopting the approach in which human interference comes to minimise the effect in the
pathways of elephants is more a conservation imperative.
• Sensitization and awareness among people at large are necessary to stop poaching and illegal
trades.
• Technologies such as Drones and satellites could be used for better monitoring throughout the
corridors.
30.11 CITES:
• CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
is an international agreement between governments.
• Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten their survival.
• The CITES Secretariat is administered by UNEP (The United Nations Environment Programme)
and is located at Geneva, Switzerland.
• There are three appendices: Appendix I, II, and III. Each denotes a different level of protection
from trade.
• Appendix I– Species that are in danger of extinction because of international trade.
• Appendix II- species that aren’t facing imminent extinction but need monitoring to ensure that
trade doesn’t become a threat.
• Appendix III- species that are protected in at least one country, when that country asks others for
help in regulating the trade.
• States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention (‘joined’ CITES) are known as Parties.
• Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties – in other words, they have to implement the
Convention – it does not take the place of national laws.
🔢With reference to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resource
(IUCN) and the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), which of the following statements is/are correct ? (UPSC CSE 2015)
1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nation and CITES is an international agreement between
governments.
2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the world to better manage natural
environments.
3. CITES is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this Convention does not
take the place of national laws.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3only (c) 1 and 3only (d) 1, 2 and 3
⇒Migratory Bird Day observed on May 9. The theme of World Migratory Bird Day 2020 is
“Birds Connect Our World”.
⇒ Uttarakhand forest department has developed the country’s first lichen park in Munsiyari,
Uttarakhand. Lichen is a composite organism that emerges from algae or cyanobacteria living
among the filaments of the fungi, living in a symbiotic relationship. In local parlance, these are
called “jhula” or “pathar ke phool” .
31 Other Conservation Effort
31.1 🦁Asiatic Lion Conservation Project

● It was launched in 2018 with an aim to protect and conserve the world’s last ranging free
population of Asiatic Lion and its associated ecosystem.
● It will strengthen the ongoing measures for conservation and recovery of Asiatic Lion with the
help of state-of-the-art techniques/ instruments, regular scientific research studies, disease
management, and modern surveillance/ patrolling techniques.
31.1.1 🦁 Asiatic Lions

● With timely and stringent protection offered by the State Government and the Center
Government, Asiatic lions have increased to the current population of over 500 numbers.
● The last census in the year 2015 showed the population of 523 Asiatic Lions in Gir Protected
Area Network. The census is conducted once every five years. The first Lion Census was
conducted by the Nawab of Junagadh in 1936; since 1965, the Forest Department has been
regularly conducting the Lion Census every five years.
● What is the Block counting method? ⇒ India uses this method to estimate the numbers. In this
method, census enumerators remain stationed at water points in a given block and estimate the
abundance of lions in that block, based on direct sighting of lions who need to drink water at least
once in 24 hours during the summer.
⇒ Recently the Gujarat government is not in favour of translocating lions to Madhya Pradesh
(MP). In 2013, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of creating a second home for them by
translocating a few of them to Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in MP.
31.2 🐤Vulture Conservation

● India has nine species of vultures in the wild:
1. Oriental White-backed Vulture
2. Slender billed Vulture
3. Long billed Vulture
4. Egyptian Vulture
5. Red Headed Vulture

6. Indian Griffon Vulture
7. Himalayan Griffon
8. Cinereous Vulture
9. Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier Vulture Conservation
● The population of three species i.e. White-backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long
billed Vulture in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade.
● These species are ‘Critically Endangered’ (CR) under IUCN criteria.
31.2.1 Causes of population decline ⏬:

1. Main reason is the intake of Diclofenac sodium, an anti-inflammatory drug.
2. Diclofenac administered to animals=> carcass eaten by vultures => kidney failure=> neck
drooping=> death
3. Meloxicam is suggested as a better and safe alternative to Diclofenac.
1. The Vulture Breeding and Conservation Centre has been established at Pinjore, Haryana;
Guwahati, Assam; and at Buxa, WestBengal.
2. Vulture Safety Zones (VSZs): Natural habitat of wild vultures free from diclofenac infected
carcasses; VSZs declared in Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, UP, Gujarat etc.
3. Vulture Restaurants: Opened in Maharashtra and Punjab; vultures are fed diclofenac free
carcasses sourced from local people who are also involved in the conservation
4. Captive breeding centres at Zoos at Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Junagarh and Hyderabad have also
been set up through Central Zoo Authority.
5. Initiatives have been taken to strengthen mass education and awareness for vulture conservation.
31.2.2 🐤 VULTURE ACTION PLAN 2020-25

- Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) launched
the ‘Vulture Action Plan 2020-25’ for the conservation of vultures in India.
- Conservation of Vulture 2006→ new plan now extends the project to 2025 to not just halt
the decline but to actively increase the vulture numbers.
31.3 🦏Rhino Conservation

● Rhinoceros are shapers of their landscape and environment.
● They are a keystone species- known to have a disproportionately large impact on its environment
relative to its population.
● The habitat of the Indian rhino once extended from Pakistan into northern India and modern-day
Myanmar, reaching into Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan.
● In India, rhinos can now be found in parts of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam.
● In 2012, more than 91 per cent of Indian rhinos lived in Assam, according to WWF-India data.
● Within Assam, rhinos are concentrated within Kaziranga national park, with a few in Pobitora
wildlife sanctuary.
31.3.1 🦏 Indian Rhino Vision- 2020

● Launched under a partnership of Assam govt., International Rhino Foundation, WWF for Nature,
the Bodoland Territorial Council, and the U.S. Fish & World Wildlife foundation.
● Aim: Increase Rhino population to 3000 by 2020 in seven protected areas of Assam.
● Translocating rhinos after trimming their horns from two source populations (Kaziranga and
Pobitora) into five target protected areas (Manas, Laokhowa, Buracharpori-Kochmora, Dibru
Saikhowa and Orange).
● It will save Rhinos from poaching and epidemics e.g. floods, epidemics in Kaziranga and reduce
pressure on a single protected area.
● Rhinos in Pobitora have exceeded carrying capacity and they must be translocated to protect the
habitat and reduce man-rhino conflicts.
31.4 🐆Snow Leopard Conservation

● Listed on the IUCN red list of threatened species.
● Snow Leopard is found in 12 countries. They are India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
● In India, they inhabit the higher Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan landscape.
31.4.1 🐆Project Snow Leopard

● Launched in 2009.
● Project is operational in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and
Arunachal Pradesh.
● It aims at promoting a knowledge-based and adaptive conservation framework that fully
involves the local communities, who share the snow leopard’s range, in conservation efforts.
● It will reduce existing anthropogenic pressures on natural resources and promote conservation
education. Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Program (GSLEP)
● It is a high level intergovernmental alliance of all the 12 snow leopard range countries.
● GSLEP seeks to address high-mountain development issues using the conservation of the
charismatic and endangered snow leopard as a flagship.
•The GSLEP is a high-level inter-governmental alliance of all the 12 snow leopard range countries.
• The snow leopard countries namely, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
•It majorly focuses on the need for awareness and understanding of the value of Snow Leopard for
the ecosystem.
•The GSLEP Program (2019) is being organized by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change at New Delhi.
•Currently, the Steering Committee meeting of GSLEP is chaired by Nepal and co-chaired by
Kyrgyzstan.
⇒ PPP in Leopard rehab: Mukesh Ambani's private zoo @Jamnagar, Guj- "Green zoological
rescue & Rehabilitation Kingdom" to use Reliance’s profits → CSR → sheltering captured leopards
in 250 acre.
⇒ International Snow Leopard Day is observed on 23rd October to raise awareness on protection
of snow leopards. International Snow Leopard Day came into being on October 23, 2013, when 12
countries came together for the first time to endorse the ‘Bishkek Declaration’ on the conservation
of snow leopards. The 12 countries included India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The Global Snow
Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP) was also launched on this day to address
high-mountain development issues using conservation of the snow leopard as a flagship.
● Madagascar chameleon species 'Brookesia nana': World's smallest reptile discovered. One
theory behind species size- Small island species tend to get smaller.
● Environment ministry portal Parivesh- people told to Voluntarily disclose ownership of

Exotic pets like iguana, snakes, turtles,civet cat, macaws, gibbon, crocodiles, pygmy falcons etc by
31/12/2020, then immunity from prosecution.
● Uttarakhand Ecobridge in Nainital jungle to help the reptiles Cross Road during traffic.
● Eco bridges/Eco-Ducts to help the wildlife animals, apes and reptiles to cross highways in
Uttarakhand.
⇒ India's first snow leopard conservation centre will be established in Uttarakhand.
31.5 🐱‍Sea Turtle Project

31.5.1 Context
• Olive Ridley turtle visits Indian coasts during winter for hatching.
• MoEFCC in collaboration with UNDP started the project in 1999.
• Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun is the implementation agency.
31.5.2 Efforts
• Vulnerable in IUCN Red List and is listed in Appendix I of CITES.

• The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS) in Andhra Pradesh is committed to the protection of Olive
Ridley turtles.
• Yanadi tribes are directly involved in the conservation bid.
31.6 🐱‍🐉Crocodile Conservation Project

8.8.1 Context
• The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project was launched in 1975 in different States.
• It has taken the once threatened crocodilians back from the verge of extinction and set them on a
sound recovery path.
• Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute in Hyderabad was set up to
increase the number of qualified staff for the project's long-term success by providing training at
project sites.
8.8.2 Efforts
• Creating sanctuaries to preserve the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat.
• Gharial is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
• Captive breeding of crocodilian species is established at Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa.
• National Chambal Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh protects Critically Endangered Gharial species
31.7 🦌Project Hangul

31.7.1 Context
• The Kashmir stag, also known as the Hangul, is a subspecies of the Central Asian Red Deer that is
native to northern India and is the state animal of Jammu and Kashmir (now UT).
• At an elevation of 3,035 metres, it can be found in Dachigam National Park.
• The project started in the 1970s.
31.7.2 Efforts
• The UT of Jammu and Kashmir, in collaboration with the IUCN and the WWF, established a
project to protect these animals.
• Population increased to over 340 by 1980 from 150 in 1970.
31.8 🐬Dolphin Observatory

- The Bihar government is setting up India’s first observatory for the Gangetic dolphins in
Bhagalpur district.
- The observatory is constructed at Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (VGDS).
- Observatory will aim to promote eco-tourism.
- There would be no adverse impact on the river’s ecology as the observatory is being
constructed on a Sultanganj-Aguwani Ghat bridge over the Ganga.
- Gangaetic dolphin → IUCN Status: Endangered → They prefer deep waters, in and
around the confluence of rivers. They can only live in freshwater and are essentially blind
→ They are a reliable indicator of the health of the entire river ecosystem → It is also a
National Aquatic Animal of India.
31.9 😻FISHING CAT

- The Chilika Development Authority (CDA) designated the Fishing Cat as ambassador of
Chilika Lake, Odisha in a step towards conservation of the feline species.
- IUCN: Vulnerable
31.10 🐥GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (GIB)

- It is reported that the Union Ministry of Power (MoP) and the Rajasthan government
have rejected Wildlife Institute of India (WII) proposal to put all power transmission lines
passing through GIB habitat underground.
- IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
31.11 🐆AFRICAN CHEETAH REINTRODUCTION

- Wildlife Institute of India (WII) experts evaluated sites in Madhya Pradesh for African
cheetah reintroduction.
- Experts looked for the best habitat based on prey base, safety and topography.
- Cheetah was declared extinct in India in 1952.
- Shortlisted sites include Kuno Palpur sanctuary, Nauradehi sanctuary, Gandhi Sagar
sanctuary and Madhav National Park (all lying in Madhya Pradesh).
- In 2010, a central government expert panel recommended KunoPalpur, Velavadar
National Park (Gujarat) and Tal Chapar sanctuary (Rajasthan) for reintroducing Cheetah.
- KunoPalpur was the preferred location. It was also the place prepared by MP to house
Asiatic lions.
- However in 2013, Supreme Court quashed plans for introducing African cheetahs to
KunoPalpur citing reasons like possible conflict with a parallel project to introduce lions
at the same site, lack of prey base, man animal conflict etc.
- SC left the decision for relocation of the African cheetah National Tiger Conservation
Authority’s discretion to be taken after a proper survey and the action of introduction of
the animal.
- The Central government revived the plan in 2017.
- In January 2020, SC set up a three-member committee to guide the National Tiger
Conservation Authority in taking decisions for relocation after a proper survey.
- IUCN status: African Cheetah- Vulnerable and Asiatic Cheetah – Critically endangered.
- Asiatic cheetahs are much stronger and faster than African cheetahs.
31.12 Misc. topic→Houbara Bustard:
1) North Africa 2) Asia → Pakistan, India. Earlier PakSC banned the hunting but then lifted it
since Pak Govt argued 1) Arab Princes pay money 2) Required to keep good relations with
Middle East Nations.
31.13 Misc. topic→Lesser Flamingo birds'
nesting site Little Rann of Kutch (LRK).

Greater Flamingo birds' Great Rann of Kutch (GRK/Anda Bet).
Although Lesser Flamingos also nest in the Great Rann of Kutch nowadays.
Mock Question
Q. Along with the climatic threat human-wildlife conflict cannot be ignored for the rapid decline
of the animal population, critically examine.
Pillar_4A1_Pollution
40 Pollution 166
40.1 Definition 166
5.2 Classification of Pollutants 166
40.3 Air pollution 167
40.3.1 Major Gaseous Air Pollutants 168
40.3.2 Biological pollutants 172
40.3.3 Prevention and Control of Air Pollution 174
40.3.4 Steps Taken to Control Vehicular Pollution 176
40.3.5 Effects of Air Pollution: 178
• Acid Rain – Acidification 178
40.3.6 Programmes 180
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 180
National Air Quality Index (AQI) 181
National Clean Air Programme 183
Central Pollution Control Board 184
The Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986 186
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) 188
WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit) 189
Misc. topic→ Stubble Burning 190
40.3.7 DECARBONISING TRANSPORT 190
40.3.6 Misc. Topic→ INDOOR AIR POLLUTION 193
40.4 Water Pollution 194
40.4.1 Definition 194
40.4.2 Sources of water pollution 194
40.4.3 Effects of Water Pollution 198
40.4.4 Legal measures to control water pollution: 203
● The Water Act (1974), the Water Cess Act (1977 and 1988), and the
Environment (Protection) Act or EPA (1986) 203
● The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 203
● The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 204
● Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 204
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar 4A1 Pollution → Page 165
● Smart cities mission: 204

● National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) Ministry of Jal Shakti 204
● National Mission for clean Ganga 2011 205
● Namami Gange Programme 205
40.5 Soil Pollution 207
40.5.1 Causes and Sources of Soil Pollution 207
40.5.2 Effects of Soil pollution 209
40.5.3 ✍Way forward 209
40.6 Noise Pollution 210
40.6.1 What is the noise level? 210
40.6.2 Ambient Noise Level Monitoring 210
40.6.3 Control of Noise pollution 211
40.6.4 Permissible noise level in India 211
40.6.5 Laws 211
40.7 Radioactive Pollution 212
40.7.1 Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations 213
40.7.2 Impact on birds 214
40 Pollution
40.1 Definition
• Pollution may be defined as the addition of undesirable material into the environment as a
result of human activities. The agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants.
5.2 Classification of Pollutants
I. According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment.
• Primary pollutants: These are persistent in the form in which they are added to the
environment, e.g. DDT, plastic, CO, CO2 , oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, etc.
• Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants. For
example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons
II. According to their existence in nature
• Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and become pollutants when their
concentration reaches beyond a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
• Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and are human made. E.g. fungicides,
herbicides, DDT etc.
III. In terms of ecosystem, the pollutants can be classified into two basic groups:
(a) Non-degradable Pollutants: These are not broken down by natural processes like the action
of microbes. Most of these Mutants get accumulated in the environment and also get biologically
magnified as these move along the food chains in an under-composed state. These may also react
with other compounds in the environment to produce toxins. These can be further subdivided
into two more classes:
(i) Waste: e.g. glass, plastic, phenolic, aluminum cans etc.
(ii) Poisons: e.g. radio-active substances, pesticides, smog gases, heavy metals like mercury, lead
and their salts.
(b) Degradable pollutants or Bio-degradable Pollutants (Odum 1971): These are natural
organic substances which can be decomposed, removed or consumed and thus, reduced to
acceptable levels either by natural processes like biological or microbial action or by some
engineered systems, like sewage treatment plants.
40.3 Air pollution
● Air is said to be polluted when certain solid, liquid or gaseous substances (pollutants) present
in the atmosphere directly or indirectly harm living organisms, property and environment.
● Air pollution is the world’s single greatest environmental risk to health.
● Air pollution is said to cause roughly 7 million deaths annually.
40.3.1 Major Gaseous Air Pollutants
⦁ Carbon monoxide (CO)

• Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and highly toxic gas that is slightly
less dense than air. It is short-lived (stay only a few months) in the atmosphere.
• Carbon monoxide is produced from the exhaust of internal combustion engines and incomplete
combustion of various other fuels. Iron smelting also produces carbon monoxide as a by-product.
• It forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
• In the presence of oxygen, carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame, producing carbon
dioxide.
• Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms of combustion.
The majority of tropospheric ozone formation occurs when nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), react in the atmosphere in the
presence of sunlight, specifically the UV spectrum. NOx, CO, and VOCs are considered ozone
precursors.
The general equation is: CxHyO3 + NO2 →

CxHyO3NO2
→ Health Effects
• It is toxic to haemoglobin animals (including
humans) when encountered in concentrations
above about 35 ppm.
• It combines with haemoglobin to produce
carboxyhemoglobin, which usurps the space in haemoglobin that normally carries oxygen.
⦁ Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
• Colourless and odourless gas. It is heavier
than air.
• Natural sources include volcanoes, hot
springs and geysers, and it is freed from
carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and
acids.
• Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water,
it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers and
lakes, in ice caps and glaciers and also in
seawater. .
→ Effects on Health
• CO2 is an asphyxiant gas (asphyxia: a condition arising when the body is deprived of oxygen,
causing unconsciousness or death.).
• Concentrations of 7% may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen,
manifesting as dizziness, headache, and unconsciousness.
→ Effects on Environment
• Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas.
• Burning of carbon-based fuels since the industrial revolution has led to global warming.
• It is also a major cause of ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid. H₂CO₃
⦁ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used in

refrigerators, air conditioners and aerosol sprays.
⦁ Ozone (O3 )
• It occurs naturally in the stratosphere and absorbs
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
• However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant
(Greenhouse gas) with highly toxic effects.
• Vehicles and industries are the major sources of
ground-level ozone emissions.
• Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen dioxide play a major role in converting O2 to O3 .
• Ozone makes our eyes itchy, and watery. It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia.
⦁ Nitrogen oxide (NOx )
• NOx is a generic term for the various nitrogen oxides produced during combustion.
• They are produced mainly in internal combustion engines and coal-burning power plants.
• They are also produced naturally by lightning. Oxygen and nitrogen do not react at ambient
temperatures. But at high temperatures, they produce various oxides of nitrogen. Such
temperatures arise inside an internal combustion engine or a power station boiler.
• Agricultural fertilisation and the use of nitrogen-fixing plants also contribute to atmospheric
NOx , by promoting nitrogen fixation by microorganisms.
• NO and NO2 (contribute to global cooling) should not be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O –
GHG), which is a greenhouse gas ..
→ Effects on Health and Environment
• NOx gases react to form smog and acid rain as well as being central to the formation of
tropospheric ozone
• When NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, they
form photochemical smog. .
⦁ Sulphur dioxide (SO2 )
• It is a toxic gas with a pungent, irritating smell. It contributes to acid rain.
• It is released naturally by volcanic activity. It is abundantly available in the atmosphere of
Venus.
• Sulphur dioxide is primarily produced for sulfuric acid manufacture.
• Inhaling sulphur dioxide is associated with increased respiratory symptoms and premature
death.
• It also weakens the functioning of certain nerves.
• It is also produced by
✓ burning coal in thermal power plants and diesel fuels.
✓ some industrial processes, such as the production of paper and smelting of metals.
✓ reactions involving Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) and oxygen.
✓ The roasting of sulphide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulphide).
⦁ Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are a large group of carbon-based chemicals that easily
evaporate at room temperature.
• For example, formaldehyde, which evaporates from paint, has a boiling point of only –19 °C.
• Formaldehyde causes irritation to the eyes and nose and allergies.
• The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth
repellents, wood preservatives, and other products.
→ Health effects: irritation of the eye, nose and throat, headaches, nausea and loss of
coordination.
→ Long term health effects: suspected to damage the liver and other parts of the body.
⦁ Benzene
• Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals.
• It is an important component of gasoline (petrol).
• Benzene increases the risk of cancer and other illnesses.
• Benzene is a notorious cause of bone marrow failure.
⦁ Ethylene
• Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry.
• Much of this production goes toward polyethylene.
• Ethylene is also an important natural plant hormone, used in agriculture to force the ripening of
fruits.
• Ethylene is of low toxicity to humans and exposure to excess ethylene causes adverse health
effects like headache, drowsiness, dizziness and unconsciousness.
• Ethylene is not but ethylene oxide is a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). C ₂H ₄
40.3.2 Biological pollutants
• It includes pollen from plants, mites, and hair from pets, fungi, parasites, and some bacteria.
• Most of them are allergens and can cause asthma, hay fever, and other allergic diseases.
⦁ Asbestos
• Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally occurring silicate fibrous minerals –– chrysotile,
crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite.
• It is now known that prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibres can cause serious and fatal
illnesses including lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).
⦁ Radon
• It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil.
• Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined inside the house and causes lung
cancers.
⦁ Particulate pollutants
• Particulate pollutants are matter suspended in air such as dust and soot.
• Major sources of SPM (suspended particulate
matter) are industries, vehicles, power plants,
construction activities, oil refinery, railway yard,
market place, industries, etc.
• Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500
micrometres (µm) in diameter.
✓ Particles less than 10 µm float and move
freely with the air current. Particles which are
more than 10 µm in diameter settle down.
✓ Particles less than 0.02 µm form persistent
aerosols.
• According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), particulates size 2.5 µm or less in
diameter (PM 2.5) are responsible for causing the greatest harm to human health.
• These fine particulates can be inhaled deep into the lungs and can cause breathing and
respiratory symptoms, irritation, inflammations and pneumoconiosis (disease of the lungs caused
due to inhalation of dust. It is characterised by inflammation, coughing, and fibrosis – excess
deposition of fibrous tissue).
⦁ Fly ash
• Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plants as by-products of coal burning operations.
• Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies.
• Fly ash affects crops and vegetation as a result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces.
→ Composition
• Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and
magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper.
• Major oxides present are aluminium silicate (in large amounts), silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) and
calcium oxide (CaO).
→ Uses
• Cement can be replaced by fly ash up to 35%, thus reducing the cost of construction, making
roads, etc.
• Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer high strength and durability.
• Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments and in concrete roads.
• Fly ash can be used in the reclamation of wastelands.
• Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
• Fly ash can increase crop yield when added to the soil. But if it gets deposited on the leaf, it
will reduce photosynthesis.
• It also enhances the water holding capacity of the land.
⦁ Lead
• It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc.
• It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
• Lead affects children in particular.
• Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as an anti-knock agent in petrol for a smooth and easy running of
vehicles.
• The lead particles coming out from the exhaust pipes of vehicles are mixed with air.
• It produces injurious effects on the kidney and liver and interferes with the development of red
blood cells. • Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning.
• It has long term effects on children as it lowers intelligence.
40.3.3 Prevention and Control of Air Pollution
→ Control of Industrial Pollution

• Industrial pollution can be greatly reduced by: ✓ use of cleaner fuels such as liquefied natural
gas (LNG) in power plants, fertiliser plants etc. which is cheaper in addition to being
environmentally friendly.
✓ installing devices which reduce the release of pollutants.
• Devices like filters, electrostatic precipitators.
⦁ Filters
• Filters remove particulate matter from the gas stream.
• Baghouse filtration system is the most common one and is made of cotton or synthetic fibres
(for low temperatures) or glass cloth fabrics (for higher temperature up to 2900C).
⦁ Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
• Electrostatic precipitation can remove over 99 per cent particulate matter present in the exhaust.
• The emanating dust is charged with ions, and the ionised particulate matter is collected on an
oppositely charged surface.
⦁ Working
• An electrostatic precipitator has electrode wires that are maintained at several thousand volts,
which produce a corona that releases electrons.
• These electrons attach to dust particles giving them a net negative charge. The collecting plates
are grounded (relatively positive charge) and attract the charged dust particles.
• ESPs are used in boilers, furnaces, and many other units of thermal power plants, cement
factories, steel plants, etc.
⦁ Catalytic converter
• Catalytic converters, having expensive metals namely platinum palladium and rhodium as the
catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing the emission of poisonous gases.
• As the exhaust passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are converted into
carbon dioxide and water, and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to carbon dioxide
and nitrogen gas, respectively.
• Motor vehicles equipped with catalytic converters should use unleaded petrol because the lead
in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Apart from the use of the above mentioned devices, other control measures are:
• increasing the height of chimneys.
• closing industries which pollute the environment.
• shifting of polluting industries away from cities and heavily populated areas. development and
maintenance of a green belt of adequate width.
⇒ Mar,2021-Flex Engine / flexible-fuel vehicle / dual-fuel / Alternative fuel engine: Capable
of using traditional Petrol/diesel, as well as alternative fuels such as ethanol and methanol. The
Highway Minister told Indian automakers to focus on this.
40.3.4 Steps Taken to Control Vehicular Pollution
• Earlier lead in the form of tetraethyl lead was added in the petrol to raise octane level for the
smooth running of engines. Addition of lead in petrol has been banned to prevent the emission of
lead particles.
• Usage of alternative fuels like CNG in public transport vehicles is made mandatory in cities
like Delhi. All the buses of Delhi were converted to run on CNG by the end of 2002.
• Simultaneously parallel steps taken in Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution include phasing
out of old vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low sulphur petrol and diesel, use of catalytic
converters in vehicles, application of stringent pollution-level norms for vehicles, etc.
⦁ BS VI from 2020
• From April 2017, BS IV norms are applicable nationwide.
• October 2018: Supreme Court ordered a ban on the sale of Bharat Stage IV vehicles from April
1, 2020.
• The central government had announced the April 1, 2020 deadline for adopting Bharat Stage
VI emission norms by manufacturers.
⇒ Bharat Stage (BS) norms
• The BS norms are instituted by the government to regulate the emission of air pollutants from
motor vehicles.
• The norms were introduced in 2000.
• The norms limit the release of air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, particulate matter (PM) and sulphur oxides from vehicles using internal
combustion engines.
• The norms are meant to be adopted by using appropriate fuel and technology.
• As the stage goes up, the control of emissions becomes stricter.
• BS IV and BS VI norms are based on similar norms in Europe called Euro 4 and Euro 6.
⇒ Jan-2021- Vehicle pollution: Corporate Average Fuel efficiency (CAFE-2) regulations
from 2022 & BS-VI stage-II norms from Apr 2023. Automobile companies want the government
to defer the deadlines to 2024 to cover up the losses in Corona.
⦁ Differences between BS IV and BS VI
• The extent of sulphur is the major difference between Bharat Stage IV and Bharat Stage VI
norms.
• BS-IV fuels contain 50 parts per million (ppm) sulphur; the BS-VI grade fuel only has 10 ppm
sulphur.
• BS VI can bring
✓ PM in diesel cars fell by 80 per cent.
✓ nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70 per cent and petrol cars by 25 per cent.
• BS VI also makes onboard diagnostics (OBD) mandatory for all vehicles.
• RDE (Real Driving Emission) will be introduced for the first time that will measure the
emission in real-world conditions and not just under test conditions.
⇒ Jan,2021- REGULATION OF CAFE-2 AND BS-VI STAGE II NORMS- The automobile
industry has requested the government to defer the implementation of Corporate Average Fuel
Efficiency (CAFE-2) regulations and BS-VI stage II norms to April 2024, due to the impact of
the lockdown measures. The central government has mandated that vehicle makers must
manufacture, sell and register only BS-VI (BS6) vehicles from 1st April 2020.
⦁ Impact
• Compliance requires a higher investment in technology to make new vehicles.
• Upgrading vehicles in stock is an additional burden for the manufacturers.
• BS Vi-compliant vehicles will be expensive.
• BS VI-compliant fuel too will be more expensive.
40.3.5 Effects of Air Pollution:
• Acid Rain – Acidification
• Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than normal (pH
of less than 5.6. pH below 7 is acidic).
• Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen emitted from the burning of fossil fuels.
• It is also recognized that acidic smog, fog, mist, move out of the atmosphere and settle on dust
particles which in turn accumulate on vegetation as acid depositions.
• When rain falls, the acid from these depositions leak and form acid dews.
⇒ Mar-2020- Mud (clay) packs have been one of the ASI’s favoured ways to remove the yellow
stains that have appeared over the years on the Taj Mahal’s white marble facade. The white
marble, which had first become yellowish, was now turning brownish and greenish.
SIDE NOTE: Factors behind discolouration of the Taj Mahal
• The depositions on the Taj Mahal are black carbon, brown carbon, and dust. The brown carbon
was emitted through the burning of biomass and garbage. The black carbon results from
vehicular pollution.
• The polluted Yamuna river, which flows behind the Taj has nil aquatic life. Absence of aquatic
life in the Yamuna has caused insect and algae infestation on the Taj Mahal and other monuments
situated on its banks.
• Oxidation of marble leads to the browning of these minerals contained in the marble. If iron is
present in the marble tile, it will begin to oxidize when exposed to water or other oxidizers such
as acids and household bleach.
• Acid rain corrodes the marble and causes yellowishness. Rain also slowly weathers the marble
causing cracks.
• Agra lies in a semi-arid zone with the temperatures reaching 50 degrees Celsius. The hot dusty
winds have a highly abrasive effect on the monument in the absence of a tree barrier.
→ Types of Acid Deposition
• "Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (a form of
deposition material) from the atmosphere.
→ Wet Deposition
• If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids can fall
to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
• As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and
animals.
→ Dry Deposition
• In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust or
smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings,
vegetation, cars, etc.
→ Effects on humans
• Bad smells, reduced visibility; irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory tract.
• Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and cancer.
→ Effects on soil
• The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutrient cations like potassium and magnesium in
the soil cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil infertile.
→ Effects on aquatic life
• Eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH changes.
• Acidic lake waters may kill microbes and turn them unproductive.
→ Effect on terrestrial life
• Acidic medium promotes leaching of heavy metals like aluminium, lead and mercury. Such
metals when percolate into ground water affect soil micro flora/fauna.
• Other indirect effects of acid rain on wildlife are loss or alteration of food and habitat resources.
→ Effects on microorganisms
• pH determines the proliferation of any microbial species.
• The optimum pH of most bacteria and protozoa is near neutrality.

• Most fungi prefer an acidic environment.
• Most blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline environment.
• So, microbial species in the soil and water shift from bacteria bound to fungi-bound.
• This causes a delay in the decomposition of soil organic material.
→ Effect on buildings, monuments and materials
• Many old, historical, ancient buildings and works of art/textile etc. are adversely affected by
acid rain.
• Limestone and marble are destroyed by acid rain. Smoke and soot cover such objects..
• Many buildings/monuments such as Taj Mahal in Agra have suffered from acid rain (Marble
Cancer).
→ Acid Rain Areas
• They are concentrated in the industrialised belt of the northern hemisphere.
• Scandinavia, Canada, the Northeast United States and North-western Europe.
→ In India
• In India, the first report of acid rain came from Bombay in 1974.
• Instances of acid rain are being reported from metropolitan cities.
• Lowering of soil pH is reported from north-eastern India, coastal Karnataka and Kerala, parts
of Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar.
→ Acid Rain Control
• Use of low sulphur fuel or natural gas or washed coal (chemical washing of pulverised coal) in
thermal plants can reduce incidences of acid rain.
• Buffering: the practice of adding a neutralising agent to the acidified water to increase the pH.
Usually, lime in the form of calcium oxide and calcium carbonate is used
40.3.6 Programmes
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding us in the outdoors.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards are the standards for ambient air quality set by the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) that are applicable nationwide. The CPCB has been
conferred this power by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The NAAQS
have been revisited and revised in November 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include
• sulphur dioxide (SO2 ),
• nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ),
• particulate matter having micron (PM10),
• particulate matter having a size less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5),
• ozone,
• lead,
• carbon monoxide (CO),
• arsenic,
• nickel,
• benzene,
• ammonia, and
• benzopyrene.
National Air Quality Index (AQI)
• Launched by the Environment Ministry in

April 2015.
• Initiative under ‘Swachh Bharat’.
→ AQI
• It helps the common man to judge the air
quality within his vicinity.
• Index constituted as a part of the
Government’s mission to improve the culture of
cleanliness.
→ Old vs new
• While the earlier measuring index was limited to three indicators, the current measurement
index has been made quite comprehensive by the addition of more parameters.
→ Previously who measured Air pollution
• Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution Control Boards have been operating
the National Air Monitoring Program (NAMP).
→ Why is AQI necessary?

• Quality of data from some cities remains weak, and the standards set for pollutants fall short of
World Health Organization recommendations.
• The pollution related analysis using a vast number of complex parameters was complicated for
the common man to understand.
→ Categories of air pollution under AQI
• There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor,
and Severe.
⦁ Pollutants considered
• The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10,

PM2.5, NO2 , SO2 , CO, O3 , NH3 , and Pb).
• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
● Aims for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
● Establishes Boards at the Central and State levels.
● For better monitoring of air pollution, ambient air quality standards were established. The Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
● The Air Act prohibits the use of polluting fuels and substances and regulates the use of
appliances that give rise to air pollution.
● It empowers the State Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to declare any area or
areas within the State as air pollution control areas or areas.
● Establishing or operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires consent
from SPCBs
National Clean Air Programme
● It was launched by the Ministry of Environment and Forests recently.

● It was launched by the MoEFCC in January 2019.
● It provides a framework for the Centre and the states to combat air pollution.
● NCAP has a goal to meet the prescribed annual average ambient air quality standards at all
locations in the country in a stipulated time frame.
● It has been launched to cut down particulate matter by 20-30% in at least 102 cities by 2024.
→ Need for NCAP
● Cities occupy just 3% of the land, but contribute to 82% of GDP.
● They are also responsible for 78% of Carbon dioxide emissions.
● Though cities are engines of growth and equity, they have to be sustainable.
● NCAP has been launched as an inclusive program to reduce pollution and make cities
sustainable.
→ Features of NCAP
● The national level target of 20%–30% reduction of PM2.5 and PM10 concentration by 2024 is
proposed under the NCAP taking 2017 as the base year for the comparison of concentration.
● NCAP is a mid-term, five-year action plan with 2019 as the first year.
● There are 102 non-attainment cities identified for implementing mitigation actions under
NCAP.
● For each of these cities, a city specific action plan is being made.
● Cities have already prepared action plans in consultation with the Central Pollution Control
Board.
● Smart Cities program will be used to launch NCAP in the 43 smart cities falling in the list of
the 102 non-attainment cities.
● NCAP will be evolved based on the evolving scientific and technical information.
● In addition, the following would be constituted for effective implementation of NCAP
○ Sectoral working groups
○ National level Project Monitoring Unit
○ Project Implementation Unit
○ State level project monitoring unit
○ City level review committee under the Municipal Commissioner
○ DM level Committee in the Districts

● Other features of NCAP include,
○ increasing number of monitoring stations in the country including rural monitoring
stations,
○ technology support,
○ emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives,
○ setting up of certification agencies for monitoring equipment,
○ source apportionment studies,
○ emphasis on enforcement,
○ specific sectoral interventions etc.
• State of Global Air 2020: HEI State of Global Air 2020 (SoGA 2020) has been released by
the Health Effects Institute (HEI).
• It highlights that air pollution is the largest risk factor for death among all health risks and it is
the first-ever comprehensive analysis of air pollution’s global impact on newborns.
• HEI is an independent, nonprofit research institute funded jointly by the USA’s Environmental
Protection Agency and others.
→ Key Points
•India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal are among the top ten countries with the highest PM2.5
(particulate matter) exposures in 2019 and all of these countries experienced increases in outdoor
PM2.5 levels between 2010 and 2019.
•India is also among the top ten countries with highest ozone (O3 ) exposure in 2019. Also,
among the 20 most populous countries, India recorded the highest increase (17%) in O3
concentrations in the past ten years.
•Long-term exposure to outdoor and household (indoor) air pollution contributed to over 1.67
million annual deaths from stroke, heart attack, diabetes, lung cancer, chronic lung diseases, and
neonatal diseases, in India in 2019.
Central Pollution Control Board
● Statutory organisation under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC).
● It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
● Also derives its powers from the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
● Apex organisation in the country to control pollution.
→ Functions of CPCB:
● Coordinates the activities of the State Pollution Control Boards
● Conducts environmental assessments and research.
● Maintains national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with zonal
offices, tribal, and local governments.
● Monitors water and air quality, and maintains monitoring data under National Air Quality
Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
● Advises the central government to prevent and control water and air pollution.
⇒ 2020-November-Indo-Gangetic plain = most Polluted region in the India& world!-CPCB
⇒ Mar-2020-The Supreme Court has declined to intervene in an appeal filed by the CREDAI’s
Kerala chapter against the NGT’s ruling that sided with Kerala State Pollution Control Board’s
decision to place constructions between 2,000 sq.m and 20,000 sq.m in the orange category.
→The Categorisation of Industries The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) has developed the criteria of categorization of industrial sectors based on the
Pollution Index.
• Pollution Index is a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents (water pollutants),
hazardous wastes generated and consumption of resources.
• The Pollution Index PI of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing
value of PI denotes the increasing degree of pollution load from the industrial sector. The
following criteria on the Range of Pollution Index for the purpose of categorization of industrial
sectors is finalized.
• Red category - Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above
• Orange category - Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59
• Green category - Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40
• White category - Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score including & upto 20
→Significance
• It has been termed as a landmark decision to give a fair picture of the industries.
• The old system of categorization was creating problems for many industries and was not
reflecting the pollution of the industries.
• The purpose of the categorization is to ensure that the industry is established in a manner which
is consistent with the environmental objectives.
• The new criteria will prompt industrial sectors willing to adopt cleaner technologies, ultimately
resulting in generation of fewer pollutants.
The salient features of the Re-categorization exercise are as follows;
• Due importance has been given to relative pollution potential of the industrial sectors based on
scientific criteria.
• Further, wherever possible, splitting of the industrial sectors is also considered based on the use
of raw materials, manufacturing process adopted and in-turn pollutants expected to be generated.
• Newly-introduced White category contains 36 industrial sectors which are practically
non-polluting.
• There shall be no necessity of obtaining the Consent to Operate for White category of
industries. An intimation to concerned SPCB / PCC shall suffice.
• No Red category of industries shall normally be permitted in the ecologically fragile area /
protected area.
• Another feature of the new categorization system lies in facilitating self-assessment by
industries as the subjectivity of earlier assessment has been eliminated.
• This ‘Re-categorization’ is a part of the efforts, policies and objectives of the present
government to create a clean & transparent working environment in the country and promote the
Ease of Doing Business.
→Other Similar Efforts
• Installation of Continuous Online Emissions/ Effluent Monitoring Systems in the polluting
industries
• Revisiting the CEPI (Comprehensive Environment Pollution Index) concept for assessment of
polluted industrial clusters
• Revision of existing industrial emission/effluent discharge standards, initiation of special drive
on pollution control activities in Ganga River basin.
The Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986
● EPA is an umbrella legislation that includes the Water Act, 1974 and theAir Act.
● Under the Environment Act, the Central Government can:
1. Set standards for emissions and discharges of pollution in the atmosphere by any person
carrying on an industry or activity;
2. Regulate the location of industries;
3. Look after management of hazardous wastes,
4. Empower any person to enter, inspect, take samples and test.
● From time to time, the Central Government issues notifications under the Environment Act for
the protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under the
Environment Act.
● The Act prescribes stringent penalties to the defaulters for violation of the provisions of the
Act.
● The jurisdiction of Civil Court is barred under the Act.
● Every State has to set up Green Bench Courts to attend to Public Interest Litigation (PIL) cases
concerning environmental hazards. Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority
(EPCA)
•EPCA was constituted with the objective of ‘protecting and improving’ the quality of the
environment and ‘controlling environmental pollution’ in the National Capital Region. The
EPCA also assists the apex court in various environment-related matters in the region.
•EPCA is a Supreme Court mandated body tasked with taking various measures to tackle air
pollution in the National Capital Region. It was notified in 1998 by the Environment Ministry
under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
→ Functions:
•To protect and improve the quality of the environment and prevent and control environmental
pollution in the National Capital Region.
•To enforce Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) in NCR as per the pollution levels.
Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) will implement an
emergency action plan in Delhi to tackle rising air pollution.
•The emergency plan is called the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP).
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)
•PMUY was launched in 2016 and is implemented by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
through its Oil Marketing Companies.
•Through PMUY, initially, 5 crores below poverty line (BPL) households were targeted for
providing deposit free LPG connections to BPL households by 31st March, 2019. This target has
been achieved.
SAFAR
•The System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research (SAFAR) is a national
initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) to measure the air quality of a
metropolitan city, by measuring the overall pollution level and the location-specific air quality of
the city.
•The system is indigenously developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM),
Pune and is operationalized by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
• It has a giant true color LED display that gives out real-time air quality index on a 24x7 basis
with color-coding (along with 72 hours advance forecast). The ultimate objective of the project is
to increase awareness among the general public regarding the air quality in their city so that
appropriate mitigation measures and systematic action can be taken up.
•SAFAR is an integral part of India’s first Air Quality Early Warning System operational in
Delhi. It monitors all weather parameters like temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, and
wind direction, UV radiation, and solar radiation.
•Pollutants monitored: PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx),
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, and Mercury. SAMEER App is one of the air
pollution mitigation measures which provides hourly updates on the National Air Quality Index
(AQI).
•The app is developed by the Central Pollution Control Bureau (CPCB) which provides
information on air quality for more than 100 cities across the country.
•The app represents the listed cities in a colour-coded format based on their AQI levels.
•The app can also be used to file or track complaints related to garbage dumping, road dust,
vehicular emissions or other pollution issues in a particular area.
WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit)
•The air purifying devices include WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing Unit) and
High-Efficiency Particulate Arrestance (HEPA) filters. WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing
Unit).
•It is developed to address air pollution at traffic intersections and dense traffic zones.
•It has been indigenously developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research -
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI).
•The device has the capacity to purify the air in an area of the 500-meter square. It is energy
efficient and has a low maintenance cost.
•The device works on two principles :
• Wind generation for dilution of air pollutants: It comprises a fan that sucks in air and
removes dust and particulate matter.
• Active Pollutant removal: The carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are oxidized into less
harmful carbon dioxide using activated carbon coated with titanium dioxide.
Engineered carbon removal / Direct air capture: Using Giants fans to pull carbon dioxide
from air and trap it.
Criticism: Useless-Startup-tamasha. Plant more trees, it will remove more Co2 than wasting
Electricity to run the fans.
⇒ Jan,2021-Air pollution ⏬: Information, incentives, institutions are 3 keys: World Bank. 1)
Give high-quality information to the public to generate Sensitivity against air pollution 2)
Give tax and subsidy incentives to curb air pollution 3) Collaboration among various
institutions for air pollution management strategies.
Misc. topic→ Stubble Burning
• Stubble is basically the paddy crop residue. Stubble burning is the act of setting fire to crop
residue to remove them from the field to sow the next crop.
• It is done to remove paddy crop residue from the field to sow wheat.
• It is a traditional practice in Punjab and Haryana and Western U.P.
• Stubble burning begins around October and peaks in November
40.3.7 DECARBONISING TRANSPORT
- NITI Aayog in collaboration with International Transport Forum (ITF) have jointly
launched the Decarbonising Transport in India project.
- The project is carried out in the wider context of the International Transport Forum's
Decarbonising Transport Initiative and is a part of Decarbonising Transport in Emerging
Economies family of projects, which supports transport decarbonisation across different
world regions.
- Purpose:
- Developing a pathway towards a low-carbon transport system for India. o Design a
tailor-made transport emissions assessment framework for India
- Facilitate the government with a comprehensive understanding of present as well as
future transport activities along with the related CO2 emissions.
- Transport emits around 23% of the energy related CO2 that feeds global warming.
Without immediate action, its share could reach 40% by 2030 and 60% by 2050.
- Concept of Decarbonising transport
- Decarbonisation means reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced as a result
of transport. It includes o Emissions released directly during transport o Emissions due
to related activities - for example emissions from the production of electricity used to
power a given mode. o Emissions resulting from the manufacture and/or
disposal/recycling of products and vehicles.
- Measures to achieve decarbonisation in transport sector:-
- • Pull policies that attract citizens into more efficient modes of transport such as metros,
bus rapid transit, and bicycles; emerging trends such as work from home, e-commerce etc
incentivising people to travel less.
- • Push measures that make the use of CO2 and energy intensive modes less attractive, e.g.
reduced and more expensive parking space; high taxes on fuel and polluting vehicles,
promoting electric vehicles etc.
- • Land-use policies such as Transit oriented development that enable the use of public
transit, walking and cycling by increasing accessibility on short-to-medium distances.
- • Improving Infrastructure: There is great potential for energy savings in infrastructure,
both for new and older assets. This includes escalators, lifts, building insulation, heating,
cooling, cogeneration, lighting, etc. Another example is the increasingly popular
production of renewable electricity from photovoltaic panels installed on roofs of
maintenance and parking/stabling facilities when tax or investment incentives are
available.
- • Other policies such as increasing commercial speed and reliability for public modes of
transport, such as priority at traffic lights and reserved corridors/lanes such as Dedicated
Freight Corridors.
- Government Initiative
- • Government of India has initiated several policies and initiatives for the transportation
sector with the objective of enhancing passenger mobility, improving logistics of freight
transport, increasing rail use by improving efficiency, raising the average speed,
promoting low-carbon transport, and at the same time improving energy security and
local benefits of air quality and congestion:
Roads •National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) and Faster

Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric vehicles in India
(FAME India)
• BS VI norms.
• National Policy on Biofuels, 2018
• Remodelling of roads such as widening, expressways, flyovers,
signal free movement etc. under Bharatmala Project.
• Promoting public transports such as metro rail

• High tax rates on polluting vehicles.
• Hydrogen fuel based public transport
Railways • Railway Electrification,

• Improving energy efficiency of locomotives & trains and fixed
installations, green certification for installations/stations,
• Dedicated freight corridors.
• Exploiting renewable sources of energy
• It is all set to transform itself as 'Net Zero' Carbon Emission Mass
Transportation Network by 2030
Airways AAI has recently outlined a series of major initiatives it has taken to
check depletion of ozone layer and emissions through improved air
navigation service (ANS) procedures and training. These include :
• route optimisation,
• upgrading of surveillance infrastructure,
• upper airspace harmonisation,
• continuous descent operations,
• collaborative environmental initiatives and ground efficiency
improvement programmes
• blended bio-jet fuel experiment
Waterways • Development of National Waterways.

• LNG propelled vessels
- details in Mrunal Economy Pilar#5A:Transport handout

✍Way forward
• Opportunities exist to mitigate GHG emissions from India’s transport sector and facilitate
sustainable mobility by integrating transportation policies with environment, development, and
climate change policies.
• The sustainability focus is evident in policies of the Government of India. For instance, India’s
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) highlights a mix of measures, including
higher share of public transport, penetration of biofuels, and significant improvements in vehicle
efficiency.
• Several cities are proactively initiating infrastructure investments in mass transit, urban
planning for better land use transport integration, and upgrading existing public transport. This
should be replicated in other cities also to realize the desired mitigation potential .
💼Budget-2021: Automakers to give 5% rebate on purchase of new car, If the customer gives
his old vehicle for scrapping. Benefit? 1) Phasing out of the older polluting vehicles. Hence it
will decrease air pollution 2) GDP job creation in the automobile sector.
40.3.6 Misc. Topic→ INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
- Recently, a report published in the Lancet journal highlighted that Indoor air pollution
(IAP) caused 64% fewer deaths in the last two decades (1990-2019) in India.
- IAP is the degradation of indoor air quality by harmful chemicals and other materials.
Indoor air quality is affected by many factors, including the type and running conditions
of indoor pollution sources, ventilation conditions, as well as indoor activities.
- Severity: According to the Environment Protection Act, 1986, the levels of indoor air
pollutants are often 2-5 times higher than outdoor levels. In some cases, these levels can
exceed the outdoor levels of the same pollutants 100 times. Thus, it can affect the health
of individuals more severely as people spend most of their time (more than 80%) indoors.
Initiatives:
- To save people from the ill effects of IAP, the central government has launched two
schemes ;-
- Unnat Chulha Abhiyan was launched to promote improved biomass cookstoves .
- Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana was launched for LPG connections to Below Poverty
Line families.
- Retrofit of Air-conditioning to improve Indoor Air Quality for Safety and Efficiency
(RAISE) which is a joint initiative of Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL) and
USAID.
- In September, 2010, the UN Foundation launched the Global Alliance for Clean
Cookstoves. This is a public–private initiative that brings together partners from the
range of specialties across which the issue of indoor air pollution sprawls.
⇒ Side Notes→ Indigenous Air Unique Quality Monitoring (AUM) Photonic System→ It
is an indigenous photonic system for real-time remote monitoring of air quality parameters. It is
an innovative application of the principles of laser backscattering, statistical mechanics,
optoelectronics, artificial intelligence, machine/deep learning, and Internet of Things. It can
identify, classify, and quantify various pollutants simultaneously (of orders of less than one part
per billion) and meteorological parameters, with very high precision, sensitivity and accuracy.
40.4 Water Pollution
40.4.1 Definition
● Water pollution is defined as the addition or presence of undesirable substances in water.

● It is one of the most serious environmental problems caused mainly by various industrial,
agricultural and domestic activities.
40.4.2 Sources of water pollution
● Water pollution sources can be either point sources or nonpoint sources.

● Point sources: Pollutants are discharged directly from the source to the water. e.g. a drain pipe
carrying industrial effluents into a water body.
● Non-point sources: Pollutants come from diffuse sources or from a larger area. e.g. runoff
from agricultural fields, grazing lands, construction sites etc.
● Agricultural sources:
1. Agricultural runoff has fertilizers and pesticides that contain many nutrients.
2. These chemicals can get leached and seep into the groundwater polluting it.
3. Further these nutrients can cause eutrophication in the water bodies.
4. Aquatic organisms take and incorporate these nutrients into the food chain.
(bioaccumulation)
5. At higher trophic levels, the concentration of these pollutants magnify (Biomagnification).
● Domestic and industrial waste:
1. Domestic sewage contains human and animal excreta, food residues, detergents and other
wastes.
2. Untreated sewage and industrial effluents contain toxic inorganic and organic pollutants.
● Sewage Water
• Sewage water includes discharges from houses and other establishments.

• The sewage contains human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning agents, detergents, etc.
• Domestic and hospital sewage contain many undesirable pathogenic microorganisms.
● Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water decreases the dissolved oxygen content of
the water.
• Water having DO content below 8.0
mg/L may be considered as
contaminated.
• Water having DO content below. 4.0
mg/L is considered to be highly polluted.
• A number of factors like surface
turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2
consumption by organisms and
decomposition of organic matter are the
factors which determine the amount of DO
present in water.
• The higher amounts of waste increase the rates of decomposition and O2 consumption
thereby decreases the DO content of water.
● Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD).
• BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic wastes
present in water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water.
• The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of water.
● Industrial Wastes
• Discharge of wastewater from industries like petroleum, paper manufacturing, metal extraction
and processing, chemical manufacturing, etc., that often contain toxic substances, notably, heavy
metals (defined as elements with density > 5 g/cm3 such as mercury, cadmium, copper, lead,
arsenic) and a variety of organic compounds.
● Marine and coastal pollution
● Oceans and coastal waters receive a large percentage of their waste and pollutants – including
plastic debris, nutrients, oil, heavy metals and radioactive waste – from land-based sources.
● The rest comes from the shipping industry, fisheries and other sea-based sources.
● Agricultural sources
• Agricultural runoff contains dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates, ammonia and other
nutrients, and toxic metal ions and organic compounds.
• Fertilizers contain major plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
• Excess fertilisers may reach the groundwater by leaching or may be mixed with surface water.
• Pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc. They contain a wide range of
chemicals such as chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs. E.g. DDT, Endosulfan etc.),
● Thermal and Radiation Pollution
• Power plants – thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use a lot of water for cooling
purposes, and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans.
• Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C
above the ambient water temperature. This is thermal pollution.
• Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in the water. • Nuclear accidents near
water bodies or during natural calamities like tsunami and earthquakes pose the risk of radiation
leakage (radiation exposure) into water bodies. E.g. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
• Radioactive iodine tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid cancer.
● Aquatic organisms in the hot tropical water bodies live dangerously close to their upper limit
of temperature, particularly during the warm summer months.
● A slight increase in temperature affects aquatic organisms in following ways:
1. Affects feeding in fishes
2. Affects their growth
3. Decreases their swimming efficiency
4. Decreases their resistance to diseases and parasites
5. Also reduces the biological diversity of aquatic ecosystem
● Underground water pollution
• In India at many places, the groundwater is threatened with contamination due to seepage from
industrial and municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and agricultural runoff.
• Pollutants like fluorides, uranium, heavy metals and nutrients like nitrates and phosphates are
common in many parts of India.
⦁ Nitrates
• Dissolved nitrates commonly contaminate groundwater.
• Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with haemoglobin to form non-functional
methaemoglobin and impairs oxygen transport. This condition is called methemoglobinemia
or blue baby syndrome.
⦁ Trace metals
• Include lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium and nickel.
• These metals can be toxic and carcinogenic.
⦁ Arsenic
• Seepage of industrial and mine discharges, fly ash ponds of thermal power plants can lead
to arsenic in groundwater.
• In India and Bangladesh (Ganges Delta)
• Chronic exposure to arsenic causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea and also lung
and skin cancer.
⇒ Sept,2020- Arsenic affected habitations in India have increased ⏫ in the last five years,
according to recent data shared in the Parliament. Arsenic affected habitations in India have
increased⏫ by 145% in number, in the last fiv e years (2015-20). Most of the arsenic affected
habitations lie in the Ganga and Brahmaputra alluvial plains (Assam, Bihar, West Bengal,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh). Assam had the highest share of such habitations (1853) followed by
West Bengal (1383).
⦁ Fluoride
• Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuromuscular disorders, gastrointestinal problems,
teeth deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints (skeletal fluorosis).
• Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee
syndrome.
• Fluorosis is a common problem in several states of the country due to the intake of high
fluoride content water.
⦁ Mercury
• Pollution of water bodies by mercury causes Minamata (neurological syndrome) disease in

humans. Mercury compounds in wastewater are converted by bacterial action into extremely
toxic methylmercury mental derangement.
• Lead causes lead poisoning (Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to
many organs and tissues).
⇒ Aug,2020- A joint report ‘ The Toxic Truth: Children’s Exposure to Lead Pollution
Undermines a Generation of Potential’ by United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and Pure
Earth, a non-profit organisation notes that lead is a potent neurotoxin that causes irreparable
harm to children’s brains.
• The compounds of lead cause anaemia, headache, loss of muscle power and bluish line
around the gum.
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a
painful disease of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
🔠Match the Column:
Compound Disease
a) Arsenic 1. Itai Itai
b) Fluoride 2. methemoglobinemia
c) Cadmium 3. Black foot
d) Nitrate 4. Knock knee
Which one is the correct pair:

(1) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-4 (2) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1 (3) A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2 (4) A-4; B-3;
C-1; D-2
40.4.3 Effects of Water Pollution
⚾on the Environment

• Presence of large amounts of nutrients in water results in algal bloom (excessive growth of
planktonic algae. This leads to ageing of lakes.
• A few toxic substances, often present in industrial wastewaters, can undergo biological
magnification (Biomagnification) in the aquatic food chain. This phenomenon is well-known
for mercury and DDT.
• High concentrations of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes thinning of
eggshells and their premature breaking, eventually causing a decline in bird populations.
⚾on Aquatic Ecosystem
• Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content, thereby eliminating sensitive
organisms like plankton, molluscs and fish etc.
• However, a few tolerant species like Tubifex (annelid worm) and some insect larvae may
survive in highly polluted water with low DO content. Such species are recognized as indicator
species for polluted water.
• Biocides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (organic chemicals consisting of carbon, hydrogen
and chlorine atoms ) and heavy metals directly eliminate sensitive aquatic organisms.
• Hot waters discharged from industries, when added to water bodies, lowers its DO content.
• Riparian buffers: A riparian buffer is a vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a stream, usually
forested, which helps shade and partially protect a stream from the impact of adjacent land uses.
• Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents before releasing it into water bodies. Hot
water should be cooled before release from the power plants.
• Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides should be avoided. Organic farming and efficient use
of animal residues as fertilisers can replace chemical fertilizers.
• Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed, invasive species) can purify water by taking some toxic
materials and a number of heavy metals from water.
• Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of oil zapper, microorganisms.
• It has been suggested that we should plant eucalyptus trees all along sewage ponds. These trees
absorb all surplus wastewater rapidly and release pure water vapour into the atmosphere.
Bioremediation- Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) to degrade
the environmental contaminants into less toxic forms. Microorganisms can be specifically
designed for bioremediation using genetic engineering techniques.
⚾In situ bioremediation
In situ — It involves treatment of the contaminated material at the site.
Bioventing: supply of air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the
growth of indigenous bacteria.
Biosparging: Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater
oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by
naturally occurring bacteria.
Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance the
degradation process. Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has developed a mixture of
bacteria called ‘Oilzapper and Oilivorous-S’ which degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated
sites, leaving behind no harmful residues..
Oilzapper is essentially a cocktail of five different bacterial strains.
benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene and naphthalene (BTEXN), these pollutants can be
removed via a biological approach we call biosparging
⚾Ex situ bioremediation

Ex situ — involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
Landfarming: contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically
tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative
microorganisms and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
Bioreactors: it involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or
water through an engineered containment system.
Composting: Composting is nature's process of recycling decomposed organic materials into a

rich soil known as compost.
Phytoremediation
• Phytoremediation is the use of plants to remove contaminants from soil and water.
• Natural phytoremediation is carried out by mangroves, estuarine vegetation and other wetland
vegetation.
Flocculation
Aluminium sulphate (alum) is the most common coagulant used for water purification. Other
chemicals, such as ferric sulphate or sodium aluminate, may also be used.
Chlorine is used because it is a very effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be
maintained to guard against possible biological contamination in the water distribution system.
The addition of chlorine or chlorine compounds to drinking water is called chlorination.
Fluoridation
Water fluoridation is the treatment of community water supplies for the purpose of adjusting the
concentration of the free fluoride ion to the optimum level sufficient to reduce dental caries.
Fluoride is generally present in all natural water. Its concentration up to a certain level is not
harmful. Beyond that level, the bones start disintegrating. This disease is called fluorosis. We
have a fluoride problem in many parts of our country. Bureau of Indian Standards prescribes 1.0
mg/l as desirable and 1.5 mg/l as a maximum permissible limit for drinking water. Defluoridation
at domestic level can be carried out by mixing water for treatment with an adequate amount of
aluminium sulphate (alum) solution, lime or sodium carbonate and bleaching powder depending
upon its alkalinity (concentration of bicarbonates and carbonates in water) and fluoride contents.
40.4.4 Legal measures to control water pollution:
● The Water Act (1974), the Water Cess Act (1977 and 1988), and the Environment
(Protection) Act or EPA (1986)
are the main acts to tackle water pollution.

● The Water Cess Act deals with revenue-generation.
● Pollution control boards at the central and state levels are empowered to prevent, control, and
abate water pollution, and to advise governments on matters pertaining to such pollution.
● CPCB coordinates the activities of the state boards and also prepares a list of polluting
industries in India.
● The acts mainly deal with industrial units and do not cover the regulation of water pollution
originating from the household and agriculture sectors.
● The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
● The Act targets prevention and control of water pollution

● It provides for the establishment of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution
(CPCB and SPCBs)
● It prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays
down penalties for non-compliance.
● CPCB and SPCBs lay down standards and implement them for the prevention and control of
water pollution.
● The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
provides for levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying
on certain types of industrial activities.
● Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
● AMRUT aims to transform 500 cities and towns into efficient urban living spaces.
● It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 80% budgetary support from the Centre.
● Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India Thrust Areas ofAMRUT:
(i) Water Supply,
(ii) Sewerage facilities and septage management,
(iii) Storm Water drains to reduce flooding,
(iv) Pedestrian, non-motorized and public transport facilities, parking spaces etc
● Smart cities mission:
● City rejuvenation mission for 100 chosen cities.

● Aims to provide core infrastructure in the city: housing, water and electricity supply, sanitation
and solid waste management, efficient urban mobility and public transport, robust IT
connectivity and digitalization, etc. ● Holistic approach for all round development of the city.
● Three pronged strategy: city improvement (retrofitting), city renewal (redevelopment) and city
extension (green-field development).
● National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) Ministry of Jal Shakti
● Centrally sponsored plan launched in 1995.

● Presently covers 38 rivers in 178 towns spread over 20 States.
● Interception and diversion of sewage and setting up of Sewage Treatment Plants are the main
strategies under the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP).
● River conservation activities such as creation of civic infrastructure for sewage management
and disposal are also being implemented under other central schemes.
● The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was launched by the Government in 1985, for pollution
abatement activities in identified polluted stretches of river Ganga. But it did not succeed in
cleaning Ganga.
● National Mission for clean Ganga 2011
It was then established as a society and as an implementation arm of National Ganga River
Basin Authority (NGRBA).
● NRGBA was constituted under the provisions of theEnvironment (Protection) Act
(EPA),1986.
● But, it was dissolved in 2016 and replaced with the National Council for Rejuvenation,
Protection and Management of River Ganga (referred as National Ganga Council). The National
Ganga Council is chaired by the Prime Minister.
● The EPA Act, 1986 envisages a five tier structure at national, state and district level to take
measures for prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution in river Ganga and to
ensure continuous adequate flow of water so as to rejuvenate the river Ganga.
● Namami Gange Programme
•Namami Gange Programme is an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as a ‘Flagship

Programme’ by the Union Government in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of
effective abatement of pollution and conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
•It is being operated under the Department of Water Resources,River Development and
Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti.
•The program is being implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), and
its state counterpart organizations i.e., State Program ManagementGroups (SPMGs).
• NMCG is the implementation wing of National Ganga Council (set in 2016; which replaced
the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NRGBA).
•It has a Rs. 20,000-crore, centrally-funded, non-lapsable corpus and consists of nearly 288
projects.
● Main pillars of the programme are
○ Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
○ River-Surface Cleaning
○ Afforestation
○ Industrial Effluent Monitoring
○ River-Front Development
○ Biodiversity Conservation
○ PublicAwareness
○ Ganga Gram
● Marking a major shift in implementation, the Government is focusing on involving people
living on the banks of the river to attain sustainable results.
● The government is also involving the States and grassroots level institutions such as Urban
Local Bodies and Panchayati Raj Institutions.
⇒ Nov,2020- NATIONAL WATER AWARD - Department of Water Resources, River
Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, has organised the 2nd National
Water Awards(NWAs)for the year 2019 . The Awards Distribution Ceremony are organised by
the Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of
Jal Shakti and held through a virtual platform. The National Water Awards were launched in
2007, The best state awards for first, second and third positions have gone to Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Mizoram won the first prize in the special category states. Tamil
Nadu has topped in all India level micro irrigation awards under the Pradhan Mantri
Krishi Sinchayee Yojana. The state was followed by Karnataka and Gujarat in second and third
places respectively.
⇒ Oct,2020- Indian scientists have developed an eco-friendly crude oil bioremediation
mechanism technology using consortia of marine microbes wheat bran (WB) immobilized on
agro-residue bacterial cells. The National Institute of Ocean Technology has developed this
mechanism.
⇒ Aug,2020- Recently, A Japanese ship named M V Wakashio struck a coral reef resulting in
an oil spill of over 1,000 tonnes into the Indian Ocean. The accident had taken place near two
environmentally protected marine ecosystems (Ile aux Aigrettes and Pointe d’Esny Ramsar site)
and the Blue Bay Marine Park Reserve, which is a wetland of international importance. A
number of popular tourist beaches and mangrove plantations are located nearby the spill. An oil
spill refers to any uncontrolled release of crude oil, gasoline, fuels, or other oil by-products into
the environment. Oil spills can pollute land, air, or water, though it is mostly used for oceanic oil
spills.
⇒ Oct,2020- The Union Cabinet ratified the ban on seven chemicals that are hazardous to health
and environment listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs).
⇒ Oct,2020- Prime Minister of India inaugurated six mega projects in Uttarakhand under the
Namami Gange Mission. He also launched the logo of Jal Jeevan Mission, via video
conferencing.
⇒ Oct,2020- The Union Jal Shakti Ministry (MoJS) announced at the Apex Council Meeting
that the center will be determining the jurisdictions of the Krishna and Godavari river
management boards (KRMB and GRMB).
🔠? Which of the following statement is not correct about AMRUT mission;
1. aims to transform 500 cities and towns into efficient urban living spaces.
2. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT),launched on 2017,
3. It is a centrally sponsored scheme with 80% budgetary support from the Centre
The options are as follows:
(A] 1 & 2 only (B] 2 only (C] 1 & 3 only (D] 1,2 & 3
40.5 Soil Pollution
40.5.1 Causes and Sources of Soil Pollution
⦁ Plastic bags
• They accumulate in soil and prevent germination of seeds. They stay in the soil for centuries
without decomposing (non-biodegradable).
• Burning of plastic in garbage dumps releases highly toxic and poisonous gases like carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxins and other poisonous chlorinated compounds.
• Toxic solid residue left after burning remains in the soil. The harmful gases enter soils through
chemical cycles.
⦁ Industrial sources
• They include fly ash, metallic residues, mercury, lead, copper, zinc, cadmium, cyanides,
chromates, acids, alkalies, organic substances, nuclear wastes
• A large number of industrial chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find their way into the soil.
⦁ Pesticides and fertilisers
• Chlorohydrocarbons (CHCs) like DDT, endosulfan, heptachlor accumulate in soil and cause
biomagnification. Some of these pesticides like DDT and endosulfan are banned by most of the
countries.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilisers reduces the population of soil-borne organisms and the
crumb structure of the soil, productivity of the soil and increases salt content of the soil.
⦁ Other pollutants
• Many air pollutants (acid rain) and water pollutants ultimately become part of the soil, and the
soil also receives some toxic chemicals during weathering of certain rocks.
• Radioactive elements from mining and nuclear power plants, find their way into the water and
then into the soil.
● Sources of soil pollution:
1. Seepage of polluted water.
2. Dumping of Solid waste management. into the soil or improper solid waste
3. Fly ash, iron and steel slag, medical and industrial wastes disposed on land.
4. Fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals from farmlands.
5. Land filling by municipal waste and leachates from mismanaged landfills.
6. Acid rain and dry deposition of pollutants on the land surface.
7. Pharmaceuticals from use of antibiotics in livestock
8. Unsafe storage of hazardous chemicals and nuclear waste.
● The primary pollutants of concern in land and soil include heavy metals such as lead, mercury,
arsenic, cadmium and chromium, persistent organic pollutants and other pesticides, and
pharmaceuticals, such as antibiotics used for livestock management.
● These degrade soil biodiversity and functioning, and can reduce agricultural productivity, thus
negatively impacting livelihoods, disease control and food security.
● They can also cause a variety of non-communicable diseases, and even death in humans and
wildlife.
● Sources of heavy metal pollution include a variety of industrial, household and agricultural
activities, such as
○ mining and smelting operations
○ preparation of nuclear fuels and electroplating (chromium, cadmium)

○ coal and other fuel burning
○ chemical production
○ leather tanning
○ informal recycling of lead-acid batteries and electronic waste
○ poor incineration of hospital waste
○ mismanagement of household and industrial waste
40.5.2 Effects of Soil pollution
1. Reduction in soil nutrients, nitrogen fixation and consequent drop in crop yield
2. Salinization and soil erosion
3. Groundwater contamination and biomagnification
4. Loss of vegetation and biodiversity
5. Health problems as pollutants enter the food chain- developmental impairment and
noncommunicable diseases, antimicrobial resistance.
40.5.3 ✍Way forward
● Adopt agroecological practices and integrated pest management and establish guidelines for
the reduction and efficient use of fertilizers and environmentally friendly pesticides in
agriculture.
● Reduce point-source pollutants, such as heavy metals from industry, and diffuse pollutants
including pesticides and inefficiently used fertilizers in agriculture.
● Reduce the use of antimicrobials, including antibiotics in the livestock sector, to avoid
unintended releases into the environment and food chain, and increase public awareness and
international collaboration on research and product development.
● Invest in building the knowledge
● Remediate contaminated sites.
● Invest in long-term environmental monitoring following industrial closures.
● Avoid indiscriminate disposal of solid waste.
● Ban plastic bags and promote bags of degradable materials like paper and cloth.
● Treat sewage properly before using it as fertilizers and as landfills.
● Segregate domestic, agricultural and other waste before vermicomposting.

● Treat industrial wastes prior to disposal.
● Collect biomedical waste separately and incinerate in proper incinerators.
● Follow the Four R’s Refuse, Reuse, Recycle and Reduce
40.6 Noise Pollution
• Noise by definition is “sound without value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the recipient”.
• Noise level is measured in terms of decibels (dB). An increase of about 10 dB is approximately
double the increase in loudness.
• W.H.O. (World Health Organization) has prescribed optimum noise levels as 45 dB by day and
35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.
• Noise pollution leads to irritation, increased blood pressure, loss of temper, mental depression
and annoyance, a decrease in work efficiency, loss of hearing which may be first temporary but
can become permanent if the noise stress continues.
• A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.
40.6.1 What is the noise level?
• Any unwanted sound that causes annoyance, irritation and pain to the human ear is termed
noise. It is measured in A-weighted decibels (dB (A)) that indicate the loudness of the sound. •
Noise level refers to the decibel levels of noise produced by any appliance or machine. In
general, the human ear can tolerate noise levels up to 85 dB. Anything beyond that can affect
their productivity and quality of life.
40.6.2 Ambient Noise Level Monitoring
• Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 2000 define ambient noise levels for various
areas.
• The Government of India in Mar 2011 launched a Real-time Ambient Noise Monitoring
Network.
• Silence Zone is an area comprising not less than 100 metres around hospitals, educational
institutions, courts, religious places or any other area declared as such by a competent authority.
40.6.3 Control of Noise pollution
● Better designing and proper maintenance of vehicles.

● Noise reduction using noise attenuation walls, well maintained roads and smooth surfacing of
roads.
● Air traffic noise can be reduced by enforcing noise regulations for take off and landing of
aircrafts at the airport.
● Industrial noises can be reduced by sound proofing equipment like generators and areas
producing a lot of noise.
● Ban on use of Power tools, very loud music and land movers, public functions using
loudspeakers etc at night.
● Use of firecrackers, horns, alarms, refrigeration units etc is to be restricted.
● A green belt of trees is an efficient noise absorber.
40.6.4 Permissible noise level in India
• The CPCB has laid down the permissible noise levels in India for different areas. Noise
pollution rules have defined the acceptable level of noise in different zones for both daytime and
night time.
• In industrial areas, the permissible limit is 75 dB for daytime and 70 dB at night.
• In commercial areas, it is 65 dB and 55 dB, while in residential areas it is 55 dB and 45 dB
during daytime and night respectively.
• Additionally, state governments have declared ‘silent zones’ which includes areas that lie
within 100 meters of the premises of schools, colleges, hospitals and courts. The permissible
noise limit in this zone is 50 dB during the day and 40 dB during the night.
40.6.5 Laws
• Earlier, noise pollution and its sources were addressed under the Air (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• They are now, however, regulated separately under the Noise Pollution (Regulation and
Control) Rules, 2000.
• Additionally, noise standards for motor vehicles, air-conditioners, refrigerators, diesel

generators and certain types of construction equipment are prescribed under the Environment
(Protection) Rules, 1986.
• Noise emanating from industry is regulated by State Pollution Control Boards / Pollution
Control Committees (SPCBs / PCCs) for states / Union territories under the Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
● A Real time Ambient Noise Monitoring Network was launched in 2011.
40.7 Radioactive Pollution
• Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the natural radiation levels in the
environment that pose a serious threat to humans and other life forms. They include cosmic
rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth's crust such as
radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14
• Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of protons (alpha-particles),
electrons (beta-particles) and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to the
disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. These cause radioactive pollution.
Non-ionizing radiations affect only those components which absorb them and have low
penetrability.
• Ionising radiations have high penetration power and cause breakage of macromolecules
40.7.1 Biological Damage Due to Ionizing Radiations
• Radiation damage can be divided into two types: (a) somatic damage (also called radiation
sickness) and (b) genetic damage.
• Somatic damage refers to damage to cells that are not associated with reproduction.
• Effects of somatic radiation damage include loss of hair, fibrosis of the lungs, a reduction of
white blood cells, and the induction of cataract in the eyes. This damage can also result in cancer
and death.
• Genetic damage refers to damage to cells associated with reproduction.
• This damage can subsequently cause genetic damage from gene mutation resulting in
abnormalities.
• Genetic damages are passed onto the next generation.
• Inspired by these safety measures three disasters in the nuclear power plants are noteworthy –
Three Mile Island’ in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979, Chernobyl (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 and
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011.
40.7.2 Impact on birds
• The surface area of a bird is relatively larger than their body weight in comparison to the
human body, so they absorb more radiation.
• Also, the fluid contained in the body of the bird is less due to small body weight, so it gets
heated up very fast.
• The magnetic field from the towers disturbs birds' navigation skills; hence when birds are
exposed to EMR they become disorientated and begin to fly in all directions. Prevention and
control of radiation pollution
● Proper site selection, design, construction, commissioning, and operation of nuclear reactors
ensuring full safety should be made.
● X-rays for diagnostic purposes and radiotherapy should be done with appropriate protection
measures.
● Radioactive wastes contain highly hazardous radioactive elements like radium, thorium and
plutonium, therefore they should be stored and disposed of safely.
● Appropriate preventive steps should be taken to protect from occupational exposure.
Pillar 4A2 Waste & RES
Waste Management in India 216

40.8 What is e-waste? 216
40.8.1 E-Waste -The magnitude of the problem 217
40.8.2 Environmental and health impact of E-waste 218
40.8.3 Guiyu-China: Case Study 220
40.8.4 International Conventions 220
40.8.5 Programmes 221
40.8.6 Issues and Challenges 222
40.8.7 Best Practice 223
40.8.8 Way Forward 224
40.8.9 Management of E-waste: 224
40.8.10 COVID-19 BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 225
Key features of Bio-medical Waste Management Rules 2016 (amended in 2018)
226
Key guidelines for COVID-19 Biomedical waste management 226
Challenges with COVID-19 biomedical waste 227
Way forward 228
40.9 Solid waste 228
40.9.1 Types Solid wastes 228
40.9.2 Solid waste Management 228
• Landfills 228
• Open dumps 229
• Sanitary landfills 229
• Pyrolysis 229
• Composting 229
• Vermiculture 230
• Four R’s 230
40.9.3 Solid Waste Management in India 230
40.10 Thermal Pollution 231
40.10.1 Major Sources 231
40.10.2 Effects 231
• On Warm Water 231
• On Cold Water 232
40.10.3 Control Measures 232
40.11 MARINE PLASTIC POLLUTION 232
41 Renewable Energy Sources 236
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar 4A2 Waste & RES → Page 215
41.1. Introduction 236

41.2 Sources of Energy 236
41.3 Conventional Sources of Energy 237
41.3.1 Coal 237
41.3.2 Natural Gas 238
41.3.3 Liquefied Natural Gas 239
41.3.4 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 239
41.3.5 Shale Gas 239
41.4 Renewable or Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 240
41.4.1 Energy from the Sun 240
41.4.2 Solar energy’s active source: 241
41.4.3 Electricity produced from solar energy 241
41.4.3 Cooling from solar energy 242
41.4.4 Photovoltaic technology/Solar cells 242
41.4.5 Indirect Solar Energy 242
41.4.6 ONE SUN ONE WORLD ONE GRID 243
41.5 Wind Energy 244
41.6 Tidal Energy 244
41.7 Hydropower Energy 245
41.8 Geothermal Energy 245
41.9 Hydrogen Energy 245
41.10 Fuel Cell Technology 248
41.11 Biofuels 249
41.11.1 National Policy on Biofuels, 2018 250
✍✍ 📝📝 Mains Question 252
Waste Management in India
40.8 What is e-waste?
• Electronic waste, or e-waste, is a term for electronic products that have become unwanted,
obsolete, and have reached the end of their useful life.
• It refers to all items of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been
discarded by its owner as waste without the intent of re-use.
40.8.1 E-Waste -The magnitude of the problem
• The Global E-waste Monitor 2020: A record 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of electronic
waste was generated worldwide in 2019, up 21 per cent in just five years, according to the UN’s
Global E-waste Monitor 2020, The new report also predicts global e-waste - discarded products
with a battery or plug - will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-waste in just 16 years.
• Only 17.4 percent of 2019’s e-waste was collected and recycled. This means that gold, silver,
copper, platinum and other high-value, recoverable materials conservatively valued at US $57
billion -- a sum greater than the Gross Domestic Product of most countries – were mostly
dumped or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse. According to the report,
Asia generated the greatest volume of e-waste in 2019 — some 24.9 Mt, followed by the
Americas (13.1 Mt) and Europe (12 Mt), while Africa and Oceania generated 2.9 Mt and 0.7 Mt
respectively.
• India generates about 3 million tonnes (MT) of e-waste annually and ranks third among e-waste
producing countries, after China and the United States. Reports state that it might rise to 5
million tonnes by 2021.
• Maharashtra is the biggest contributor to e-waste generation followed by Tamil Nadu and Uttar
Pradesh.
• The government has reported that the recycling rate of 10% in 2017-18 has risen to 20% in
2018-19.
40.8.2 Environmental and health impact of E-waste
• Impact on Human Health:

• Pollutants, their sources and effects on human health;
•Environmental Impact
➡Air
• E-waste when dismantled and shredded, releases dust or large particles into the immediate
environment and affects the respiratory health of workers.
• Further, unregulated burning of e-waste releases toxins which are potent and damaging to both
humans (neurological disease and impact on immune system) and animal health.
➡Water
• Water is contaminated by e-waste in landfills that are not properly designed to contain e waste
and due to improper recycling and subsequent disposal of e-waste.
• Heavy metals from e-waste cause toxification of surface water.
• Groundwater is polluted by e-waste as heavy metals and other persistent chemicals leach from
landfills and illegal dump sites into ground water tables.
➡Soil:
• Soil is contaminated by e-waste through direct contact with contaminants from e-waste or the
byproducts of e-waste recycling and disposal and indirectly through irrigation through
contaminated water.
• Contaminated soils have adverse impact on microbes and plants and the pollutants pass to
higher animals and humans along the food chain.
40.8.3 Guiyu-China: Case Study
• Guiyu in China is a major hub for the disposal of

e-waste and is widely considered to be the largest
e-waste disposal site in the world.
• Guiyu receives shipments of e-waste, both from
domestic sources and from other countries
According to U.N. report "E-Waste in China,"
Guiyu suffered an "environmental calamity" as a
result of the wide-scale e-waste disposal industry
in the area.
• Unregulated and improper management of e-waste in the region has caused tremendous
damage to the environment and pose a great threat to human health in the region.
40.8.4 International Conventions
• 1. Basel Convention on the Control of the Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous

Waste, 1992 (entered into force)
• Originally the Basel Convention did not mention e-waste but later it addressed the issues of e
waste in 2006.
• The convention seeks to ensure environmentally sound management
• Prevention of illegal traffic to developing countries
• Building capacity to better manage e-waste.
• It aimed at creating innovative solutions for the environmentally sound management of
electronic wastes.
• 2. Rotterdam Convention, 2004
• The Convention seeks to promote exchange of information (through Prior Informed Consent)
among Parties over a range of potentially hazardous chemicals (including pesticides and
industrial chemicals) that may be exported or imported.
40.8.5 Programmes
• 1. Awareness Program on Environmental Hazards of Electronic Waste

• The project initiated by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology aims to provide
training,
• Tools and films aimed at creating awareness and reducing the impact of e waste on the
environment and health.
• 2. Creation of Management Structure for Hazardous Substances
• The programme seeks to raise awareness among people about the 2016 Rules and its
implementation.
• 3. Swachh Digital Bharat
• The programme seeks to create awareness among the public about the hazards of e-waste
recycling by the unorganised sector,
• To educate them about alternate methods of disposing of their e-waste.
• The general public is encouraged to participate in the programme, by giving their e-waste to
authorised recyclers only.
• 4. Greene
• It is a dedicated website which seeks to spread awareness about e-waste through social media
E-Waste Disposal and Recycling Practices in India
• Unorganized sector/ Informal:
• Around 90% of the recycling of E-Waste in India is done by the non formal/unorganized sector.
• Non-formal units of e-waste recyclers are distributed all over India.
• Informal units generally follow the steps such as collection of the e-waste from the rag pickers,
disassembly of the products for their usable parts, components, modules, which are having resale
value.
• The rest of the material is chemically treated to recover precious metals and non-recoverable
materials are disposed in landfills
• Organized /Formal:
• Organized recycling units are very few in India. Unlike the informal sector, the organized
sector uses environmentally sound methods to
recycle e- waste
40.8.6 Issues and Challenges
• 1. Lack of formal infrastructure:

• There is a huge gap between the present
recycling and collection facilities and the quantum
of E-waste that is being generated.
• There is no proper collection and take back
mechanism.
• 2. Imports:
• Cross-border flow of waste equipment into India
is a major issue.
• India has been the destination of the hazardous and industrial wastes like mercury, electronic
and plastic wastes from the United States, asbestos from Canada, defective steel and tin plates
from the E.U., Australia and the U.S, zinc ash, residues, lead waste and scrap, used batteries etc.
from European nations.
• Loopholes in legislations, porous ports and lack of checking facilities are major reasons for
uncontrolled e-waste imports
• 3. Issues with informal sector:
• Child Labour: According to ASSOCHAM report more than 4.5 lakh child labourers are
observed to be engaged in various E-waste activities and that too without adequate protection
and safeguards.
• Occupational Health Hazard: Unscientific method of recycling and lack of proper safety gear
pose serious health hazards to those employed in the informal sector.
• 4. Gaps in Legislation:
• E-waste rules are also violated on a regular basis and the informal sector remains unregulated.
• Further, the responsibility of producers is not confined to waste collection, but also to ensure
that the waste reaches the authorised recycler.
• There is no mechanism to ensure that the waste collected by producers has gone to
unauthorised recyclers.
• 5. Lack of incentives:
• There is a lack of incentive schemes to encourage people to adopt a formal path of recycling.
• The GST imposed a huge 12% tax on electronic recyclers which has further proven to be
deterrent to formal recycling
• 6. Poor awareness and sensitization:
• There is limited awareness regarding disposal, after determining the end of useful life. Further,
the lack of awareness leads to poor segregation of waste.
• 7. Environmental concerns:
• Informal recycling and dumping of e-waste in landfills or burning of e-waste pose a severe
danger to the environment and has far-reaching on animal and human health
40.8.7 Best Practice
• ‘Take-back’ and Planet ke Rakhwale campaign- Nokia:

• Nokia began its e-waste management campaign in 2009.
• Nokia set up drop boxes across the country to take back used phones, chargers and accessories,
irrespective of the brand, at Nokia Care Centres.
• The campaign was a great success and the total quantity of mobile phones and accessories
collected from this campaign from 2009 to 2015 was 160 tonnes.
• In the second phase (2009), Nokia launched “Planet KeRakhwale” take-back and recycling
campaign which extended to 28 cities across India.
• Green Warriors -Telangana:

• “Green Warriors in Telangana have been a part of the recycling/refurbishing chain, and have
contributed towards the successful implementation of measures to control e-pollution.
• Their efforts have also been recognized by the Telangana government in its Telangana e-waste
management policy, 2017
40.8.8 Way Forward
• 1. There is a need to strengthen the domestic legal framework to address the issue of
unregulated imports of e-waste
• 2. Steps should be taken to formalize the informal sector by integrating it with the formal
sector.
• Government should introduce vocational training programs to rightly skill the current
unorganized sector employees to ensure their smoother transition to working with organized
sector.
• 3. Governments must encourage research into the development of better environmentally
sustainable e-waste recycling techniques
• 4. There is an urgent need for a detailed assessment of the E-waste including characteristics,
existing disposal practices, environmental impacts.
• 5. There is a need for more recycling facilities and development of infrastructure to handle e
waste effectively.
• The government should encourage Public-Private Partnership for establishment of e-waste
collection, exchange and recycling centres.
• 6. There is a need for an effective take-back program providing incentives to producers.
• 7. Mass awareness programmes should be initiated to encourage consumers to reuse/ recycle
electronic products and also educate them about the environmental and health hazards of
e-waste.
40.8.9 Management of E-waste:
• Producers:
• The government has implemented the E-waste (Management) Rules (2016) which enforces the
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
• Under EPR principle the producers have been made responsible to collect a certain percentage
of E-waste generated from their goods once they have reached their “end-of-life”.
• State Governments:
• They have been entrusted with the responsibility for maintaining industrial space for e waste
dismantling and recycling facilities.
• They are also expected to establish measures for protecting the health and safety of workers
engaged in the dismantling and recycling facilities for e-waste.
•Recycling of E-waste:
• Most of India’s e-waste is recycled by the informal sector and under hazardous conditions.
• A report by the Union Environment Ministry in 2018 found that many of India’s e-waste
recyclers didn't have the capacity to handle a large quantity of waste.
• India’s first e-waste clinic for segregating, processing and disposal of waste from household
and commercial units will soon be set-up in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. E-Waste (Management)
Amendment Rules, 2018
• E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 were amended by the Environment ministry. Amended
Rules
● It introduced the provision of registration of Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO) with
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
● E-Waste collection targets have been mentioned in the rules .
● It also introduced the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) targets for producers.
● The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) may conduct random sampling of electrical and
electronic equipment placed in the market.
● Financial penalties can be levied by the State Pollution Control Board with the prior approval
of the CPCB.
● Penalties can be levied on the manufacturer, producer, importer, transporter, refurbisher,
dismantler and recycler.
40.8.10 COVID-19 BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
- The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has released revised guidelines for
Biomedical waste management generated from COVID-19.
- Guidelines were issued under the title ‘Guidelines for Handling, Treatment and Disposal
of Waste Generated during Treatment/Diagnosis/ Quarantine of COVID-19 Patients.’
- These were issued under, and in addition to Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 2016.
- These guidelines are applicable to all stakeholders including isolation wards, quarantine
centres, sample collection centres, laboratories, Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and common
biomedical waste treatment and disposal facilities (CBWTFs).
Key features of Bio-medical Waste Management Rules 2016 (amended in 2018)
• Pre-treatment of waste: Waste generated in laboratories, microbiological waste, blood

samples and blood bags to be pre-treated through disinfection or sterilisation on-site in the
manner as prescribed by WHO.
• Phasing out of use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves and blood bags.
• Better segregation: Bio-medical waste has been classified into 4 categories: Untreated human
anatomical waste, Animal anatomical waste, Soiled waste and Biotechnology waste.
• Storage of waste: Provision within the premises for a safe, ventilated and secured location for
storage of segregated biomedical waste.
• Training and Immunisation: Regular training to all its health care workers and immunising
all health workers.
• Transportation and handling: Ensure that the bio-medical waste collected from the occupier
is transported, handled, stored, treated and disposed without any adverse effect to the human
health and the environment.
• Procedure of Disposal: The biomedical waste must be segregated in coloured bags (Yellow,
Red, White and Blue) according to the category of the waste. It can be stored up till 48hrs after
which it is either needed to be treated at the in situ site or collected by the worker from
CBMWTF.
• Record maintenance and monitoring: Maintain and update bio-medical waste management
register and record for operation of incineration, hydro or autoclaving etc, also review and
monitor the activities related to biomedical waste management through committee.
• Establish GPS and Bar-coding facility at Common biomedical waste treatment facility.
Key guidelines for COVID-19 Biomedical waste management
• Collection and segregation of waste
o Use dedicated trolleys and collection bins in COVID-19 isolation wards and label “COVID-19
Waste'' to be pasted on these items.
o Depute dedicated sanitation workers separately for biomedical waste and general solid waste
so that waste can be collected and transferred timely to temporary waste storage areas.
• Transportation and disposal of waste
o COVID-19 garbage is collected and taken in a separate vehicle for proper disposal as
biomedical waste either to a CBWTF or a waste-to-energy plant, where it is then either
incinerated, autoclaved (sterilised for shredding and recycling) or burnt to produce energy.
o Quantification and tracking the movement of COVID-19 waste needed to be carried out by all
quarantine centres though the CPCB’s biomedical waste tracking mobile application called
COVID19BWM.
• Role of nodal authorities - Designated trained nodal officers for biomedical waste
management in hospitals must be made responsible for training waste handlers about infection
prevention measures.
Challenges with COVID-19 biomedical waste
• Health risk: This waste has created a new biomedical waste crisis and poses a health risk to
sanitation workers and garbage collectors. E.g. Over 40 sanitation workers have tested positive
for COVID-19 and 15 have lost their lives in Delhi.
• Lack of segregation: Municipalities pick up COVID-19 biomedical waste from houses, but it
often has other household waste mixed in it. This decreases the efficiency of the incinerators at
waste treatment plants as it results in greater emissions and unburnt ash.
• Large volume of waste generated: Before the COVID-19 outbreak, there was 500 grams of
biomedical waste per bed daily. Now, it is between 2.5kg to 4kg per bed and a large COVID-19
facility can generate 1800 to 2200 kg of biomedical waste per day.
• Overburdened disposal Capacity: PPE are being used everywhere, from hotels to hospitals,
railway stations to airports, crematoriums to burial grounds, so the disposal mechanisms
available in the cities are not equipped to deal with this huge volume.
• Investment in incinerators is also a problem, as this infection (COVID-19) is episodic, the
machines may not be useful once cases start decreasing.
Way forward
• Stringent actions and penalties shall be imposed in case of non-adherence of guidelines.

• Deploying private agencies for the jobs and monitoring by respective pollution control boards
so as to address shortage of human resources and funds.
• Information Education Communication (IEC) campaigns create awareness among the public on
waste segregation, safety measures, and steps to ensure safety of frontline functionaries shall be
taken on priority.
40.9 Solid waste
Solid wastes are materials that have been discarded (or are called waste-like). Solid or dissolved
materials in domestic sewage, as well as solid or dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or
industrial discharges, are not included.
40.9.1 Types Solid wastes
• Municipal waste: It is defined as any waste generated by household, commercial and/or

institutional activities and is not hazardous.
• Hazardous waste: Household waste that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old
batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles. In the industrial sector, the
major generators of hazardous waste are the metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye, refining, and
rubber goods industries. It could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants and are
corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive.
• Biomedical waste or hospital waste: Hospital waste is generated during the
diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities or in
the production or testing of biologicals. These are highly infectious and can be a serious threat to
human health if not managed in a scientific and discriminate manner.
40.9.2 Solid waste Management
• Landfills
» A pit is a hole dug in the ground, typically in a city. Every day, waste is spilled, and the pit is
filled with dirt.
» Once the landfill is complete, the field is covered in a dense layer of mud, which allows the site
to be developed as a parking lot or park.
» As water seeps into them, it becomes polluted and, as a result of leaching, pollutes the
surrounding environment.
• Open dumps
» An open dumping is defined as a land disposal site at which solid wastes are disposed. When
the waste is not processed, it is left out in the open, and not separated in open dumps. Exposed
sites where solid waste of all sorts is dumped is open dumps.
» Rainwater runoff from these dumps contaminates local land and water, causing disease to
spread.
• Sanitary landfills
» These are constructed in a systematic manner to address the issue of leaching. These are
constructed over impermeable soil and packed with impermeable materials such as plastics and
clay.
• Incineration plants
» In these plants, recyclable materials are separated from the rest, which is then burned, and ash
is created. It emits tonnes of radioactive ash into the atmosphere and pollutes the water supply.
• Pyrolysis
» It is the method of burning a substance in the absence of oxygen or in a regulated atmosphere

of oxygen.
» The resulting gas and liquid may be used as fuel.
• Composting
» Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria,

decompose degradable organic waste into humus-like substances in the presence of oxygen.
» It recycles the nutrients and returns them back to soil as nutrients.
• Vermiculture
» Earthworms are added to the compost in this process. These worms break down the waste, and
the worms' excrement enriches the compost with nutrients.
• Four R’s
» Reduce: This refers to the use of natural resources in a sustainable manner while avoiding
waste. Ex: Using a bucket for bathing instead of taking shower bath.
» Reuse: Reuse items as much as you can before replacing them. The process of reusing starts
with the assumption that the used materials that flow through our lives can be a resource rather
than refuse. Ex: Some easy-to-reuse items include containers and packaging materials such as
bags and boxes.
» Recycle: This means things are processed and may get converted into some other product so
that they can be used again. For example, paper is recycled.
» Recover: This means a safe and eco-friendly alternative should be used in place of a thing. For
example, using a clothing bag instead of a polythene bag.
40.9.3 Solid Waste Management in India
• India generates over 150,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) per day.
• According to MoEFCC, 62 million tonnes of waste is generated annually in the country.
• Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 govern the solid waste management in India. Solid
Waste Management Rules 2016
• They concentrate on waste segregation at the source, the manufacturer's responsibility for
sanitary and packaging waste disposal, and consumer fees for processing, disposal, and bulk
generator collection.
• The rules encourage the use of compost, the conversion of waste into energy, and the revision
of criteria for landfill location and capacity.
• The government has also formed a Central Monitoring Committee, chaired by the Secretary of
MoEFCC, to oversee the rules' overall implementation.
• The Rules for the Safe Treatment of Legacy Waste prescribe bioremediation and bio-mining in
all open dumpsites and existing operational dumpsites in India.
• The rules emphasize promotion of waste to energy plants. Bio-Medical Waste Management
Rules 2016
• Bio-Medical waste consists of: Human anatomical waste like tissues, organs and body parts,
hypodermic needles, syringes, scalpels, and broken glass.
• The rules' scope has been broadened to include vaccine clinics, blood donation clinics, surgical
camps, and every other type of healthcare operation.
• Within two years, phase out the use of chlorinated plastic containers, gloves, and blood bags.
• Establish a bar-code system for containers or bags containing biomedical waste for disposal.
• Bio-medical waste has been divided into four groups rather than ten to facilitate waste
separation at the source.
• Criticism: It requires technological infrastructure for bar coding waste bags.
40.10 Thermal Pollution
The fall or rise in temperature of a natural aquatic environment caused by anthropogenic

influence is known as thermal pollution.
40.10.1 Major Sources
• Power plants: By dumping hot water from factories and power plants.
• Deforestation of the shoreline: Removing trees and vegetation that shade streams, permitting
sunlight to raise the temperature of these waters.
• Water as a cooling agent: Release of cold water which lowers the temperature.
40.10.2 Effects
• On Warm Water
» Warm water contains less oxygen. Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of
dissolved oxygen (DO) in water. As a result, the rate of organic matter decomposition slows.
Green algae are being replaced by blue green algae, which are less attractive. Many species are
unable to reproduce.
» It also boosts marine animals' metabolic rates, allowing them to consume more food in less
time than they would if their environment remained unchanged. As a consequence of increased
metabolic rate it could lead to a scarcity of food sources, resulting in a population decline.
» In-migration of fish that would usually only survive in warmer waters elsewhere, as well as
migration of species to a new, more suitable climate. As a result, there is more competition for
less resources. As a consequence, biodiversity can suffer.
» Higher water temperatures accelerate overpopulation of plants, resulting in shorter life spans
and plant growth. This may result in an algae bloom, lowering oxygen levels in the water
(eutrophication).
• On Cold Water
» This affects fish (particularly their eggs and larvae), macro invertebrates and river productivity.
40.10.3 Control Measures
• Power plants can be designed or refitted to be more efficient and to produce less waste heat. •
Passing the heated water through cooling towers or cooling ponds before discharging into lakes
and streams.
• Cogeneration - process through which the excess heat energy from generating electricity can be
used in another manufacturing process that needs such energy. E.g., Scandinavian cities use
waste hot water for heating.
40.11 MARINE PLASTIC POLLUTION
- A report titled “Breaking the Plastic Wave”- ‘A Comprehensive Assessment of Pathways

Towards Stopping Ocean Plastic Pollution’ pointed out that the annual flow of plastic
into the ocean could triple by 2040 to 29 million metric tonnes per year, without
immediate and sustained action.
The issue of plastic in oceans-
- Gravity of the situation: Over 300 million tons of plastic are produced every year, half
of which is used to design single-use items such as shopping bags, cups and straws. Out
of this, at least 8 million tons of plastic end up in our oceans every year.
- Waste plastic makes up 80% of all marine debris from surface waters to deep-sea
sediments.
- Plastic has been detected on shorelines of all the continents, with more plastic materials
found near popular tourist destinations and densely populated areas. o Under the
influence of solar UV radiation, wind, currents and other natural factors, plastic
fragments into small particles, termed microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) or
nanoplastics (particles smaller than 100 nm). This disperses plastic even farther and
deeper into the ocean, where it invades more habitats and becomes effectively impossible
to retrieve.
- Sources of plastic: The main sources of marine plastic are land-based, from urban and
storm runoff, sewer overflows, beach visitors, inadequate waste disposal and
management, industrial activities, construction and illegal dumping. Ocean-based plastic
originates mainly from the fishing industry, nautical activities and aquaculture.
Impacts:
- On marine environment: Ingestion, suffocation and entanglement of hundreds of
marine species such as seabirds, whales, fishes and turtles, and most die of starvation as
their stomachs are filled with plastic debris. They also suffer from lacerations, infections,
reduced ability to swim, and internal injuries. Floating plastics also contribute to the
spread of invasive marine organisms and bacteria, which disrupt ecosystems.
- On food and health:
- ▪ Toxic contaminants accumulate on the surface of plastic materials which when ingested
by marine organisms, enter their digestive systems, and overtime accumulate in the food
web and leads to the transfer of contaminants between marine species and humans
through consumption of seafood.
- ▪ Carcinogenic chemicals present in the plastic materials interfere with the body’s
endocrine system, causing developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune
disorders in both humans and wildlife.
- On tourism: Plastic waste damages the aesthetic value of tourist destinations, leading to
decreased tourism-related incomes and major economic costs related to the cleaning and
maintenance of the sites.
Existing challenges in dealing with the issue
- Long residual period of plastic: once the plastic waste enters into the ocean, there is very
little we can do to collect it at a meaningful scale, particularly on the ocean floor several
kilometres deep. This is in part due to the vast scale of the ocean, and because the plastic
particles themselves break down once in the ocean, and become much smaller.
- Lack of compliance with laws and conventions partly due to limited financial resources
to enforce them. The most important are the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter (or the London Convention), the
1996 Protocol to the London Convention (the London Protocol), and the 1978 Protocol to
the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
- Structural flaws: Under the linear plastic system, 95 per cent of the aggregate value of
plastic packaging is lost to the economy after a single use cycle and that many plastic
products are placed in markets that lack the capacity to collect and treat them
economically after use. o Globally, only 71 per cent of plastic produced is formally
collected, and less than 15 per cent is actually recycled.
- Lack of data: Consistent definitions and conventions for plastic waste data and metrics
are lacking, and there is insufficient transparency regarding the plastic being placed on
the global market (type, chemical additives, etc.), trade flows, waste production,
consumption, and post-use patterns.
What needs to be done?
- Multi-pronged approach: Stemming the tide of plastics entering the Ocean will require
a combination of approaches, including limiting plastic use, improving waste collection,
infrastructure, and management, and expanding recycling, particularly in the countries
where most of the plastic originates.
- Existing international legally binding instruments should be further explored to address
plastic pollution.
- Strengthening Collaborations: between Governments, research institutions and
industries to find appropriate technological, behavioural and policy solutions to plastic
usage and their disposal.
- Transition from linear to circular economy: where resources, such as plastics, are
used, recovered and reused over and over again, instead of heading directly to the landfill
or the Ocean.
- Individual’s responsibility to limit plastic usage through carrying reusable water bottles,
cloth bags, buying second-hand products etc. as the most effective way to have less
plastic in the Ocean is to use less plastic in the first place.
Concerns with Biodegradable plastics (particularly those made from plants)
- These are promising alternatives to conventional plastics under the right conditions, but
these conditions are generally not found in the natural environment, and especially not in
the Ocean.
- They are also energy intensive and expensive to produce.
- Even in ideal conditions, biodegradability does not resolve critical issues such as
entanglement, or ingestion by marine animals
Case in India and its efforts in dealing with the issue
- The country dumps about 600,000 tonnes of plastic waste into the oceans annually. With
a coastline of 7,500 kms, India faces a huge challenge in cleaning up its seas.
- Scientists have found that 414 million plastic waste items, weighing 238 tonnes, are
polluting Cocos Keeling Islands, a remote archipelago in the Indian Ocean. Efforts taken:
- India is a signatory to MARPOL (International Convention on Prevention of Marine
Pollution). In addition, Prevention of Marine Pollution is also dealt with by Merchant
Shipping Rules, 2009 under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
- Periodic surveys of Indian flag vessels to ensure compliance to the above rules. Foreign
vessels are likewise inspected under Port State Inspection regime and heavy penalty is
levied in case of noncompliance.
- Steering committee with stakeholders from all the concerned Ministers and Departments
has been constituted by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change. The
Committee will coordinate the activities, examine proposals and provide guidance to
Ministries, State and UT Governments with regard to research, policy planning,
deployment of technology, public outreach and education and other facets of the problem
of marine plastic littering.
- The government has announced a number of steps to phase out single-use plastics with
the eventual goal of stopping all usage to reduce the country’s plastic footprint under the
Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018.
- BIS has come out with an Indian standard according to which plastic microbeads of
diameter 5 mm or less, that are insoluble in water, and solid plastic particles used to
exfoliate or cleanse in personal care products are banned.
- State initiatives: Kerala’s Suchitwa Mission, under which fishermen are engaged in not
just finding fish but also plastic that either gets stuck in the fishing nets or floats in the
sea. In last 10 months since the project was launched, they have managed to recover 25
tonnes of plastic waste
41 Renewable Energy Sources
41.1. Introduction
• For our everyday needs, most of us depend heavily on non-renewable energy resources such as
oil, coal, and natural gas, but we all know that these resources are limited in nature and will
inevitably disappear forever. They would become prohibitively costly and environmentally
harmful before then. We will have to consider alternative energy options, which are renewable
and will last indefinitely.
• Energy resources are in high demand as the world's population grows and our lifestyles shift.
This ever-increasing demand places significant strain on non-renewable conventional energy
sources, necessitating the search for alternative energy sources. Sources such as the wind and sun
can never be depleted, making them renewable energy sources; they emit no harmful gases and
are readily available. They are a readily accessible and practically unlimited source of renewable
energy. You will hear about renewable energy sources in this class.
41.2 Sources of Energy
The following is a general classification of energy sources based on consumption times. (a)
Traditional energy sources that are readily accessible and have been in use for a long time. (b)
Non-conventional energy sources, which are not commonly used or are different from what is
commonly used.
41.3 Conventional Sources of Energy
• These sources of energy are also called non-renewable sources. These sources of energy are in
limited quantities except hydro-electric power.
• Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are important nonrenewable sources of energy.
These are the primary sources for generating electrical energy in the world today. Over 85% of
our energy demands are met by the combustion of fossil fuels.
• Carbon is the main constituent of these fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are excellent sources of energy
for our transportation needs.
41.3.1 Coal
- Nearly around 300 million years ago the earth had very dense forests in low lying
wetland regions. Because of natural procedures, such as flooding, these dense forests got
buried under the soil. As more soil was deposited over them, they were condensed and
compressed.
- As they sank deeper and deeper, the temperature rose as well. Dead plants were slowly
converted to coal under high pressure and high temperature. As coal includes mostly
carbon, the gradual process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is known as
carbonization.
- Coal is known as a fossil fuel because it was made from the remains of plants. As coal is
heated in the presence of air, it burns and emits predominantly carbon dioxide gas. In
industry, coal is processed to manufacture valuable goods such as coke, coal tar, and coal
gas.
- Coal found in India belongs to two geological ages: Gondwana, which is about 200
million years old, and tertiary deposits, which are just about 55 million years old.
- The major resources of Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal, are situated in
Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important
coalfields. The Godavari, Son, Mahanadi and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
and Nagaland.
41.3.2 Natural Gas
• Natural gas is considered a fossil fuel because natural gas was formed from the remains of tiny
sea animals and plants that died 300 to 400 million years ago.
• Raw natural gas is a mixture of different gases. The main ingredient is methane, a natural
compound that is formed whenever plant and animal matter decay.
• By itself, methane is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. As a safety measure, natural gas
companies add a chemical odorant called mercaptan (it smells like rotten eggs) so escaping gas
can be detected.
• Natural gas should not be confused with gasoline, which is made from petroleum.
41.3.3 Liquefied Natural Gas
• As a liquid, natural gas is called LNG, or liquefied natural gas. LNG is made by cooling natural
gas to a temperature of -260°F.
• At that temperature, natural gas becomes liquid, and its volume is reduced 600 times.
• LNG is easier to store than the gaseous form since it takes up much less space and also easier to
transport.
41.3.4 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
• CNG is a fossil fuel substitute for other auto fuels such as petrol, diesel, Auto LPG etc.
• The use of CNG significantly reduces harmful vehicular exhaust gas emissions like carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other suspended particles.
• It protects the environment by reducing the effects of global warming.
• It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-carcinogenic and hence improves public health.
• CNG is lighter than air and hence disperses quickly without any dangerous accumulation.
• It has a narrow flammability range making it much safer than other fuels.
• It has a higher ignition temperature than other fuels, reducing chances of accidental and
spontaneous ignition.
41.3.5 Shale Gas
• Shale gas is natural gas that is trapped in shale formations. Shale is a common form of
sedimentary rock. It is formed by the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles. Shale
formations are found all over the world.
• In 2016, shale gas accounted for 52 percent of U.S. natural gas production, and those numbers
continue to rise.
• The Energy Information Administration had projected that 53 percent of the U.S. natural gas
would come from shale gas by 2040. India has identified six basins as areas for shale gas
exploration: Cambay (Gujarat), Assam-Arakan (North East), Gondwana (Central India), Krishna
Godavari onshore (East Coast), Cauvery onshore, and Indo-Gangetic basins.
41.4 Renewable or Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
• The rapidly depleting fossil fuel sources of energy, combined with increasing energy demand,
has necessitated the quest for sustainable or inexhaustible energy sources.
• Inexhaustible energy resources can be described as "those resources that can be harnessed
without depletion." The bulk of these resources are pollution-free, and some of them can be used
anywhere. Non-conventional, inexhaustible, and alternative energy sources are all concepts used
to describe renewable energy.
41.4.1 Energy from the Sun
• Solar energy, in its broadest sense, sustains all life on Earth and serves as the foundation for
almost all forms of energy we use. The Sun is abundant and an endless source of energy.
• Direct energy from the Sun:
• Solar energy is plentiful, never-ending, and completely free. Solar energy can be harnessed
directly through a range of devices that fall into three categories:
» Passive,
» Active
» Photo-voltaic.
• Some of the first solar energy applications were passive in nature, such as drying food,
evaporating sea water to produce salt, etc. Solar energy is still used for these purposes today.
Cooling, heating, cooking and daylighting of buildings and homes are some of the more recent
passive uses of solar energy.
• The effectiveness of passive solar energy depends on good building design; no mechanical
means are employed in passive use of solar energy.
• Solar energy for cooking:
41.4.2 Solar energy’s active source:
• Solar collectors, which are normally installed on roofs, are used in active solar heating and
cooling systems. Pumps and motors (moving parts)
are often needed in such systems to transfer fluids or
blow air by fan to deliver the captured heat.
41.4.3 Electricity produced from solar energy
• High-temperature heat or electricity are produced

using solar energy. Solar collectors in sunny deserts
can generate high-temperature heat that can be used to
spin turbines and generate electricity, but the cost of
such devices is prohibitive. Several solar thermal
systems can absorb and convert the sun's radiant
energy into high temperature thermal (heat) energy,
which can then be used to generate electricity.
Heliostats are large arrays of computer-controlled mirrors that monitor the sun and concentrate it
on a central heat collection tower.
41.4.3 Cooling from solar energy
• A solar collector can be used for both heating and cooling. In this device, sunlight drives a
small heat engine that operates similarly to a refrigerator's electric motor. The heat engine
powers a piston that compresses a special vapour into a liquid, which then vaporizes and
removes heat from the atmosphere.
41.4.4 Photovoltaic technology/Solar cells
• Solar cells, also described as Photovoltaic (PV) cells, can transform solar energy directly into
electrical energy (direct current, DC). Silicon and other materials are used to make photovoltaic
cells. Electrons are ejected from silicon atoms as radiation hits them. A typical solar cell is a
transparent wafer with a very thin semiconductor embedded inside it. The semiconductor is
energised by sunlight, which allows electrons to flow, resulting in an electrical current. Solar
cells have the potential to power remote villages. India
is the world's largest solar cell market.
The following are the uses of PV cells:

• Domestic lighting.
• Street lighting.
• Village lighting.
• Water pumping.
• Electrification.
• Desalination of salty water.
• Powering of remote telecommunication repeater
stations and
• Railway signals.
41.4.5 Indirect Solar Energy
• Solar energy is used by a variety of energy sources, including tide, wind, and hydroelectric
power. Out of the various types of indirect solar energy sources the following are discussed (a)
wind energy, (b) tidal energy and (c) hydroelectric energy and (d) biomass energy.
41.4.6 ONE SUN ONE WORLD ONE GRID
- The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) recently issued a request for
proposal (RfP) for developing a long-term vision, implementation plan, road map, and
institutional framework for its One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) program.
- The idea for OSOWOG was first pitched by Indian Prime Minister in 2018 during the
first General Assembly of International Solar Alliance (ISA).
- Through the OSOWOG initiative India plans to build a global ecosystem of
interconnected renewable energy resources that are seamlessly shared for mutual benefits
and global sustainability.
- The vision behind the OSOWOG is “The Sun Never Sets" and is a constant at some
geographical location, globally, at any given point of time. Hence solar energy can be
utilized through interconnected transmission. The global grid plan may also leverage the
ISA.
- The interconnected grid is envisioned among more than 140 countries with India at the
fulcrum and two broad zones viz. o Far East
which would include countries like Myanmar,
Vietnam, Thailand, Lao, Cambodia etc. and o
Far West which would cover the Middle East
and the African Region.
- It has been taken up under the World Bank
technical assistance programme.
- Benefits of OSOWOG: attracting investments;
utilizing skills and technology; reducing project
costs; higher efficiency and increased asset
utilization, scale-up in access to energy etc.
- Side Note: World Risk Mitigation Initiative
(SRMI) ⇒ World Bank has operationalised SRMI with $333 million for 22 African
countries. SRMI aims to support countries in developing sustainable solar programs that
will attract private investments and so reduce reliance on public finances. It is developed
by World Bank-Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (WB-ESMAP) in
partnership with Agence Française de Développement (AFD), International Renewable

Energy Agency (IRENA) and International Solar Alliance (ISA).
41.5 Wind Energy

• As a result of the sun's rays, a pressure 152 imbalance exists on Earth. Around 2% of the
sunlight that hits the Earth is transformed into wind, which is the kinetic energy of moving air.
The unequal absorption of solar radiation by the earth's surface creates variations in density,
temperature, and pressure, resulting in air movements driven by wind energy at regional, local,
and global levels. Wind kinetic energy can be harnessed by transforming it into mechanical or
electrical energy with the help of appropriate instruments.
• Wind is used to turn the shaft of a turbine, which is connected to a generator that generates
energy, in order to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert wind energy into mechanical
energy that can then be used to produce electricity.
41.6 Tidal Energy
• Tidal power plants aim to absorb the energy of the tides as they come in and out. The key
requirement for a tidal power generation site is that the
mean tidal range exceeds 5 metres.
• The tidal power is harnessed by constructing a
reservoir by building a dam across the entrance to an
estuary or bay. Water is initially stopped from entering
the bay when the tide rises. The dam is then opened
when the tides are high enough to power the turbines,
and water flows through it into the reservoir (the bay),
turning the turbine blades and producing electricity.
• When the reservoir (the bay) is full, the dam is
locked, restricting the flow, and storing the water in the
reservoir. When the tide goes out (ebb tide), the water
level in the reservoir is higher than the water level in the ocean. The dam is then opened to
enable the turbines (which are reversible) to operate, generating electricity as the water is
released from the reservoir.
41.7 Hydropower Energy
• Moving water energy is one of the most commonly used green energy sources. Waterpower has
been harnessed by humans since the Roman Empire. Water wheels were used to grind grain, saw
timber, and produce textiles in the past, absorbing the kinetic energy of flowing 153 rivers and
streams. The energy of water was only transformed into electricity in the 1800s. In 1882, the
world's first hydroelectric power plant began operating in the United States along the Fox River
in Appleton, Wisconsin.
• Hydroelectricity, also known as hydel power, is the generation of electricity using the force of
falling water. It is less expensive than either thermal or nuclear power. Dams are designed to
keep water at a higher level, which is then released to turn turbines that produce electricity.
• The basic principle behind hydropower energy is the damming of rivers to create artificial
waterfalls, sometimes natural waterfalls are also used. Turbines that drive electrical generators
are turned by falling water. One of the most significant benefits of hydropower is that it is a
relatively inexpensive and renewable source of energy once the dam is constructed, and the
turbines are operational.
41.8 Geothermal Energy
• We exist between two enormous energy sources: the hot rocks under the earth's crust and the
sun in the sky. Our forefathers appreciated geothermal energy because they bathed and cooked in
hot springs. Today, we realise that this resource has a much wider application potential. Natural
heat from the earth's interior that can be used to produce electricity is known as geothermal
energy.
• Geothermal resources fall into three major categories:
» Geo-pressurized zones,
» Hot-rock zones and
» Hydrothermal convection zones. Of these three only the first is currently being exploited on a
commercial basis:
41.9 Hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen gas is thought to be the fuel of the future. As hydrogen gas is burned in the air or in
fuel cells, it reacts with oxygen to create non polluting water vapour, and fuel cells turn hydrogen
directly into electricity. Since there would be no CO2 emissions, widespread use of hydrogen as
a fuel will significantly reduce air pollution and the threat of global warming.
• While hydrogen is a clean source of energy, obtaining large amounts of pure hydrogen for
commercial purposes is difficult due to the presence of other elements such as carbon, oxygen,
and nitrogen, so hydrogen must be derived from either water or organic compounds such as
methane. etc. requiring large amounts of energy that is hydrogen as a fuel has to be produced
using energy present. This is a very costly proposition.
41.10 Fuel Cell Technology
• Fuel cells are very efficient power generating systems that produce electricity by combining
fuel (hydrogen) and oxygen in an electrochemical reaction or Fuel cells are electrochemical
devices that transform a fuel's chemical energy into electricity (DC) and heat, directly and
efficiently, eliminating the need for combustion.
• The most popular types of fuel cells are hydrogen and phosphoric acid, but ethanol, methanol
and natural gas fuel cells are also available.
• Hydrogen or a combination of hydrogen-containing compounds is the best fuel for such cells.
• A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes. Oxygen passes over
one electrode and hydrogen over the other, and they react electrochemically to generate
electricity, water, and heat.
• Traditional methods generating electricity require combustion of fuel and the resultant heat is
used to produce steam to run turbines which generate electricity. This method involves loss of
heat and thus not very efficient. In chemical fuel cells on the other hand, chemical energy is
converted directly into electricity, thus are more efficient and do not produce harmful gases.
• Basic components of a hydrogen burning fuel cell are shown in the fig below: Both oxygen and
hydrogen are added to the fuel cell in an electrolyte solution. The reactants remain separated
from one another and, upon ionization, migrate through the electrolyte solution from one
electrode to another.
• The flow of electrons from the negative to the positive electrode is diverted along its path into
an electrical motor, supplying current to keep the motor running. In order to maintain this
reaction, hydrogen and oxygen are added as needed. Waste products are only oxygen and water
when hydrogen is used in a fuel cell. Using natural gas methane (CH4) in fuel cells produces
some pollutants, but the amount is only about 1% of what would be produced by burning fossil
fuels in an internal combustion engine or a conventional power plant Additionally, the efficiency
of a fuel cell is largely independent of its size and energy output. For these reasons, fuel cells are
well-suited for automobiles, homes, and large-scale power plants. They can also be used to store
energy to be used as needed.
41.11 Biofuels
• Biofuels are energy sources made from recently grown biomass (plant or animal matter).
Biofuels have been around for a long time, but petroleum and coal have been used primarily as
energy sources due to their high abundance, high energy value, and cheap prices.
41.11.1 National Policy on Biofuels, 2018
• Introduced in the year 2009, the present edition of the National Policy on Biofuels was
approved by the Union Cabinet in May 2018. The objective of the policy is targeted at taking
forward the indicative target of achieving 20% mixing of biofuels with fossil-based fuels by
2030.
Salient Features of National Policy on Biofuels, 2018:
• This Policy classifies biofuels as "Basic Biofuels'' viz. 1st Generation (1G) ethanol & biodiesel
and "Advanced Biofuels'' – 2nd Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to drop
in fuels, 3rd Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc. to facilitate extension of suitable financial
and fiscal incentives under each category.
• This Policy enlarges the scope of raw material for production of ethanol by permitting use of
Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing
materials such as Cassava, Corn, Damaged food grains such as wheat, broken rice, Rotten
Potatoes, not suitable for human consumption.
• Cultivators are at a risk of not getting appropriate price for their produce at the time of surplus
production phase. Taking this into account, the Policy permits usage of excess food grains for
ethanol production for blending with petrol with the consent of the National Biofuel
Coordination Committee.
• With a focus on Advanced Biofuels, the Biofuel Policy indicates a viability gap funding (VGF)
scheme for 2G ethanol Bio refineries of Rs.5000 crore in 6 years along with additional tax
incentives, higher purchase price as compared to 1G biofuels.
• The Policy also encourages establishment of supply chain mechanisms for production of
biodiesel from used Cooking Oil non-edible oilseeds, short gestation crops.
• Responsibilities and roles of all the related Ministries/Departments with respect to biofuels has
been captured in the Policy document to synergize efforts. With the help of the National Policy
on Biofuels, 2018, from time to time the government will undertake several financial as well as
fiscal measures to ensure effective development, adoption, and promotion of biofuels in the
country. R&D in the sector will also be supported through this policy.
⇒ First Generation Biofuels:
• 1st generation biofuels also known as conventional biofuels. These are made from sugar, starch,
or vegetable oil.
• 1st generation biofuels are produced through technologies and processes, like fermentation,
distillation, and transesterification. Ex: Sugars and starches are fermented to produce primarily
ethanol.
• Another example is biodiesel, which is produced when plant oil or animal fat goes through a
process called transesterification.
⇒ Second Generation Biofuels:
• The biomass sources for 2nd generation biofuels include wood, organic waste, food waste and
specific biomass crops.
• These biofuels also generate higher energy yields per acre than 1st generation fuels,
⇒ Third Generation Biofuels:
• Third generation biofuels use specially engineered crops such as algae as the energy source.
These algae are grown and harvested to extract oil within them. The oil can then be converted
into biodiesel through a similar process as 1st generation Biofuels'' viz. 1st Generation (1G)
ethanol & biodiesel and "Advanced Biofuels'' – 2nd Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW) to drop in fuels, 3rd Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc. to facilitate extension
of suitable financial and fiscal incentives under each category.
• This Policy enlarges the scope of raw material for production of ethanol by permitting use of
Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet, Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing
materials such as Cassava, Corn, Damaged food grains such as wheat, broken rice, Rotten
Potatoes, not suitable for human consumption.
• Cultivators are at a risk of not getting appropriate price for their produce at the time of surplus
production phase. Taking this into account, the Policy permits usage of excess food grains for
ethanol production for blending with petrol with the consent of the National Biofuel
Coordination Committee.
• With a focus on Advanced Biofuels, the Biofuel Policy indicates a viability gap funding (VGF)
scheme for 2G ethanol Bio refineries of Rs.5000 crore in 6 years along with additional tax
incentives, higher purchase price as compared to 1G biofuels.
• The Policy also encourages establishment of supply chain mechanisms for production of
biodiesel from used Cooking Oil non-edible oilseeds, short gestation crops.
• Responsibilities and roles of all the related Ministries/Departments with respect to biofuels has
been captured in the Policy document to synergize efforts. With the help of the National Policy
on Biofuels, 2018, from time to time the government will undertake several financial as well as
fiscal measures to ensure effective development, adoption, and promotion of biofuels in the
country. R&D in the sector will also be supported through this policy. 158 biofuels, or it can be
refined into other fuels as replacements to petroleum-based fuels.
✍✍ 📝📝Mains Question
Q. (GSM3-2020)- What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
initiated by the Government of India?
Q. (GSM3-2018)- What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded
solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we safely remove the toxic wastes
that have been accumulating in our habitable environment?
Q. (GSM3-2016)- Give an account of the current status and the targets to be achieved pertaining
to renewable energy sources in the country. Discuss in brief the importance of the National
Programme on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
Q. (GSM3-2015)- The Namami Gange and National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)
programmes and causes of mixed results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can
help preserve the river Ganga better than incremental inputs?
Q. MOCK- How are Bharat Stage lV (BS-IV) norms different from Bharat Stage VI norms
(BS-VI)?
Pillar_5A_CLIMATE_CHANGE_&_Hazardous_Waste
50 Concept of Climate Change 255

50.2 Climate change 256
50.3 Causes of climate change 256
50.3.1 The natural causes of climate change are 257
50.3.2 Anthropogenic causes 259
✅ Greenhouse effect 259
✅ How does the greenhouse effect work? 259
✅ Why do greenhouse gases absorb heat? 260
📝📝 GHG Protocol 266
🌎🌎 Global Warming Potential (GWP) 266
● The effects of climate change can be studied under the following heads, 267
50.4 🌎☀☀ Sudden Stratospheric Warming 273
50.5 🌎🌎🌎 Ozone depletion 275
50.5.1 Causes of ozone depletion 275
50.5.2 How is ozone destroyed? 276
🧊🔥❄ LOSS OF ICE COVER IN THE ARCTIC SEA 276
Impacts of Declining Arctic Sea ice cover 277
✍ Conclusion 277
😷😷😖 COVID-19 AND ITS IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE
EFFORTS 277
Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Environment: 277
Effects of COVID-19 on Climate Change efforts 278
Learnings of COVID-19 for Environment and Climate Change 279
✍ Conclusion 281
50.6 Emissions Gap Report 2020 281
50.7 Adaptation Gap Report, 2020 281
50.8 Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 282
India ranked 10th in the latest edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI). 282
The Index is published by Germanwatch, New Climate Institute and the Climate Action
Network. 282
50.9 State of the Global Climate report 282
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_5A_CLIMATE_CHANGE_&_Hazardous_Waste→ Page-253
50.6📝📝📝 Initiative to reduce Ozone depletion→ Treaties 282

50.7📝📝📝 International Mechanism to Combat climate change→ Timeline 286
50.7.1 UNFCCC 287
50.7.2 CoP 1, Berlin 289
50.7.3 Kyoto Protocol 289
50.7.4 Bali Meet 293
50.7.5 Copenhagen summit, 2009 293
50.7.6 Cancun Summit 294
50.7.7 Doha summit (COP-18) 295
50.7.8 Warsaw summit (COP-19) 296
50.7.9 Paris meet (COP-21/CMP-11) 296
50.7.10 Marrakech (Morocco) Climate Change Conference 2016 (COP22; CMP12;
CMA1) 298
50.7.11 COP 23, 2017- Bonn 299
50.7.12 Katowice (Poland) Climate Change Conference 2018 (COP 24; CMP 14; CMA
1-3) 300
50.7.13 COP 25, 2019- Madrid 300
50.7.14 Initiative By World Bank 301
50.7.15 Initiative By EU 303
50.7.16 Initiative By Arctic Council 303
50.7.17 Initiative By Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) 303
50.8📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change 304
50.8.1 India’s post-2020 climate goals 304
📝📝📝
50.8.2 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC)/जलवायु परिवर्तन पर राष्ट्रीय कार्य योजना (NAPCC) 304
📝📝📝
50.8.2.1 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Solar Mission 306
📝📝📝
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency 307
📝📝📝
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Water Mission 309
📝📝📝
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission for a Green India 254
📝📝📝
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission on Seabuckthorn 255
📝📝📝
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission on Sustainable Habitat 255
📝📝📝
Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture 256
50.8.2.8 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC) →National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
(NMSHE) 259
50.8.2.9 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC) →National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate
Change (NMSKCC) 260
50.8.3.1 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other initiatives→
National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change 261
50.8.3.1 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other
initiatives→Climate Change Action Programme 261
50.8.3.2 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other
initiatives→FAME Scheme for E-mobility 262
50.8.3.3 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other initiatives→Atal
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 262
50.8.3.4 📝📝📝 Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→Other
initiatives→Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas) 263
initiatives→UJALA scheme 263
initiatives→Swachh Bharat Mission 264
initiatives→National Clean Air Programme 264
51 Hazardous Waste - Convention 265
51.1 Conventions On Pollutants 265
51.1.1 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 265
51.1.2 Basel Convention 267
51.1.3 Rotterdam Convention 268
51.1.4 Minamata Convention 269
51.1.5 London Dumping Convention 271
51.1.6 Marpol convention 272
50 Concept of Climate Change
50.1 Introduction
➢ The balance between incoming energy from the sun and outgoing energy from Earth
ultimately drives our climate.
➢ This energy balance is governed by the first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of
conservation of energy.
➢ This law states that energy can be transferred from one system to another in many forms, but
it cannot be created or destroyed.
➢ Therefore, any energy “lost” during one process will equal the same amount of energy
“gained” during another.
50.2 Climate change
● Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place.

● It could be a change in any of the following factors;
○ Temperature
○ Pressure
○ Humidity
○ Rainfall
○ Wind Climate change
➢ The Earth's climate has changed throughout history.
➢ Just in the last 650,000 years there have been seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, with
the abrupt end of the last ice age about 7,000 years ago.
➢ It marked the beginning of the modern climate era— and of human civilization.
➢ Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit that
change the amount of solar energy our planet receives.
50.3 Causes of climate change
➢ There is an energy balance in the atmosphere which maintains the climate on Earth.
➢ When averaged over the course of a year, the amount of incoming solar radiation received
from the sun has balanced the amount of outgoing energy emitted from Earth. This equilibrium is
called Earth's energy or radiation balance.
➢ When this energy balance is disrupted, it causes a change in the climate.
➢ Any factor that causes a change to Earth’s energy balance is known as a radiative forcing or a
forcing.
➢ A positive forcing, such as that produced by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases,

tends to warm the Earth’s surface.
➢ A negative forcing, such as that produced by airborne particles that reflect solar energy, tends
to cool the Earth’s surface.
● Forcings may also be either
○ natural- or
○ human-caused (also known as anthropogenic)
50.3.1 The natural causes of climate change are
● Continental drift and plate tectonics

● Sunspot and solar cycle
● Volcanoes
● Forest fires
● Earth’s tilt
● Comets and Meteorites Natural Causes of climate change Continental drift and plate tectonics
● The continents had a different arrangement hundreds of million years ago.
● Landmass or more specifically plates have been in continuous movement and have been
gradually drifting apart due to plate tectonics.
● This drift also had an impact on the climate.
● Drift changed the position and physical features of the landmass, the position of water bodies,
the flow of ocean currents and winds, which in turn affected the global climate.
● The drift process is still continued today as seen in the Himalayas rising by about 1 cm every
year.
➢ Sunspot and solar cycle
➢ Sunspots are storms on the sun’s surface that cause intense magnetic activity, solar flares and
hot gassy ejections from the sun’s corona.
➢ It affects atmospheric phenomena on Earth, such as cloud cover.
➢ But these changes in the solar energy output are considered very small to explain major
changes in our climate in a short duration of recent decades.
→ Volcanoes
● Volcanic eruption causes outburst of gases and dust particles which block the incoming rays of
the Sun.
● The blockage of insolation causes cooling of the weather.
● The optical properties of SO2 and sulfate aerosols, which strongly absorb or scatter solar
radiation, create a global layer of sulfuric acid haze.
● The eruption of Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) in 1991 decreased global temperatures
decreased by about 0.5 °C for up to three years
● Although volcanic activity may last only a few days yet the large volumes of gases and ash can
influence the climatic pattern over several years.
→ Forest fires
● Wildfires, which are intensified by global warming, also exacerbate global warming.
● Forest fires produce a lot of smoke which carries soot particles that increase the greenhouse
effect in the atmosphere.
● Black carbon, a component of soot, absorbs heat in the atmosphere and hastens snow melt
when it lands on snow.
● While forests and healthy soil normally absorb carbon dioxide, fires cause the release of
carbon dioxide from vegetation and soil into the atmosphere, trapping ever more heat.
→ Comets and meteorites
● Meteorites striking Earth also affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and
atmospheric circulation.
● An impact from a body the size of meteorites would have released huge quantities of vaporised
material into the atmosphere, blocking out the Sun and causing an initial "impact winter".
● In addition, chemical reactions taking place in the atmosphere between pollutants would result
in the formation of globally distributed acid rains.
● Luckily such impacts only occur rarely, perhaps every few million or tens of millions of years.
● The most important anthropogenic cause for climate change is attributed to the global warming
trend observed since the mid-20th century.
● According to most climate scientists the chief cause of the current global warming trend is the
increase in the "greenhouse effect".
50.3.2 Anthropogenic causes
✅Greenhouse effect
● Earth is sometimes called the “Goldilocks” planet – it’s not too hot, not too cold, and the
conditions are just right to allow life, including us, to flourish.
● Part of what makes Earth so amenable is the naturally-arising greenhouse effect, which keeps
the planet at a friendly 15 °C (59 °F) on average.
● A greenhouse effect is the effect produced by a greenhouse.
● A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof.
● Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and tropical flowers in cold areas.
● A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter.
● In the daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside.
● At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because
the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.
● The greenhouse effect is produced the same way on Earth as a whole.
● Earth acts like the building and the gases in the atmosphere acts like the glass in the
greenhouse.
● The gases in the atmosphere trap the heat of the Sun’s rays within them to keep the Earth
warm.
● These heat trapping gases in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases.
✅ How does the greenhouse effect work?

● The sun's high temperature causes it to
emit solar radiation of mostly shorter
wavelengths.
● Therefore, incoming solar energy from
the sun primarily consists of shorter
wavelengths of energy, mostly in the
visible part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
● The sun's visible wavelengths of radiation pass easily through the atmosphere and reach Earth.
● Approximately 51% of this sunlight is absorbed at Earth's surface by the land, water, and
vegetation.
● Some of this energy is emitted back from the Earth's surface in the form of infrared radiation.
● Because Earth is colder than the sun, it emits radiation at much longer wavelengths (in the
infrared part of the spectrum).
● Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb the
longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface.
● These gases then emit the infrared radiation in all directions, both outward toward space and
downward toward Earth.
● This process creates a second source of radiation to warm the surface– visible radiation from
the sun and infrared radiation from the atmosphere – which causes Earth to be warmer than it
otherwise would be.
● This process is known as the natural greenhouse effect and keeps Earth's average global
temperature at approximately 15°C (59°F).
● Without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s average surface temperature would be only about −18
°C and the earth
would have been a frozen, barren planet.
✅ Why do greenhouse gases absorb heat?

● Greenhouse gases are more complex than other gas molecules in the atmosphere.
● They have a structure which enables them to trap heat.
● There are several different types of greenhouse gases.
● The major ones are carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gas
molecules all are made of three or more atoms.
● The atoms are held together loosely enough that they vibrate when they absorb heat.
● Eventually, the vibrating molecules release the radiation, which will likely be absorbed by
another greenhouse gas molecule.
● This process keeps heat near the Earth’s surface.
● Most of the gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen and oxygen – both of which are molecules made
of two atoms.
● The atoms in these molecules are bound together tightly and unable to vibrate, so they cannot
absorb heat and contribute to the greenhouse effect.
• If greenhouse gases are not checked, by the turn of the century the temperature may rise by
5°C.
Carbon dioxide ● Primary GHG.

● It is released through natural processes such as respiration and
volcano eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation,
land use changes, and burning fossil fuels.
● It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of
it towards the earth’s surface. It is largely responsible for the
greenhouse effect
● Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by more
than a third since the Industrial Revolution began.
● It is still increasing gradually due to industrialisation and
urbanisation.
● This is the most important long-lived "forcing" of climate change.
Ozone • Ozone is another important greenhouse gas. But it is in very small

proportions at the surface.
• Most of it is confined to the stratosphere where it absorbs the harmful
UV radiation.
• At ground level, pollutants like NO2 react with volatile organic
compounds in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone (tropospheric
ozone).
Water vapour • Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which
decreases with altitude.
• Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the
air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar
regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
• One unique feature about this greenhouse gas is that it absorbs both
incoming (a part of incoming) and outgoing solar radiation.
Methane • Methane is the most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide.
• It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes and biological
matter.
• The emission of this gas can be restricted by using animal wastes and
biological matter to produce gobar gas (methane).
● A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and
human activities.
● Natural sources include wetlands, digestion of livestock, oceans,
volcanoes and wildfires.
● Human activities include decomposition of wastes in landfills,
agriculture, and especially rice cultivation, manure management
associated with domestic livestock, natural gas industry, etc.
● It is 20 times more potent as a GHG than CO2 but has a short
lifespan.
⇒ Recent studies from the Global Carbon Project (GCP) have shown
that methane in the Earth’s atmosphere has risen enormously.
Nitrous Oxide • N2O or Nitrous Oxide is a greenhouse gas.

(N2O) • NO and NO2 (nitric oxide or nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide)
emissions cause global cooling.
● Source: Nitrogen fixation, fertilizers in agriculture, fossil fuel
combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes.
● It is even more potent than methane as a GHG (300 times than CO2).
Carbon Monoxide • Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas (it is less dense than
air).
• Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized
to carbon dioxide.
Fluorinated gases ● Source: Industrial processes such as aluminum and semiconductor

manufacturing, substitute for ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances) in
products like refrigerators, air-conditioners, foams and aerosol cans.
● Four types: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
● They have very high GWP (Global Warming Potential).
⦁ Fluorinated gases
⦁ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• This anthropogenic compound is also a greenhouse gas, with a much
higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO2 .
Hydrofluorocarbon • Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants,

s solvents, and fire retardants.
• These chemicals were developed as a replacement for
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with long
atmospheric lifetimes.
● Perfluorocarbons produced in aluminum and semiconductor
industries have even longer atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs.
● Sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800, making it the most potent
greenhouse gas designated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change.
Perfluorocarbons • Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by-product in

aluminium production and the manufacturing of semiconductors.
• Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high
global warming potential.
Sulphur • Sulphur hexafluoride is also a greenhouse gas.

hexafluoride • Sulphur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and
semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for leak detection.
• Sulphur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission equipment,

including circuit breakers.
Black Carbon or • Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol (though not a gas) that
Soot contributes to warming of the atmosphere. Black carbon, commonly
known as soot.
• Soot is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced from incomplete
combustion.
• Black carbon warms the earth by absorbing heat in the atmosphere
and by reducing albedo (the ability to reflect sunlight) when deposited
on snow and ice.
• BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the air directly.
• In addition, it darkens snow packs and glaciers through deposition
and leads to melting of ice and snow.
• Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall.
• Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
• Thus, the effects of BC on atmospheric warming and glacier retreat
disappear within months of reducing emissions.
Brown Carbon
• Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified component of organic
aerosol.
• Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is shown to be a
major source of brown carbon
• Brown carbon is generally referred for greenhouse gases and black
carbon for particles resulting from impure combustion, such as soot
and dust.
● If the concentration of greenhouse gases increases, then more
infrared radiation will be absorbed and emitted back toward Earth's
surface, creating an enhanced or amplified greenhouse effect.
● Balance to the energy budget is thus restored when Earth’s average

global temperature increases.
● There are huge disparities between the world’s top 15 CO2
emissions-generating countries.
● China creates almost double the emissions of second-placed US,
which is in turn responsible for more than twice the level of
third-placed India.
● Collectively, the top 15 generate 72% of CO2 emissions.
● The rest of the world’s 180 countries produce nearly 28% of the
global total– close to the amount China produces on its own.
📝📝 GHG Protocol
• GHG Protocol is developing standards, tools and online training that helps countries, cities and
companies track progress towards their climate goals.
• GHG Protocol establishes frameworks to measure and manage greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions from private and public sector operations, value chains and mitigation actions.
• The GHG Protocol arose when the World Resources Institute (WRI) ( NGO US BASED) and
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) GENEVA recognized the
need for an international standard for corporate GHG accounting and reporting in the late 1990s.
● GWP is a parameter to measure the amount of heat a GHG traps in the atmosphere.
● In other words, it is a tool to compare the global warming effects of different GHGs.
● Specifically, it is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb
over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
🌎🌎 Global Warming Potential (GWP)

● The time period usually used for GWPs is 100 years.
● GWPs provide a common unit of measure, which allows analysts to add up emissions
estimates of different gases (e.g., to compile a national GHG inventory).
● It allows policymakers to compare emissions reduction opportunities across sectors and gases.
● The larger the GWP, the more a given GHG warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time
period (usually 100 years). Gas GWP (100-year) Lifetime (years) Carbon dioxide 1 50-200
Methane 21 12 Nitrous oxide 310 120 Hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs) 140 -11,700 1-270

Perfluorocarbons(PFCs) 6,500-9,200 800-50,000 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6 ) 23,900 3,200 The
larger the GWP ,the more warming the gas causes. For ex- methane’s 100 year GWP-is 21 which
means that methane will cause 21 times as much as an equivalent mass of carbon dioxide over a
100 year time period.
● The effects of climate change can be studied under the following heads,
○ Rise in Temperature
○ Melting ice
○ Rise in sea levels
○ Extreme climates
○ Ocean acidification
○ Extreme drought and wildfires
○ Agriculture
○ Ecosystems and societies
1. Rise in Temperature
● Since the Industrial Revolution, the surface temperature over land has increased more rapidly
than that of the oceans.
● This is due to the higher heat capacity of oceans as compared to the land.
● The polar regions have warmed more than the tropical regions. This is happening because, as
the brighter ice (with higher albedo and reflectivity) melts, the darker water (with a lower
albedo) can absorb more heat and intensify the warming.
Temperature of the Lower Atmosphere
● Measurements from satellites and weather balloons show that the lowest layer of the
atmosphere— the layer where we live, airplanes fly, and weather occurs— is warming.
● Greenhouse gases are building up in this layer, trapping heat radiated from Earth's surface and
raising the planet's temperature.
Air Temperature over Ocean
● Thermometers on ships and floating buoys show that air near the ocean's surface is getting
warmer, increasing its ability to evaporate water.
● In turn, we see an increase in heavy precipitation events and flooding on land.
Air Temperature over Land

● Satellites and weather stations on land show that average air temperature at the surface is going
up.
● Consequently, we see an increase in the number of heat wave events and the area affected by
drought.
Sea Surface Temperature
● Satellite sensors and thermometers on ships and buoys show that the temperature of water at
the ocean's surface is rising.
● Warm surface waters can damage coral reefs, reducing opportunities for fishing and tourism,
and leave coasts vulnerable to storm surges and erosion.
● Scientists project global mean temperature to increase by approximately 1°C for the lowest
emissions scenario and 4°C for the highest emissions scenario by 2100.
● This projected global mean temperature change for the 21st century will depend on which
scenario actually occurs.
● The low emissions scenario assumes that humans will aggressively reduce emissions so that
the increase by 2100 is only 2°C higher than pre-industrial levels.
● This 2°C seems to be a critical number for many scientists, including the IPCC. According to
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ;
● Warming by 1.5-2 degree celsius would not be the same everywhere on the planet.
● The strongest warming is happening in the Arctic during its cool seasons, and in Earth’s
mid-latitude regions during the warm season.
● . ● Most land regions will see more hot days, especially in the tropics.
● At 1.5 degrees Celsius warming, about 14 percent of Earth’s population will be exposed to
severe heat waves at least once every five years, while at 2 degrees warming that number jumps
to 37 percent.
● Extreme heat waves will become widespread at 1.5 degrees Celsius warming.
● At Earth’s mid-latitudes, the hottest days will be up to 3 degrees Celsius hotter at 1.5 degrees
Celsius warming and up to 4 degrees Celsius warmer at 2 degrees Celsius warming.
● At 2 degrees Celsius warming, the deadly heat waves India and Pakistan saw in 2015 may
occur annually.
● Arctic land regions will see cold extremes warm by as much as 5.5 degrees Celsius at 1.5
degrees Celsius warming or less, while at warming of 1.5 to 2 degrees Celsius, cold extremes
will be up to 8 degrees Celsius warmer.
● Cold spells will also be shorter.
● In the absence of policies, global warming is expected to reach 4.1°C – 4.8°C above
pre-industrial levels by the end of the century.
● Limiting warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100 means that the emissions of
greenhouse gases need to be reduced rapidly in the coming years and decades, and brought to
zero around the mid century.
2. Melting ice
● Ice and snow still cover 10% of Earth’s landmasses and 7% of the oceans.
● Places on Earth where it is so cold that water is in its solid form as snow or ice are known as
the cryosphere.
● The cryosphere includes ice and snow (precipitation made of ice crystals) in the form of frozen
ground, such as
○ Permafrost
○ Ice sheets, glaciers
○ Sea ice
● The Antarctic ice sheet contains 90% of the freshwater on Earth.
● If all of this ice on Antarctica melted, global sea level would rise at least 61 meters (200 feet).
● In the last 26 years, Greenland's melting ice has added 0.4 inches (11 millimeters) to sea level
rise. Extreme climates Heat waves
● A heat wave is generally a period of several days to weeks of abnormally hot weather that may
or may not be accompanied by high humidity.
● The World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days
of temperatures 5°C (9°F) above the average maximum temperature.
● With an increasing number of hotter days, there have been a greater number of heat waves.
Storm events
● Cyclonic storm events can be some of the most powerful storm events on the planet.
● Scientists say that there will be more tropical cyclones and temperate cyclones with increasing
global warming trends.
Water cycle changes - Precipitation and drought

● Earth’s water cycle changes in response to natural variability, but scientists are becoming more
certain that the human impact of increasing greenhouse gas emissions will cause more changes to
the water cycle.
● Evaporation rates will increase with a warmer climate, causing an increase in the amount of
moisture in the lower atmosphere.
● With higher water vapor concentrations, there is an increased frequency of intense
precipitation events, primarily over land areas.
● In addition, there will be greater chances of the precipitation falling as rain than snow due to
the warmer temperatures.
Flooding
● Flooding is defined as an overflow of water onto normally dry land.
● As extreme rain events increase, flooding events are also expected to increase. A flooding
event can be caused by human-related factors.
● However, the majority of floods are related to weather events. There are four main types of
these weather related flooding events:
○ Flash floods,
○ Urban flooding
○ River flooding, and
○ Coastal flooding
● A flash flood is a short-term event, happening within just a few hours,caused by heavy
precipitation as well as rapid snowmelt, or the failure of dams or levees.
● Urban flooding, caused by short-term heavy precipitation, occurs as a result of the large areas
of impervious surfaces (such as roads, pavement, parking lots, and buildings).
● River flooding occurs when a river fills with water (drained from the surrounding watershed)
and exceeds the channel capacity and overflows the banks to inundate adjacent low lying areas.
● Finally, storm surges that accompany hurricanes and other coastal storms push large seawater
domes toward the shore causing coastal flooding.
Ocean acidification
● Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has
increased by about 30 percent.
● This increase is the result of humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and
hence more being absorbed into the oceans.
● The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing by about
2 billion tons per year.
Coral reefs
● Climate change is the greatest global threat to coral reef ecosystems.
● As temperatures rise, mass coral bleaching events and infectious disease outbreaks are
becoming more frequent. The Biological Impacts
● Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees.
● Photosynthetic algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2 conditions in the ocean, as
they require CO2 to live just like plants on land.
● It may impact food security as more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the
ocean as their primary source of protein.
3. Extreme Drought and Wildfires
● Drought is defined as a prolonged period of time with abnormally low precipitation.
● Due to global warming, not all areas on the planet will have increases in precipitation.
● As warmer temperatures and drought conditions increase, there is also greater likelihood for
more wildfires.
● Droughts are complex events that can be associated with significantly reduced precipitation,
dry soils that fail to sustain crops, and reduced levels in reservoirs and other bodies of water that
imperil drinking supplies.
● Global warming is said to increase the drought conditions on many areas of land.
2019 Amazon rainforest fires
● Forest fires do happen in the Amazon during the dry season between June And October.
● They can be caused by naturally occurring events, like lightning strikes, but this year most are
thought to have been started by farmers and loggers clearing land for crops or grazing.
● This matters because the Amazon is the largest rainforest in the world and a vital carbon store
that slows down the pace of global warming.
● Deforestation releases this trapped carbon into the atmosphere. It can also trigger change in
rainfall patterns leading to drought conditions.
4. Agriculture Impact on Crops
● At least three main channels through which climate change would impact farm incomes – an
increase in average temperatures, a decline in average rainfall and an increase in the number of
dry-days.
● Higher temperature- > Increased moisture stress and drought -> crop damage and lesser
production
● Longer growing season + high temp -> more demand for water-> more drought
● More GHG emission-> more CO2 in the atmosphere-> better plant water-use efficiency and
rates of photosynthesis=> better crop yield but weeds grow faster.
● Sea-level rise + coastal flooding due to cyclones=> coastal land erosion + sea water intrusion=
> salinisation + contamination of fresh water for drinking and irrigation.
● More floods, droughts and heat waves => crop failure + famine + water crisis.
● IPCC AR3 predicted that the poorest countries in tropical regions would be hit the hardest with
threats to their food security.
● Malnutrition and diseases would be the biggest killer in these regions.
5. Ecosystem and Societies
● Climate change => high temperature and extreme conditions=> species unable to migrate to
better climates would perish.
● Lesser crop productivity + increasing population => demand for food => demand for more
cultivable land => deforestation => loss of biodiversity.
● Ocean acidification + ocean warming + sea level rise + changes in thermohaline circulation=>
loss of planktons, shell-forming species like corals, fishes etc => marine ecosystem disturbed.
● Rise in temperature + anthropogenic activities like deforestation, tourism, degradation of
mountain slopes=> degradation of mountain biodiversity.
● Melting of Himalayan glaciers + change in the cycle of freezing and thawing of snow =>
change in river water volume and flow + glacial lake outbursts => flooding like Kedarnath.
● Flooding and submergence in downstream areas => loss of vegetation and wild animals +
water-borne diseases.
● Climate change=> desertification=> expansion of desert area + change in climatic
characteristics of deserts.
● Ocean acidification=> threat to coral reefs in coastal areas and Indian islands
● Sea level rise + ocean warming=> reduction in delta and coastal land=> threat to mangroves
and threatened species like sea turtles along Odisha beach.
6. Impact on Humans
● Humans are an integral part of the Biosphere.
● Any disturbance in biodiversity and climate will affect human activities and requirements
directly (All discussed changes so far would directly affect Human)
● Global warming can lead to aggravated pollution which will in turn lead to more diseases and
epidemics.
● Flooding and waterlogging will increase water borne diseases.
● Drought and desertification implies reduced water availability and land resources.
● Decline in crop production due to climate change => population-food mismatch => hunger and
malnutrition=> death of mainly poor people in tropical countries.
● Heat waves + flooding and droughts=> loss of life and property.
● GHG emission=> ozone layer depletion=> UV rays exposure=> weaker immune system, skin
cancer etc.
● Note- Climate change is discriminatory in nature i.e. its impacts are more forcefully felt up on
poor and deprived sections than rich and those having and controlling resources. It can be linked
to right based issues as well.
50.4 🌎☀☀Sudden Stratospheric Warming
● Record warm temperatures occurred above Antarctica in a phenomenon called “sudden

stratospheric warming”.
● In sudden stratospheric warming, the stratosphere high above the pole began rapidly heating.
● Every winter, westerly winds, often up to 200 km/hrs, develop in the stratosphere high above
the south pole and circle the polar region.
● The winds develop as a result of the difference in temperature over the pole (where there is no
sunlight) and the southern ocean (where the sun still shines).
● As the sun shifts southward during spring, the polar region starts to warm. This warming
causes the stratospheric vortex and associated westerly winds to gradually weaken over the
period of a few months.
● However, in some years this breakdown can happen faster than usual.
● Waves of air from the lower atmosphere (from large weather systems or flow over mountains)
warm the stratosphere above the south pole.
● This weakens or “mixes” the high-speed westerly winds.
● Very rarely, if the waves are strong enough they can rapidly break down the polar vortex,
actually reversing the direction of the winds so they become easterly.
● Apart from warming the Antarctic region, the most notable effect of the phenomenon will be a
shift of the Southern Ocean westerly winds towards the Equator.
● Tasmania Newzealand’s south island, and patagonia directly in the path of the strongest
westerlies results in more strominess and rainfall, and colder temperatures.
● Subtropical Australia, which largely sits north of the main belt of westerlies, receives reduced
rainfall, clearer skies and warmer temperatures.
● The weather system causing the rapid rise of stratospheric temperatures also lead to weakening
of the Antarctica polar vortex, a slowly-spinning pool of stratospheric air trapped by aring of
fierce westerly winds- the polar night jet- that emerges in the upper stratosphere during winter at
the South pole.
● The breakdown of the polar vortex helped the ozone hole in two ways. The early season
warmth minimized further formation and persistence of polar stratospheric clouds. Because these
clouds enable the chemistry that produces ozone-destroying substances, fewer clouds meant less
ozone destruction. The weak polar vortex also allowed more ozone-rich air from lower latitudes
of the southern hemisphere to mix into the polar stratosphere and partially patch the hole that had
begun to form. The lingering warmth prevented it from reforming.
● This is the third time in the last 40 years that weather systems have caused warm temperatures
that limit ozone depletion. Similar weather patterns in the Antarctic stratosphere in september
1988 and 2002 also produced alyptically small ozone holes.
50.5 🌎🌎🌎Ozone depletion

● In the mid-1970s, scientists became aware that the ozone layer was threatened by the
accumulation of gases containing halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the atmosphere
● Then, in the mid-1980s, scientists discovered a ‘hole’ in the ozone layer above Antarctica- the
region of Earth’s atmosphere with severe depletion.
50.5.1 Causes of ozone depletion
● Man-made chemicals containing halogens were determined to be the main cause of ozone loss.
● These chemicals are collectively known as ozone-depleting substances (ODSs).
● The most important are
chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) which
at one time were widely used in air
conditioners, refrigerators and
aerosol cans.
● Other chemicals, such as
hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), halons and methyl
bromide also deplete the ozone layer.

● Most of our computers, electronics and parts of our appliances were cleaned with
ozone-depleting solvents.
50.5.2 How is ozone destroyed?
● When a CFC molecule reaches the stratosphere, it eventually absorbs UV radiation causing it
to decompose and release its chlorine atoms.
● One chlorine atom can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules.
● Too many of these chlorine and bromine reactions disrupt the delicate chemical balance that
maintains the ozone layer, causing ozone to be destroyed faster than it is created.
🧊🔥❄ LOSS OF ICE COVER IN THE ARCTIC SEA

- Recently, the National Centre of Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) found the largest
decline in the Arctic Sea ice in the last 41 years due to global warming in July, 2019.
- NCPOR noted that between 1979 and 2018, the sea ice has been declining at a rate of
-4.7 percent per decade, while its rate was found to be -13 per cent in July 2019.
- Sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the ocean surface. It forms in both the Arctic and
the Antarctic in each hemisphere’s winter; it retreats in the summer, but does not
completely disappear.
- If this trend continues, there would be no ice left in the Arctic sea by 2050 since the
volume of ice loss during summers might surpass the volume of ice formation during
winters.
- Rapid decline in Arctic sea ice cover is linked with growing carbon emissions and
subsequent global warming.
- National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR)→It was established as an
autonomous Research and Development Institution of the Ministry of Earth Sciences in
1998 to carry out research activities in the polar and Southern Ocean realms→It is also
responsible for maintenance of the Indian stations in Antarctica (Maitri & Bharati) and
Arctic (Himadri).
Impacts of Declining Arctic Sea ice cover
• Influence on regional weather: The decline of sea ice may have an impact on evaporation
rates, air humidity, cloud cover, and rainfall of neighboring regions.
o In recent times, high temperatures have been recorded in the Siberian region, causing a
prolonged heatwave, which have been attributed to absence of sea ice among other factors.
• Loss of habitat: for seals and polar bears. This also increases encounters between polar bears
and humans.
• Coastal erosion: As sea ice retreats from coastlines, wind-driven waves combined with
thawing permafrost may lead to more rapid coastal erosion.
• Impact on global climate: In the Arctic, ocean circulation is driven by the sinking of dense,
salty water. Fresh meltwater coming primarily from the Greenland Ice Sheet could interfere with
ocean circulation at high latitudes, slowing it down. Any changes in ocean circulations can have
unpredictable global impacts even in lower latitudes such as extreme weather events, droughts
etc.
• Positive feedback cycle (the ice-albedo feedback): Sea ice has higher albedo than ocean
water. Once sea ice begins to melt, a self-reinforcing cycle often begins whereby as more ice
melts and exposes more dark water, the water absorbs more sunlight and the sun warmed water
then melts more ice.
✍ Conclusion
Arctic sea ice is part of a complex global system, and as a result it affects communities at all
latitudes. The loss of Arctic sea ice can be slowed largely by reducing carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gas emissions and by conserving other natural resources that have global impacts.
😷😷😖COVID-19 AND ITS IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE

EFFORTS
- The COVID-19 crisis could mark a turning point in progress on climate change.
Impact of COVID-19 Lockdown on Environment:
It has a mixed impact on environment-
• Reduced Pollution: There was a marked decline in air pollution (decreased concentrations of
NO2 and PM 2.5), clean beaches due to lack of tourists and reduced noise pollution. o For
instance, the average Air Quality Index (AQI) for the major Indian cities was between 300-500;
after the lockdown, it plunged to 50 to 100.
• Decline in Carbon Emissions: Huge decreases in transportation and industrial activity due to
COVID-19 lockdown resulted in a drop in daily global carbon emissions of 17% in April.
However, CO2 levels in the atmosphere reached their highest monthly average ever recorded in
May - 417.1 parts per million. This is because the carbon dioxide already emitted can remain in
the atmosphere for longer times.
• Increased waste and More plastic: COVID-19 has vastly increased our use of plastic: gloves
and masks and PPE kits, and disposable shopping bags etc. E-commerce has also resulted in
more packaging materials, increasing the carbon footprint of e-commerce. There has also been
reduction in waste recycling as authorities have been concerned about the risk of COVID-19
spreading in recycling centers.
Effects of COVID-19 on Climate Change efforts
Public support for action on climate change increased to a peak prior to the pandemic;
government and corporate action was also gathering momentum. COVID-19 has clearly slowed
this momentum.
• International negotiations delayed: 2020 was supposed to be a “a pivotal year” for efforts to
address climate change. COP26 of UNFCCC, World Conservation Congress, Convention on
Biological Diversity and 2020 UN Ocean Conference etc. all are postponed.
• Ahead of the COP26 summit, 196 countries were to announce plans to ratchet up climate
actions, since the plans they submitted in 2015 could still allow global temperatures to rise by a
potentially catastrophic 3°C.
• While the need to mobilize governments to act on climate has never been more urgent, the
inability to gather world leaders to address the issue could make it all the more difficult to do so.
• Less money for climate resilience and renewable energy: The need for more emergency
services coupled with a reduction in tax revenue has taken an economic toll on governments’
efforts. As a result, some have had to delay and divert funding away from climate resilience
projects and renewable energy.
• Scientific research disrupted: Due to lockdowns and travel bans, scientists have been unable
to travel to do their fieldwork, and there’s a limit to how much some can accomplish with data
and computers alone.
• Deforestation and illegal poaching: As Brazil, hard hit by COVID-19, is focused on
controlling the virus, illegal loggers and miners are taking advantage of the situation to cut down
large swaths of the Amazon.
Learnings of COVID-19 for Environment and Climate Change
As the world is struggling with the rapid-onset COVID-19 crisis, here are some lessons on how
to ensure that the recovery from the COVID-19 crisis will put the 2030 Agenda and the Paris
Agreement at the center of sustainable development efforts.
• Put science and scientists first: In the case of COVID-19, collaborative networks of scientists
beyond political lines and national borders, has increased the efficiency and speed in research to
find a cure.
o Learning: Along with the multilateral political negotiation, well informed climate negotiations
mean unimpeded transparency and scientific cooperation, such as the one provided by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
• Mobilising Financial resources: Governments have quickly mobilized financial support to
back businesses and expand welfare benefits in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
o Learning: To avoid a climate catastrophe, climate finance must overcome difficult
negotiations and political conflicts. Climate investments also make great economic sense. For
example, it is estimated that for every dollar invested in climate resilient infrastructure six dollars
are saved.
• Protect and improve common goods: Over-exploitation of common goods, without
consideration for the long term needs of our next generations, has resulted in the “tragedy of the
commons”, with big environmental impacts, including the zoonotic origins of the COVID-19
pandemic.
o Learning: Cases of response to the current pandemic show that previous investments by
countries in public health and welfare systems have produced better results. Equally important
are investments to restore clean air and water, healthy ecosystems, and other environment and
climate goods, which contribute to planetary health.
• Focus on those already left behind: The COVID-19 pandemic struck fast and affected those
most vulnerable, those who had little means and access to health-care services, and those in
nursing homes and homes for persons with disabilities.
o Learning: In the case of climate change, the ones that have been left behind include poor
farmers, people who lack access to basic services, people living in slums as well as climate
migrants. Climate mitigation and adaptation activities should put these and other vulnerable
groups at the center of attention and response.
• Make the global value chains climate resilient: The COVID-19 driven disruption in sectors
like transport, medicine and tourism was immediate and hard.
o Learning:
▪ The climate crisis with its low on-set characteristics will drive at least similar if not larger
implications in the value chains of main sectors. There is an opportunity to develop systems able
to increase the resilience of value chains in climate sensitive sectors; and ensure that critical
commodities and services are available to all at times of climate-induced disasters.
▪ This will also impact the supply of funds and finances, which need to be directed to deal with
critical situations, rather than bailing out polluting industries in decline, creating quick stimulus
for sustainable and low-carbon commodities and common goods services.
• Fix and make sustainable the food systems: The FAO has started documenting the negative
impacts of COVID19 on food security. The impacts of climate change on agriculture have also
been extensively documented by the IPCC and the food supply chain has emerged as the most
crucial global value chain to be secured against the climate emergency.
o Learning: Many policy options have been proposed and already implemented including
ecological rotation of crops, robust estimation of the true cost of food, reducing food waste, fair
trade, drastically reducing pesticides, decarbonizing food production and distribution systems.
• Ensure credible information and not fake news leads the public discussion: Since the
causes and risks of climate change are already well examined, documented and vetted, scientific
facts and solutions need to be brought widely to the attention of the public to avoid speculations
and misconstrued theories, which only cause anxiety and panic, as is happening around this
novel disease.
• Institutionalise behaviour change: The lockdown has enabled new behaviours and habits,
especially among the corporate workforce, with remote work becoming normalised.
Consumption patterns are also changing, with more focus on buying what is locally and easily
available. Institutionalising these changes after the lockdown is eased or lifted can go a long way
in lowering vehicular emissions, reducing air travel, and reducing the carbon footprints of people
and products.
✍ Conclusion
The pandemic has made it clear that failing to act on issues such as climate change and public
health cuts into any development gains made in other sectors. Given the growing number of
COVID-19 cases, and how communities have been affected along with their ability to cope with
climate shocks, the government must factor in climate change in every decision related to the
pandemic including devising the green economic recovery plans.
50.6 Emissions Gap Report 2020
- The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) recently released its annual
Emissions Gap Report 2020.
- GHG emissions continued to increase (4% per year since 2010 on average and rapid
increase of 2.6% in 2019 due to forest fires) and reached a record high of 59.1 GtCO2e in
2019.
- G20 countries account for the bulk of emissions: Top four emitters - China, US,
EU+UK and India contributed 55% of the total GHG emissions in the last decade.
- Current NDCs would lead to a temperature increase of at least 3oC by the end of the
century.
- Fossil CO2 emissions accounted for maximum GHG emission
50.7 Adaptation Gap Report, 2020
- The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released the Fifth edition of
Adaptation Gap Report, 2020.
- 72% of countries have adopted at least one national-level adaptation planning instrument.
- Annual cost of adaptation to the effects of climate change for developing countries is
estimated to at least quadruple by 2050 ($500 billion).
- The ever-increasing adaptation cost has outpaced the growth in adaptation finance.
Adaptation costs are higher in developed countries but burden of adaptation is greater for
developing countries in relation to their gross domestic product.
- COVID-19 pandemic has impacted adaptation efforts but its effect is not yet quantified.
- Key suggestions
- o Significant scaling up and incentivizing for both public and private adaptation finance
is required to narrow the gap.
- o Nature-based solutions (NbS) must become a priority.
50.8 Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)
- India ranked 10th in the latest edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI).
- The Index is published by Germanwatch, New Climate Institute and the Climate Action
Network.
- Published annually since 2005
- CCPI, 2021 evaluates and compares the climate protection performance of 57 countries
and of the European Union (EU), which are together responsible for more than 90% of
global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
50.9 State of the Global Climate report
- Recently, the State of the Global Climate report (Provisional) was released by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO).
- Report uses Global Climate Indicators (GCI) to describe the changing climate & provides
a broad view of the climate at a global scale.
50.6 📝📝📝Initiative to reduce Ozone depletion→ Treaties

I. Vienna Convention ● The vienna convention for the protection of the ozone layer
was adopted in 1985 and entered into force in 1988.
● Nations that signed the convention- called the parties-agreed to
research and monitor the effects of human activities on the ozone
layer and to take concrete action against activities that are likely
to have adverse effects on the ozone layer.
● The convention did not require countries to take specific
actions to control ozone-depleting substances.
● The specific actions are spelled out by the Montreal protocol.
II. Montreal Protocol ● The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone
layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the protection of
the ozone layer)
● It is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer
by phasing out ODS (ozone depleting substances)
● It was agreed on 26 August 1987, and entered into force on 26
January 1989.
● The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties
making them the first universally ratified treaties (legally
binding) in United Nations history.
● September 16 is observed as World Ozone Day. It is the day
that marks the signing of the Montreal Protocol.
● The parties are aided by the ozone secretariat, which is based at
the headquarters of the UN Environment Programme(UNEP) at
Nairobi.
⇒ Multilateral Fund-
● It provides financial and technical assistance to developing
member countries whose yearly per capita consumption and
production of ODSs< 0.3 kg.
● The activities of the Fund are implemented by four bodies:
1. UNEP
2. UNDP
3. UNIDO
4. World Bank
● Developing and developed countries have equal but

differentiated responsibilities.
● Developed NAtion 2000-CFC phase out Methyl Chloroform
2005.
● Developing Nation 2010-CFC
2010-HCFC
● The substances controlled by the treaty are listed in-
● Annex A-CFCs, Halons
● Annex B- other fully halogenated CFCS, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl chloroform
● Annex C- HCFCs
● Annex E- Methyl Bromide
● Annex F- HCFCs
● Amendments have been made to the Montreal protocol in
1. London-1990
2. Copenhagen- 1992
3. Montreal-1997
4. Beijing-1999
5. Kigali-2016 (meeting of the parties-28)
III. Kigali Amendment ● The Kigali amendment is an amendment to the Montreal

Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer.
● It was adopted in Kigali, Rwanda in 2016 and entered into
force in 2019.
● It is legally binding.
● The amendment adds powerful greenhouse gases
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to the list of substances controlled
under the protocol and which are to be phased down.
● HFC phase down is expected to avoid up to 0.5 degree celsius
of global temperature rise by 2100, while continuing to protect
the ozone layer.
● The agreement upholds the principle of common but

differentiated responsibilities capabilities (CBDR & RC).
● Under the amendment, Montreal protocol parties are required
to gradually reduce HFC use by 80-85% by the late 2040s.
●it has divided the signatory parties into three groups-
1. The first group consists of rich and developed economies
like the USA,UK & EU countries who will start to phase
down HFCs by2019 and reduce it to 15% of 2012 levels
by 2036.
2. The second group consists of emerging economies like
China, Brazil as well as some African countries who will
start phase down by 2024 and reduce it to 20% of 2021
levels by 2045.
3. The third group consists of developing economies and
some of the hottest climate countries like India, Pakistan,
Iran, Saudi Arabia who will start phasing down HFCS by
2028 and reduce it to 15% of 2024-26 levels till 2047.
● India’s commitment under Kigali agreement
1. Baseline year: 2024,2025,2026
2. Feeze: 2028
3. 1st step: 2032:10%
4. 2nd step: 2037:20%
5. 3rd step: 2042:30%
6. 4th step: 2047: 85%
● India has agreed on a lenient schedule as it consumes 3% of
HFCs as compared to the other countries like the USA (37%) and
China (25%).
50.7 📝📝📝International Mechanism to Combat climate change→ Timeline

Date Keywords
1972 Stockholms Convention→UNEP(United Nation Environment Programme)

→HQ-Nairobi, Keniya
⇒ with the help of 1919- International Labour Organisation(Geneva); 1945-
Food & Agricultural Organisation(Rome); World Health
Organisation(HQ-Geneva)
1988 IPCC→HQ-intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(UNEP+WMO(1956))

→ Assessment report on climate change
1992 Earth Summit→ Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

⇒ Key Point: Sustainable Development; Desertification; Agenda 21; Climate
Change[United Nation Framework convention on Climate Change=HQ-
Newyork]; biological diversity
1995 CoP-1(Conference of Party-1) → on Climate change→ Berlin
1997 CoP-3→ Kyoto protocol→ in Japan
2001 CoP-7→ Marrakech→ roadmap for Kyoto protocol
2002 CoP-8→ Delhi,India
2005 CoP-11/CMP-1→ Montreal,Canada→2008-12=reduce to 5.2% CO2 emission
2007 CoP-13/CMP-3→ Bali Action Plan→ Technology Transfer; road map for
REDD
2009 CoP-15/CMP-3→ Copenhagen,Denmark→ “REDD+ programme” (Reduction

of Emission on Deforestation and forest Degradation)
2010 CoP-16/CMP-6→ Cancun,Mexico→ “Green Climate Fund”; committee for

technology execution
2012 CoP-18/CMP-8→ add NF3 and new target 2013-20
2013 CoP-19/CMP-9→ Warsow, Poland→ GCF; Green technology, “National

Determinant Contribution” Was coined
2014 CoP-20/CMP-10→ Lima
2015 CoP-21/CMP-11→ Paris agreement→ “NDC”,

⇒ “Enhance Transparency Framework” was established, which starts from
2024,
⇒ “Climate Neutral Now”- launched by UNFCCC→ momentum on climate
change initiative through measuring climate footprint,
2016 CoP-22/CMP-12/CMA-1→ Marrakech→ roadmap for Paris climate agreement

Framework agreement in Marrakech
⇒International Solar Alliance(ISA)→ 122 countries=Sunshine
countries(between tropic of cancer and capricorn) →HQ-Gurugram, Haryana
2017 CoP23/CMP-13/CMA-1→ Bonn, Germany→ “Talonoma dialogue”
2019 CoP-25/CMP-15/CMA-2→ Madrid, Spain→ Longest meet
2021 CoP-26/CMP-16/CMA-3→ Glasgow, UK→ To be held this year
50.7.1 UNFCCC
● In 1990, the IPCC released its First Assessment Report.

● It mentioned 'emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases'.
● This led to calls by the IPCC and the second World Climate Conference for a global treaty.
● In 1992, the text of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was
adopted at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.
● The UNFCCC opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in 1992,
bringing the world together to curb greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change.
● The UNFCCC has two sister Conventions also agreed in Rio,
○ The UN Convention on Biological Diversity and
○ The Convention to Combat Desertification.
● The UNFCCC entered into force in 1994.
● Countries that signed the treaty are known as 'Parties'.
● With 196 Parties, the UNFCCC has near-universal membership.
● Parties meet annually at the Conference of the Parties (COP) to negotiate multilateral
responses to climate change.
● The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations "at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate
system."
● They are called Annex I countries and belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD). They include 12 countries with "economies in transition" from
Central and Eastern Europe. including the Russian Federation, the Baltic States, and several
Central and Eastern European States.
● Annex I countries were expected by the year 2000 to reduce emissions to 1990 levels.
● Annex II parties: OECD members of Annex

I countries but not the EIT parties
● Non-annex parties: Developing countries
with non-binding targets
● LDCs- 49 countries with limited capacities.
⦁ What is commitment period – Kyoto
Protocol?
• Under the Kyoto Protocol, there are two
commitment periods: 1. 2008 – 2012 and 2.
2013 – 2020.
• The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol.
• Each commitment period has its own binding targets set for developed countries to reduce their
GHG emissions.
• Nations that miss their Kyoto target in 2012 will incur a penalty of an additional third added to
whatever cut they agree under a new treaty in Copenhagen.
• During first commitment period (2008-12), more than 35 countries had binding targets.
• Canada withdrew in 2012 after the first commitment period.
• Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on
new targets in the second commitment period.
• Thus, the second commitment period is a failure.
• Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework that would
obligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions.
50.7.2 CoP 1, Berlin
● In 1995, the first COP (COP1) was held in Berlin.

● The Parties agreed that commitments in the Convention were 'inadequate' for meeting
Convention objectives.
● The Berlin Mandate established a process to negotiate strengthened commitments for
developed countries, thus laying the groundwork for the Kyoto Protocol.
50.7.3 Kyoto Protocol
● The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997 and entered into force in
February 2005.
● The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh,
Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords."
● It was the world's first greenhouse gas emissions reduction treaty.
● Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. Kyoto Protocol It applies to the
six greenhouse gases listed in AnnexA:
● Carbon dioxide (CO2),
● Methane (CH4),
● Nitrous oxide (N2O),

● Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
● Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
● Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
● Nitrogen trifluoride: New mandatory Kyoto Protocol greenhouse, 2nd commitment period
2013-2020
● During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community
committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990 levels on the
basis of the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibility’.
● The US has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol, while Canada denounced it in 2012. The Kyoto
Protocol has been ratified by all the other Annex I Parties.
● All States that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol are represented at the Conference of the
Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP).
● The CMP oversees the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and takes decisions to promote
its effective implementation.
● The CMP meets annually during the same period as the COP.
● Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to the Protocol are able to participate in the CMP
as observers, but without the right to take decisions.
⇒ Kyoto Mechanisms
● Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures.
● However, the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of
three market-based mechanisms.
● The Kyoto mechanisms are:
1. International Emissions Trading
2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
3. Joint implementation (JI)
⦁ Carbon credit – Kyoto Protocol
• A carbon credit (often called a carbon offset) is a tradable certificate or permit.
• One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon credits are a part of attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of GHGs. Carbon
credits or carbon offsets can be acquired through afforestation, renewable energy, methane
capture, buying from an exchange (carbon credits trading) etc..
• Carbon trading is the name given to the exchange of emission permits.
• This exchange may take place within the economy or may take the form of an international
transaction.
• Under Carbon Credits Trading mechanism countries that emit more carbon than the quota
allotted to them buy carbon credits from those that emit less.
• In Carbon trading, one credit gives the country or a company the right to emit one tonne of
CO2 .
• A developing nation such as India, turns out to be a seller of such credits, which eventually
provides them with monetary gains.
• Carbon credits are traded at various exchanges across the world.
• Multi-Commodity Exchange of India (MCX) launched futures trading in carbon credits in
2009.
Trading units in the carbon market:
• A removal unit (RMU) by reforestation.
• An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project.
• A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanism project
activity.
• Another variant of carbon credit is to be earned by a country by investing some amount of
money in such projects, known as carbon projects, which will emit a lesser amount of
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
• For example, suppose a thermal plant of 800 megawatt capacity emits 400 carbon-equivalent in
the atmosphere. Now a country builds up an 800 megawatt wind energy plant which does not
generate any amount of emission as an alternative to the thermal plant. Then by investing in this
project the country will earn 400 carbon-equivalent.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
● Annex B countries can meet their targets by implementing an emission-reduction project in
Non-Annex (developing) countries.
● Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to
one tonne of CO2 , which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
● Farmers can also buy Certified Emission Reduction (CER) units from CDM emission
reduction projects in developing countries.
● It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a
standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs.
• In simple terms: Developed countries emit more and lose carbon credits. They provide financial
assistance to developing and least developed countries to create clean energy (solar, wind energy
etc.) and gain some carbon credits thereby meeting their Kyoto Quota (Kyoto units) emissions
without violations.
• Suppose a developed country has a Kyoto Quota of 100 Carbon Credits, it can emit 100 tonnes
of CO2 .
• Due to negligence it emits 110 tonnes of CO2 , i.e. 10 carbon credits are lost (Kyoto Quota
violation).
• Now the country has to make up for its lost carbon credits to avoid a penalty.
• So, it invests some money (equal to 10 carbon credits) in developing and LDCs to build clean
energy infrastructure like solar plants, wind farms etc. and will make up for its 10 lost carbon
credits and avoid penalty.
● A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar
panels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.
● The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving
industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation
targets.
● Most of the CDM projects have been undertaken in China and India.
● These projects are in various favourable areas such as agriculture, waste handling and disposal,
afforestation and reforestation.
Joint implementation (JI)
● JI allows one Annex I party to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission
reduction or emission removal project in another Annex I Party.
● These units, each equivalent to one tonne of C02 , can be counted towards meeting the
former's Kyoto target.
● Most JI projects are taken in Annex B countries(EIT)

○ Annex B Parties: Parties with first or second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets
○ Annex II parties are subset of Annex I (i.e. Annex I minusEITs)
● Win-win situation for both:
○ A flexible and cost-efficient method for meeting commitments for the implementing country ○
Foreign investment and technology transfer for the host country.
50.7.4 Bali Meet
● Also the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP 3 or CMP 3).
● Objectives:
○ Stimulate the world to work for GHG reduction
○ Discuss an action plan on what happens after the Kyoto period expires in 2012. Bali Meet Bali
Roadmap
● Bali roadmap= a two year process to finalize a binding agreement in Copenhagen in 2009.
● The Bali Road Map includes:
1. Bali Action Plan (BAP)
2. Decisions on technology transfer and on reducing emissions from deforestation.
Bali Action Plan→Pillars of BAP:
● A shared vision for long-term cooperative action, including a long-term global goal for
emission reductions.
● Enhanced national/international action on mitigation of climate change.
● Enhanced action on adaptation.
● Enhanced action on technology development and transfer to support action on mitigation and
adaptation.
● Enhanced action on the provision of financial resources and investment to support action on
mitigation and adaptation and technology cooperation.
50.7.5 Copenhagen summit, 2009
● COP-15/MOP-5 in Copenhagen, Denmark. Copenhagen summit, 2009 Copenhagen Accord.

● Recognized that deep cuts in global emissions are required as per IPCC AR4.
● Developed countries to strengthen their existing Kyoto targets.
● Developing countries to take Nationally Appropriate MitigationActions (NAMA).

● Recognized the crucial role of reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation.
● Need to establish a mechanism (including REDD-plus) to enable the mobilization of financial
resources from developed countries to help achieve the above mentioned goal.
● Agreed a "goal" for the world to raise $100 billion per year by 2020 to help developing
countries cut carbon emissions (mitigation).
● Mention of Green Climate Fund.
50.7.6 Cancun Summit
● COP 16/CMP6
● The Green Climate Fund, the Technology Mechanism and the Cancun Adaptation Framework
are established. Cancun Summit A Green Climate Fund (GCF)
● GCF helps developing countries limit or reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and
adapt to climate change.
● It aims to deliver equal amounts of funding to mitigation and adaptation, while being guided
by the UNFCCC’s principles and provisions.
● The Fund is governed by the GCF Board composed equally of developed and developing
countries, representing the United Nations Regional Groups.
● It makes decisions based only on the consensus agreement of all board members.
● It mobilises resources from developed and developing countries.
Technology Mechanism
● Within the UN Climate Change process, countries have confirmed the importance of
enhancing technology development and transfer to developing countries.
● The Technology Mechanism consists of two bodies:
○ The Technology Executive Committee and
○ The Climate Technology Centre and Network
1. Technology Executive Committee
● The Technology Executive Committee is the Technology Mechanism’s policy body.
● It analyses issues and provides policy recommendations that support country efforts to enhance
climate technology development and transfer.
● The committee consists of 20 technology experts representing both developed and developing
countries.
● It meets several times a year and holds climate technology events that support efforts to
address key technology policy issues.
2. Climate Technology Centre and Network
● The Climate Technology Centre and Network is the implementation body of the Technology
Mechanism.
● It accelerates the development and transfer of technologies through three services:
1. Providing technical assistance at the request of developing countries on technology issues
2. Creating access to information and knowledge on climate technologies
3. Fostering collaboration among climate technology stakeholders via its network of regional and
sectoral experts
50.7.7 Doha summit (COP-18)
● Kyoto extended for 8 years (2013-2020).

● National Adaptation Plans, funding and other support for least developed countries (LDCs)
● But still-
○ No money transfer to GCF,
○ No compensation to vulnerable countries under “loss and damage”,
○ No agreement to cut down GHG emission from agriculture (14% of global emissions)
Doha summit (COP-18)
● In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was
adopted. The amendment includes:
○ New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on
commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
○ A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Partiesin the second
commitment period; and
● During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least
18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020. However, the
composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
50.7.8 Warsaw summit (COP-19)
● The conference led to an agreement that all states would start cutting emissions as soon as
possible, but preferably by the first quarter of 2015.
• The term Intended Nationally Determined Contributions was coined in Warsaw upon a
proposal from Singapore. Countries agreed to publicly outline what actions they intend to take
under a global agreement well before the Paris Summit 2015.
• These country commitments are known as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
(INDCs).
• Adopted REDD+ to deal with ecological damage from deforestation. Warsaw summit
(COP-19) Further the Warsaw Mechanism was proposed, which would provide expertise, and
possibly aid, to developing nations to cope with loss and damage from such natural extremities
as heatwaves, droughts and floods and threats such as rising sea levels and desertification.
⦁ India’s INDC objectives
• Announced in October 2015 (Lima summit urged every country to announce its INDCs by Nov
2015)
• Reduce emission intensity by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
50.7.9 Paris meet (COP-21/CMP-11)
● The Paris Agreement central aim is to

○ Strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature
rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and
○ To pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
● Additionally, the agreement aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts
of climate change.
• It entered into force in November 2016 after
(ratification by 55 countries that account for at
least 55% of global emissions) had been met.
The Paris Agreement is a legally binding
international treaty on climate change. It was
adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on
12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4
November 2016. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees
Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
• The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during
the second half of the 21st century.
• In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also "pursue efforts to limit the
temperature increase to 1.5 °C.”
• The 1.5 °C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to
some scientists.
• The developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate
finance by 2020 and agreed to continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year
until 2025.
● To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate financial flows, a new technology framework and
an enhanced capacity building framework will be put in place, thus supporting action by
developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own national
objectives.
● Parties also agreed to a long-term goal for adaptation– to increase the ability to adapt to the
adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas
emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production.
● Additionally, they agreed to work towards making finance flows consistent with a pathway
towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
● With the Paris Agreement, countries established an enhanced transparency framework (ETF).
Under the ETF, starting in 2024, countries will report transparently on actions taken and progress
in climate change mitigation, adaptation measures and support provided or received. It also
provides for international procedures for the review of the submitted reports.
● Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and the
achievement of these long-term goals.
● The Paris Agreement requests each country to outline and communicate their post-2020
climate actions, known as their NDCs.
● A five year review mechanism was put in place to check progress on INDCs every five years.
● Principles of CBDR.
● India’s INDC:
○ Reduction in the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from 2005 level.
(China- 60-65% )
○ Additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030
○ Global Solar Alliance of all countries between tropics
● It came into force on 4th November 2016.
● All States that are Parties to the Paris Agreement are represented at the Conference of the
Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).
● The CMA oversees the implementation of the Paris Agreement and takes decisions to promote
its effective implementation.
● The CMA meets annually during the same period as theCOP.
● Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to the Paris Agreement are able to participate in
the CMA as observers, but without the right to take decisions.
● The functions of the CMA relating to the Paris Agreement are similar to those carried out by
the COP for the Convention.
50.7.10 Marrakech (Morocco) Climate Change Conference 2016 (COP22; CMP12; CMA1)
• CMA1 ➔ the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement.
• The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combating climate
change and to "[demonstrate] to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is
underway".
• COP22 was called “Action COP” or “Agriculture COP”.
• Adaptation of African Agriculture (AAA) was launched at COP 22.
• AAA is promoted by FAO along with various governments, especially African countries.
50.7.11 COP 23, 2017- Bonn
● The 2017 UN Climate Change Conference took place in Bonn, Germany, the seat of the
Climate Change Secretariat.
● Bonn also made history by being the first COP to be presided over by a small island
developing state: by the Presidency of Fiji.
● Delegates launched the 'Talanoa Dialogue' to help set the stage for revising upwards of
national climate action plans needed to put the world on track to meet pre-2020 ambition and the
long term goals of the Paris Agreement.
⇒ Talanoa dialogue
● The Talanoa Dialogue was launched at COP23 in Bonn.
● Talanoa is a traditional word used in Fiji and across the Pacific to reflect a process of inclusive,
participatory and transparent dialogue.
● The process of Talanoa involves the sharing of ideas, skills and experience through
storytelling.
50.7.12 Katowice (Poland) Climate Change Conference 2018 (COP 24; CMP 14; CMA 1-3)
• The conference agreed on rules to implement the Paris Agreement, which will come into force
in 2020, that is to say the rulebook on how governments will measure, and report on their
emissions-cutting efforts.
50.7.13 COP 25, 2019- Madrid
● The UN Climate Change Conference COP 25 (2 – 13 December 2019)took place under the
Presidency of the Government of Chile in Madrid, Spain.
● It was the longest meet in the UNFCCC’s history.
50.7.14 Initiative By World Bank
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility • It is a global partnership of governments,

businesses, civil society, and Indigenous
Peoples focused on reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation, forest
carbon stock conservation, the sustainable

management of forests, and the enhancement
of forest carbon stocks in developing
countries (activities commonly referred to as
REDD+).
• The World Bank assumes the functions of
trustee and secretariat.
• The World Bank, the Inter-American
Development Bank and the United Nations
Development Programme are Delivery
Partners under the Readiness Fund and
responsible for providing REDD+ readiness
support.
⦁ Objectives
• To assist countries in their REDD+ efforts
by providing them with financial and
technical assistance.
• To pilot a performance-based payment
system for REDD+ activities.
• To test ways to sustain or enhance
livelihoods of local communities and to
conserve biodiversity
BioCarbon Fund Initiative • The BioCarbon Fund Initiative for

Sustainable Forest Landscapes (ISFL) is a
multilateral fund, supported by donor
governments and managed by the World
Bank.
• It seeks to promote reduced greenhouse gas
emissions from the land sector, from
deforestation and forest degradation in
developing countries (REDD+), and from

sustainable agriculture, as well as smarter
land-use planning, policies and practices.
50.7.15 Initiative By EU
• (GCCA+) is a European Union initiative.

• It helps vulnerable countries on the front line of climate change.
• GCCA+ initiatives help mainly Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed
Countries (LDCs) increase their resilience to climate change.
• It also supports these groups of countries in implementing their commitments resulting from
the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change (COP21).
50.7.16 Initiative By Arctic Council
• The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination and

interaction among the Arctic states, Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants
on common Arctic issues, in particular on issues of sustainable development and environmental
protection in the Arctic.
• The Arctic Council consists of the eight Arctic States: Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark
(including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden
and the United States.
50.7.17 Initiative By Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)
• 2012: a few nations, along with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), came
together to form the Climate & Clean Air Coalition.
• It is a partnership of governments, public and private sector, scientific institutions, civil society
organizations, etc. committed to protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-lived
climate pollutants.
⦁ Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs)
• SLCPs have a relatively short lifetime in the atmosphere – a few days to a few decades.
• Though short-lived, their potential to warm the atmosphere can be many times greater than
CO2 .
• SLCPs are responsible for up to 45% of current global warming, only next to CO2 .
• SLCPs include black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and hydrofluorocarbons.
50.8 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change

• India is a party to the UNFCCC, Paris agreement and Kyoto Protocol.
• The MoEF&CC is the nodal ministry for international climate change negotiations under
UNFCCC.
• The climate change division of the ministry looks after the issues related to climate change
negotiations under UNFCCC.
50.8.1 India’s post-2020 climate goals
• For post-2020, in response to the decisions of the conference to the parties, India submitted its
Nationally Determined Contribution to the UNFCCC in October, 2015, outlining the climate
actions intended to be taken under the Paris agreement.
• The period of implementation for India’s NDC is 2021-2030.
50.8.2 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ National Action Plan on

Climate Change (NAPCC)/जलवायु परिवर्तन
पर राष्ट्रीय कार्य योजना (NAPCC)
• In order to achieve a sustainable

development path that simultaneously
advances economic and environmental
objectives, India formulated a National
Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in
2008.
• It provides mitigation and adaptation
measures to tackle the impacts of climate
change.
• NAPCC is guided by the following principles;

● Protecting the poor and vulnerable sections of society through an inclusive and sustainable
development strategy, sensitive to climate change.
● Achieving national growth objectives through a qualitative change in direction that enhances
ecological sustainability, leading to further mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions.
● Deploying appropriate technologies for both adaptation and mitigation of greenhouse gases
emissions extensively as well as at an accelerated pace.
● Engineering new and innovative forms of market, regulatory and voluntary mechanisms to
promote sustainable development.
● Affecting implementation of programmes through unique linkages, including with civil society
and local government institutions and through public-private-partnership.
● Welcoming international cooperation for research, development, sharing and transfer of
technologies enabled by additional funding and a global IPR regime that facilitates technology
transfer to developing countries under the UNFCCC.
The NAPCC includes eight national missions:
1) National Solar Mission (started in 2010 to promote the use of solar power)
2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (approved in 2009)
3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (approved in 2011)
4) National Water Mission
5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (approved in 2014)
6) National Mission for A Green India (approved in 2014)
7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (approved in 2010)
8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)
9) National Bio-Energy Mission (approved in 2017)
⇒ Implementation-
● Ministries with lead responsibility for each of the missions are directed to develop objectives,
implementation strategies, timelines, and monitoring and evaluation criteria, which are submitted
to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change.
● The Council is also responsible for periodically reviewing and reporting on each mission’s
progress. Out of these eight national missions on climate change, the Department of Science &
Technology, Ministry of Science & Technology was entrusted with the responsibility of
coordinating two of the missions. These are
1. National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) and
2. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC).
50.8.2.1 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ National Action Plan on

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Solar Mission
- The objective of the National Solar Mission is to establish India as a global leader in solar
energy, by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as
possible.
- The Mission targets are;
- ● To create an enabling policy framework for the deployment of 20,000 MW of solar
power by 2022. The cumulative target has been revised to 1,00,000 MW by 2022.
- ● The target will principally comprise 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large and
Medium Scale Grid Connected Solar Power Projects.
- ● To create favourable conditions for solar manufacturing capability, particularly solar
thermal for indigenous production and market leadership. Solar Power Parks and Ultra
Mega Solar PowerParks
- ● The Scheme for ‘Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects’
was rolled out in 2014 with an aggregate capacity of 20,000MW.
- ● Further, the capacity of the Solar Park Scheme was enhanced from 20,000 MW to
40,000 MW in 2017 to set up at least 50 solar parks by 2021-22.
- ● Solar Park is a large area of land developed with all necessary infrastructures and
clearances for setting up of solar projects.
- ● Approximately 4 to 5 acres per MW of land is required for setting up of solar parks.
- ● The capacity of the solar parks is generally 500 MW and above. However, smaller
parks (up to 20 MW) are also considered in States/UTs where there is shortage of
non-agricultural land.
- ⦁ Net Metering
- • Net Metering is billing mechanism for grid connected Home Rooftop Solar Installation
where
- ✓ The electricity generated by the solar panels is fed into the utility grid
- ✓ Household draws electricity from the utility grid
- • The household pays only for the difference between the energy units it consumes from
the grid and the energy units fed into the grid. This is measured by a bi-directional meter
called Net Meter.

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
● NMEEE aims to strengthen the market for energy efficiency by creating a conducive
regulatory and policy regime and has envisaged fostering innovative and sustainable business
models to the energy efficiency sector.
● The Mission has been implemented since 2011.
● Ministry of Power NMEEE consist of four initiatives to enhance energy efficiency in energy
intensive industries which are as follows:
⦁ Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme (PAT)- (प्रदशान, उपलस्धध और व्यापार) योर्ना:
⦁ Assigning energy reduction targets to large energy intensive industries and distributing Energy
Saving Certificates (ESCerts) on achievement of the targets. These ESCerts can then be traded.
Consumers who are not able to meet their energy savings targets will buy the ESCerts.
⦁ Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)- ऊर्ाादक्षता के मलए बाजार का
रूपाांतरण
⦁ Promoting adoption of energy efficient equipment and appliances through innovative business
models.
Programs that were developed under this scheme include:
• Domestic Efficient Lighting Program: Unnat Jeevan by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA)
program to promote the use of more efficient LED lighting for households.
• Super-Efficient Equipment Program (SEEP): Under this program, the manufacturers are
incentivized by the government to elevate the efficiency standards of the equipment. The Bureau
of Energy Efficiency (BEE) launched the program in the XII five year plan with a focus on
ceiling fans, considering its wide use and impact on domestic energy consumption.
Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)- Facilitating Financial Institutions to invest in
Energy Efficiency Projects and Programmes. ऊर्ाा दक्षता षित्तपोिण िांच Increasing the
confidence of financial institutions and investors to support energy efficiency initiatives.

• The EEFP initiative is intended towards catalysing the finances for energy efficiency sector by
addressing the barriers and challenges in market development and project implementation.
• It provides a platform for financial institutions, investors and project developers to increase
their confidence in supporting energy conservation and efficiency projects.
⦁ Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED)- ऊर्ााकु शल आमिाक
षिकास प्रारूप
⦁ Promoting energy efficiency initiatives by hedging against investment risks.
• BEE institutionalized two types of funds in order to protect the confidence of banks and
investors in energy efficiency projects and to avoid the stalling of projects due to lack of funds.
1. Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy Efficiency (PRGFEE): The fund guarantees a
risk cover for banks and investors for up to 50% loan amount or INR 10 crore per project,
whichever is less.
2. Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE): This fund is intended towards
promoting equity financing (stock, share) in the energy efficiency sector and thus reducing the
impact of non-availability of debt financing (bond, loan) to small size companies and projects.
The equity support is equivalent to INR 2 crore or 15% of total equity whichever is less.
Implementation agencies
● BEE- Bureau of Energy Efficiency.
● EESL- Energy Efficiency Services Limited
⦁ Bureau of Energy Efficiency
• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is a statutory agency under the Ministry of Power.
• It was created in March 2002 under the provisions of the nation's 2001 Energy Conservation
Act.
• BEE’s function is to develop programs which will increase the conservation and efficient use of
energy. ]
• It is mandatory for certain appliances in India to have BEE ratings.
⦁ Standards & Labelling Program (BEE star label)
• The Objectives of Standards & Labeling Program is to provide the consumer an informed
choice about energy saving.
Mandatory Appliances
1. Room Air Conditioners 6. Direct Cool Refrigerator

2. Frost Free Refrigerators 7. Color TV
3. Tubular Fluorescent Lamp 8. Electric Geysers
4. Distribution Transformer 9. Inverter Air conditioners
5. Room Air Conditioner (Cassettes, Floor 10. LED Lamps
Standing Tower, Ceiling, Corner AC)
Voluntary Appliances
1. Induction Motors Scanner, MFD’s).
2. Agricultural Pump Sets 9. Diesel Engine Driven Monoset Pumps for
3. Ceiling Fans Agricultural Purposes
4. Domestic Liquefied Petroleum Gas(LPG) 10. Solid State Inverter
Stoves 11. Diesel Generator
5. Washing Machine 12. Chillers
6. Computer (Notebook /Laptops) 13. Microwave Ovens
7. Ballast (Electronic/Magnetic)
8. Office equipment's (Printer, Copier,

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Water Mission
● The main objective of the National Water Mission is (NWM) “conservation of water,
minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States
through integrated water resources development and management”.
● The five identified goals of the Mission are:
(a)Comprehensive water data base in public domain and assessment of impact of climate change
on water resource;
(b)Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation;
(c) Focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas;
(d) Increasing water use efficiency by 20 per cent, and
(e) Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.
NWM Web Portal
● An independent Web Portal of NWM was launched.
● The portal aims at providing all the information relating to water resources, organisations and
their activities on different aspects of water resources at one point.
Assessment of Impact of Climate Change on water resources: NWM has identified eight river
basins (Mahanadi, Mahi, Luni, Tapi, Sutlej, Sabarmati, Subarnarekha and western flowing rivers
from Tadri to Kanyakumari) for study of impact of climate change in association with research
institutes like IITs, NITs, IISc and NIH under the R&D scheme of the Ministry.
The Mission, in line with National Water Policy, aims to
• increase water use efficiency by 20%.
• ensure that a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas are met through recycling.
• ensure that the water requirements of coastal cities are met through modern desalination
technologies.
• ensure basin level management strategies by working with states to deal with variability in
rainfall. The Mission aims to achieve its objectives through:
• Increasing efficiency through regulatory mechanisms (differential entitlements and pricing).
• Enhanced storage both above and below ground, rainwater harvesting.
• Incentivising water-neutral or water-positive technologies, and adoption of large scale irrigation
programmes which rely on sprinklers, drip irrigation and ridge and furrow irrigation.

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission for a Green India
● The Green India Mission puts the “greening” in the context of climate adaptation and
mitigation, aiming to enhance ecosystem services and provisioning services while addressing the
livelihood issues of people living in and around forests.
● GIM thus envisages a unique strategy for holistic treatment of selected areas aiming at overall
improvement/restoration of forests and enhancing alternate and forest based livelihood
opportunities of forest dependent communities, including tribal and other poor people along with
building capacities of the communities.
The objectives of the Green India Mission at national level are:
a)Increased forest/tree cover on 5m ha of forest/non forest lands and improved quality of forest
cover on another 5m ha (a total of 10 m ha).
b)Improved ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services and carbon
sequestration as a result of treatment of 10 m ha.

c)Increased forest based livelihood income of about 3 million households living in and around
the forests.
d) Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tones in the year 2020.

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission on Seabuckthorn
• The initiative is a part of the Sub-Mission on Cold Desert Ecosystems under the Green India
Mission.
• Seabuckthorn, popularly known as Leh berries is also called the “Wonder plant” and “Ladakh
gold”.
• The MoEF and DRDO have launched the initiative for Sea Buckthorn cultivation in the cold
deserts.
• It has multi-purpose medicinal and nutritional properties.
• Plan the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• It is tolerant to extreme temperatures and has an extensive root system, making it ideal for
controlling soil erosion and preventing desertification.

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
The mission seeks to promote

● Improvements in energy efficiency in buildings through extension of the energy conservation
building code - which addresses the design of new and large commercial buildings to optimize
their energy demand.
● Better urban planning and modal shift to public transport - make long term transport plans to
facilitate the growth of medium and small cities in such a way that ensures efficient and
convenient public transport;
● Improved management of solid and liquid waste, e.g. recycling of material and urban waste
management– with special focus on development of technology for producing power from waste;
● Improved ability of habitats to adapt to climate change by improving resilience of
infrastructure, community based disaster management, and measures for improving advance
warning systems for extreme weather events; and

● Conservation through appropriate changes in legal and regulatory framework.
Mission Targets
The key deliverables of the Mission includes:
● Development of sustainable habitat standards that lead to robust development strategies while
simultaneously addressing climate change related concerns;
● Preparation of city development plans that comprehensively address adaptation and mitigation
concerns;
● Preparation of comprehensive mobility plans that enable cities to undertake long-term, energy
efficient and cost effective transport planning; and
● Capacity building for undertaking activities relevant to the Mission. -implemented through the
4 flagship missions/ programmes of the Ministry of Urban Development, which are-.
a) Atal Mission on Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
b) Swachh Bharat Mission
c) Smart Cities Mission
d) Urban Transport Programme

Climate Change (NAPCC) → National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
● The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been made operational from
the year 2014-15.
● It aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient
by
○ promoting location specific integrated/composite farming systems;
○ Soil and moisture conservation measures;
○ comprehensive soil health management;
○ Efficient water management practices and mainstreaming rainfed technologies. National
Mission for SustainableAgriculture NMSA has the following four (4) major programme
components or activities:
1. Rainfed Area Development(RAD)
2. On Farm Water Management (OFWM)
3. Soil Health Management (SHM)

4. Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN)
•NMSA has been formulated for enhancing agricultural productivity especially in rainfed areas.
•60% of the country’s net sown area is rainfed and accounts for 40% of the total food production.
•The focus areas are integrated farming, water use efficiency, soil health and resource
conservation. Stated dimensions of NMSA:
1) Improved crop seeds, livestock and fish cultures
2) Water Use Efficiency
3) Pest Management
4) Improved Farm Practices
5) Nutrient Management
6) Agricultural insurance
7) Credit support
8) Markets
9) Access to Information
10) Livelihood diversification
1. Rainfed Area Development (RAD)
● RAD adopts an area based approach for development and conservation of natural resources
along with farming systems.
● This component has been formulated in a ‘watershed plus framework’, i.e., to explore potential
utilization of natural resource base/assets available/created through watershed development and
soil conservation activities
● This component introduces appropriate farming systems by integrating multiple components of
agriculture such as crops, horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry with agro based income
generating activities and value addition.
● Besides, soil test/ soil health card based nutrient management practices, farmland
development, resource conservation and crop selection conducive to local agro climatic.
conditions are also promoted under this component.
2. On Farm Water Management (OFWM)
● On Farm Water Management (OFWM) was implemented as one of the components of NMSA
during 2014-15.
● It has the objective of enhancing water use efficiency by promoting technological interventions
like drip & sprinkler technologies, efficient water application & distribution system, secondary
storage etc.
● Thereafter, these activities have been subsumed under the ‘Per Drop More Crop (PDMC)’
component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) during 2015-16.
● The PMKSY-PDMC mainly focuses on water use efficiency at farm level through precision/
Micro Irrigation (Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation).
● It promotes precision irrigation and better on farm water management practices to optimize the
use of available water resources.
● The component also supports micro level water storage or water conservation /management
activities to supplement source creation.
3. Soil Health Management (SHM)
● SHM aims at promoting location as well as crop specific sustainable soil health management
including
○ Residue management,
○ Organic farming practices by way of creating and linking soil fertility maps with macro-micro
nutrient management,
○ Appropriate land use based on land capability, ○ Judicious application of fertilizers and ○
Minimizing the soil erosion/degradation.
4. Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture: Monitoring, Modeling and Networking
(CCSAMMN)
● CCSAMMN provides creation and bidirectional (land/farmers to research/scientific
establishments and vice versa) dissemination of climate change related information and
knowledge.
● This is done by piloting climate change adaptation/mitigation research/model projects in the
domain of climate smart sustainable management practices and integrated farming systems
suitable to local agro- climatic conditions.
5. Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)
● The Sub-Mission on Agroforestry was launched in 2016-17 to encourage tree plantation on
farm land “Har Medh Par Ped”, along with the cropping system.
● The scheme is being implemented in the States which have liberalized transit regulations for
selected tree species.
● The implementation of the sub-mission will result in providing additional income opportunities
for farmers, increase in tree cover through will lead to higher carbon sequestration and
compliment the national initiatives on climate change adaptation and mitigation and trees grown
on farm land will help in enriching soil organic matter.
It has the following objectives;-
● To encourage and expand tree plantation in complementary and integrated manner with crops
and livestock to improve productivity, employment opportunities, income generation and
livelihoods of rural households, especially the small farmers.
● To ensure availability of quality planting material like seeds, seedlings, clones, hybrids,
improved varieties, etc.
● To popularise various Agroforestry practices/models suitable to different agro ecological
regions and land use conditions.
● To create a database, information and knowledge support in the area of agroforestry.
● To provide extension and capacity building support to the agroforestry sector.

Climate Change (NAPCC) →National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
(NMSHE)
The mission attempts to address some important issues concerning

a) Himalayan Glaciers and the associated hydrological consequences,
b) Biodiversity conservation and protection,
c) Wildlife conservation and protection,
d) Traditional knowledge societies and their livelihood and
e) Planning for sustaining of the Himalayan Ecosystem
● The Mission needs to deliver better understanding of the coupling between the Himalayan
ecosystem and the climate factors and provide inputs for Himalayan Sustainable development
while also addressing the protection of a fragile ecosystem.
● This will require the joint effort of climatologists, glaciologists and other experts.
● Exchange of information with the South Asian countries and countries sharing the Himalayan
ecology is also required.

● There is a need to establish an observational and monitoring network for the Himalayan
environment to assess freshwater resources and health of the ecosystem.
Objectives of the mission
● Building human and institutional capacities in the different existing/new Institutions in the
Himalayan region.
● Identification of national knowledge institutions and development of a self sustaining
knowledge network.
● Development and adoption of new methods for assessing the health of the Himalayan
ecosystem including those of glaciers and creating a database of the same.
● Assessment and quantification of the changes in the Himalayan ecosystem attributable to
climate change as a result of global emissions and human activities in the region and model for
future projections.

Climate Change (NAPCC) →National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
(NMSKCC)
● It aims at networking existing knowledge institutions, capacity building & improving

understanding of key climate processes and climate risks.
● It strives to build a dynamic and vibrant knowledge system that effectively tackles climate
change challenges, while not compromising on the nation’s growth goals. Objectives of the
mission
● Formation of knowledge networks among the existing knowledge institutions engaged in
research and development relating to climate science and facilitate data sharing and exchange
through a suitable policy framework and institutional support.
● Establishment of global technology watch groups with institutional capacities to carry out
research on risk minimized technology selection for developmental choices.
● Development of national capacity for modeling the regional impact of climate change on
different ecological zones within the country for different seasons and living standards.
● Establishing research networks and encouraging research in the areas of climate change
impacts on important socio-economic sectors like agriculture, health, natural ecosystem,
biodiversity, coastal zones, etc.

● Providing an improved understanding and awareness of the key climate processes and the
resultant climate risks and associated consequences.
● Building alliances and partnerships through global collaboration in research & technology
development on climate change under International and bilateral S&T cooperation arrangements.
50.8.3.1 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other initiatives→

National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
● It was launched in 2015 with an initial outlay of Rs. 350 crore to meet the cost of adaptation to
climate change for the State and Union Territories of India that are particularly vulnerable to the
adverse effects of climate change.
● The overall aim of the fund is to support concrete adaptation activities which are not covered
under ongoing activities through the schemes of State and National Government that reduce the
adverse effects of climate change facing community, sector and states.
● The Scheme will be continuing beyond the 12th Five Year Plan till 31st March, 2020.
● The Fund is meant to assist National and State level activities to meet the cost of adaptation
measures in areas that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate Change.
● The Scheme has been taken as Central Sector Scheme with National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development (NABARD) as the National Implementing Entity (NIE).
● Till date 30 projects have been approved.
50.8.3.1 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other initiatives→Climate

Change Action Programme
● It is a central scheme which was approved by the Cabinet in January 2014 for a duration of
five years.
● Its objective is to create and strengthen the scientific and analytical capacity for assessment of
climate change in the country, putting in place appropriate institutional framework for scientific
and policy initiatives and implementation of climate change related actions in the context of
sustainable development.
● Some of the components of the CCAP scheme include
○ National Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme (NCAP),
○ Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO), and

○ Coordinated Studies on Climate Change for the NorthEast Region (CSCCNER).
50.8.3.2 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other initiatives→FAME

Scheme for E-mobility
● The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 is a National Mission document
providing the vision and the roadmap for the faster adoption of electric vehicles and their
manufacturing in the country.
● As part of the NEMMP 2020, the Department of Heavy Industry formulated a Scheme viz.
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India)
Scheme in the year 2015 to promote manufacturing of electric and hybrid vehicle technology and
to ensure sustainable growth of the same.
50.8.3.3 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→ Other initiatives→Atal

Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

The Mission will focus on the following ThrustAreas:
1. Water Supply
2. Sewerage and septage management
3. Storm Water Drainage to reduce flooding
4. Non-motorized Urban Transport
5. Green space/parks Five hundred cities have been selected underAMRUT.
The purpose of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) is to
● Ensure that every household has access to a tap with the assured supply of water and a
sewerage connection.
● Increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained open spaces
(e.g. parks) and
● Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non motorized
transport (e.g. walking and cycling).
50.8.3.4 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→Other initiatives→Pradhan

Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas)
● It was launched in 2016.

● Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) aims to safeguard the health of women & children by
providing them with a clean cooking fuel– LPG, so that they don’t have to compromise their
health in smoky kitchens or wander in unsafe areas collecting firewood.
● Under this scheme, 5 Cr LPG connections will be provided to BPL families with a support of
Rs.1600 per connection in the next 3 years.
● Ensuring women’s empowerment, especially in rural India, the connections will be issued in
the name of women of the households.
● Rs. 8000 Cr. has been allocated towards the implementation of the scheme. Identification of
the BPL families will be done through Socio Economic Caste Census Data.
● PMUY resulted in an additional employment of around 1 Lakh and provided business
opportunities of at least Rs. 10,000 Cr. for 3 Years to the Indian Industry.
● Launch of this scheme also provided a great boost to the ‘Make in India’ campaign as all the
manufacturers of cylinders, gas stoves, regulators, and gas hoses are domestic.
50.8.3.5 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→Other initiatives→UJALA

scheme
● National LED programme was unveiled on January 5, 2015.

● It was launched with a target of replacing 77 crore incandescent lamps with LED bulbs.
● The LED based Domestic Efficient Lighting Programme (DELP) was relaunched as UJALA,
Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All, in2016.
● This programme will help in mitigating climate change by reducing the CO2 emission by 24
metric tonnes annually.
● Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL), a government company under the administrative
control of the Ministry of Power, Government of India, has been designated as the implementing
agency for this programme.
50.8.3.6 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→Other initiatives→Swachh

Bharat Mission
● It was launched in 2014 to accelerate the efforts to achieve universal sanitation coverage and to
put focus on sanitation.
● It has two Sub-Missions,
○ the Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin) and
○ the Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban).
Objectives
● To bring about an improvement in the general quality of life in the rural areas, by promoting
cleanliness, hygiene and eliminating open defecation.
● To accelerate sanitation coverage in rural areas to achieve the vision of Swachh Bharat by 2nd
October 2019.
● To motivate communities to adopt sustainable sanitation practices and facilities through
awareness creation and health education.
● To encourage cost effective and appropriate technologies for ecologically safe and sustainable
sanitation.
● To develop, wherever required, community managed sanitation systems focusing on scientific
Solid & Liquid Waste Management systems for overall cleanliness in the rural areas.
● To create a significant positive impact on gender and promote social inclusion by improving
sanitation especially in marginalized communities.
50.8.3.7 📝📝📝Indian initiatives to Combat climate change→Other initiatives→National

Clean Air Programme
● It was launched by the Ministry of Environment and Forests recently.

● It provides a framework for the Centre and the states to combat air pollution.
● NCAP has a goal to meet the prescribed annual average ambient air quality standards at all
locations in the country in a stipulated time frame.
● It has been launched to cut down particulate matter by 20-30% in at least 102 cities by 2024.
51 Hazardous Waste - Convention
51.1 Conventions On Pollutants
51.1.1 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

● The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a global treaty which requires
its parties to take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment.
● It was adopted in 2001 and entered into force in 2004.
● There are 184 parties to the Convention
● Notable non-ratifying states include the United States, Israel, Malaysia, and Italy.
What are POPs?
● Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are organic chemical substances, that is, they are
carbon-based. They possess a particular combination of physical and chemical properties such
that, once released into the environment, they:
○ Remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time (many years);
○ Become widely distributed throughout the environment as a result of natural processes
involving soil, water and, most notably, air;
○ Accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans, and are found at higher
concentrations at higher levels in the food chain; and
○ Are toxic to both humans and wildlife.
● In addition, POPs concentrate in living organisms through another process called
bioaccumulation. Effect of POPs
● Specific effects of POPs can include cancer, allergies and hypersensitivity, damage to the
central and peripheral nervous systems, reproductive disorders, and disruption of the immune
system.
● Some POPs are also considered to be endocrine disruptors, which, by altering the hormonal
system, can damage the reproductive and immune systems of exposed individuals as well as their
offspring; they can also have developmental and carcinogenic effects.
● Annexes A and B to the Convention describe specific exemptions, as well as acceptable
purposes, that are available with respect to the relevant POPs.

A: Elimination B: Restriction
● Annex A: Parties must take measures to eliminate the production and use of the chemicals
listed under Annex A. Specific exemptions for use or production are listed in the Annex and
apply only to Parties that register for them.
● Annex B: Parties must take measures to restrict the production and use of the chemicals listed
under Annex B in light of any applicable acceptable purposes and/or specific exemptions listed
in the Annex.
● Annex C: Parties must take measures to reduce the unintentional release of chemicals listed
under Annex C with the goal of continuous minimization and, where feasible, ultimate
elimination. The 12 Initial POPs Under The Stockholm Convention
● Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as causing adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem and these can be placed in 3 categories: ○ Pesticides: Aldrin, chlordane, DDT,
dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene; ○ Industrial chemicals:
Hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); and
○ By-products: Hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF), and PCBs. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
● Annex A (Elimination):Aldrin, Chlordane, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene,
Mirex, Toxaphene, PCB.
● Annex B (Restriction): DDT
● Annex C (Unintentional production): Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans,
Hexachlorobenzene, PCB. The new POPs Since its fourth meeting in 2009, The COP has
decided to amend Annexes A, B and C to the Convention by adding the following chemicals:
Annex A: Alpha hexachlorocyclohexane, Beta hexachlorocyclohexane, Chlordecone,
Decabromodiphenyl ether (commercial mixture, c-decaBDE), Hexabromobiphenyl,
Hexabromocyclododecane, Hexabromodiphenyl ether and heptabromodiphenyl ether
(commercial octabromodiphenyl ether), Lindane, Pentachlorophenol and its salts and esters,
Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), Technical endosulfan and its related isomers,
Tetrabromodiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether (commercial pentabromodiphenyl
ether).
● Annex B: Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, its salts and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride
● Annex A and C: Hexachlorobutadiene, Pentachlorobenzene,Polychlorinated naphthalenes In

2019, the following have been added Annex A: Dicofol, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), its salts
and PFOA-related compounds. International Programme on Chemical Safety The International
Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) was formed in 1980 and is a collaboration between three
United Nations bodies, the World Health Organization, the International Labour Organization
and the United Nations Environment Programme, to establish a scientific basis for safe use of
chemicals and to strengthen national capabilities and capacities for chemical safety. The IPCS
identifies following as "chemicals of major public health concern"
•Air pollution
•Arsenic
•Asbestos
•Benzene
•Cadmium
•Dioxin and dioxin-like substances
•Inadequate or excess Fluoride
•Lead
•Mercury
•Highly hazardous pesticides
51.1.2 Basel Convention

● The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
their Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland.
● It is the most comprehensive global environmental treaty on hazardous and other wastes.
● It has 187 member countries (Parties). Haiti and the United States have signed the convention
but not ratified it
Objective
● The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the
environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Aims and Provisions The
provisions of the Convention center around the following principal aims:
1. The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound
management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal;
2. The restriction of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived

to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound management; and
3. A regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible.
What is Waste under the Basel Convention?
● Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are
required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law.
● Annex I of the Convention, as further clarified in Annexes VIII and IX,lists those wastes that
are classified as hazardous and subject to the control procedures under the Convention.
● Annex II of the Convention identifies those wastes that require special consideration (known
as "other wastes', and which primarily refer to household wastes). Examples of wastes regulated
by the Basel Convention
● Biomedical and healthcare wastes
● Used oils
● Used lead acid batteries
● Persistent Organic Pollutant wastes (POPs wastes), chemicals and pesticides that persist (or
many years in the environment).
● They are transported great distances from their point of release, bioaccumulate (thus
threatening humans and animals at the top of the food chain), and cause a range of health effects.
● Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), compounds used in industry as heat exchange fluids, in
electric transformers and capacitors, and as additives in paint, carbonless copy paper, sealants
and plastics.
● Thousands of chemical wastes generated by industries and other consumers. Other Issues
Handled By The Basel convention
● Electronic and electrical waste (e-waste) such as mobile phones and computers
● Ships destined for dismantling
● Mercury and asbestos wastes
● Illegal dumping of hazardous wastes
51.1.3 Rotterdam Convention

● The text of the Rotterdam Convention was adopted on 10 September 1998 in Rotterdam, the
Netherlands. The Convention entered into force on 24 February 2004.
● The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior
Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
● It built on the voluntary PIC procedure, initiated by UNEP and FAO in 1989 and ceased on 24
February 2006.
The objectives of the Convention are:
● To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international
trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from
potential harm;
● To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those hazardous chemicals, by facilitating
information exchange about their characteristics, by providing for a national decision-making
process on their import and export and by disseminating these decisions to Parties. Annex III
chemicals
● The chemicals listed in Annex III include pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been
banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons by two or more Parties and
which the Conference of the Parties has decided to subject to the PIC procedure.
● There are a total of 52 chemicals listed in Annex III, 35 pesticides(including 3 severely
hazardous pesticide formulations), 16 industrial chemicals, and 1 chemical in both the pesticide
and the industrial chemical categories. To achieve its objectives the Convention includes two key
provisions, namely the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure and Information Exchange.
1. The Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure– The PIC procedure is a mechanism for formally
obtaining and disseminating the decisions of importing Parties as to whether they wish to receive
future shipments of those chemicals listed in Annex III of the Convention and for ensuring
compliance with these decisions by exporting Parties.
2. Information Exchange- The Convention facilitates information exchange among Parties for a
very broad range of potentially hazardous chemicals.
● Once a chemical is included in Annex III, a "decision guidance document" (DGD) containing
information concerning the chemical and the regulatory decisions to ban or severely restrict the
chemical for health or environmental reasons, is circulated to all Parties.
51.1.4 Minamata Convention

● The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the
environment from the adverse effects of mercury.

● It was agreed in Geneva, Switzerland in 2013 adopted and signed later that year on 10 October
2013 at a diplomatic conference held in Kumamoto, Japan and entered into force in 2017
● The Convention draws attention to a global and ubiquitous metal that, while naturally
occurring, has broad uses in everyday objects and is released to the atmosphere, soil and water
from a variety of sources.
● Controlling the anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle has been a key
factor in shaping the obligations under the Convention. Minamata Convention
● The Minamata Convention follows and builds on the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm
conventions.
● The Minamata Convention is a 21st century response to the catastrophic pollution in
Minamata, Japan, where industrial releases of methylmercury caused the epidemic known as the
Minamata disease in the 1950s and onwards. Objectives And Main Obligations
● The objective of the Minamata Convention is to protect human health and the environment
from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds.
● It contains, in support of this objective, provisions that relate to the entire life cycle of mercury,
including controls and reductions across a range of products, processes and industries where
mercury is used, released or emitted.
● The treaty also addresses the direct mining of mercury, its export and import, its safe storage
and its disposal once as waste.
● Identifying populations at risk, boosting medical care and better training of health-care
professionals in identifying and treating mercury-related effects will also contribute to
implementing the Convention.
● The Convention is made of 35 Articles and 5 Annexes, which can be divided into four main
categories:
1.Operational Provisions– Describing the obligations for Parties to reduce anthropogenic
emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds to the environment, with controls on
all their life cycle stages:
● Controls on mercury supply sources and trade
● Phase-out and phase-down of mercury use in products and processes
● Controls on artisanal and small scale gold mining where mercury is used
● Controls on air emissions and releases to land and water

● Storage, waste and contaminated sites
2. Support to Parties– With articles relating to:
● A financial mechanism, which includes the Global EnvironmentFacility Trust Fund and a
specific international Programme to support capacity-building and technical assistance.
● The provision of capacity building, technical assistance and technology transfer.
● The establishment of an Implementation and Compliance Committee.
3. Information And Awareness RaisingArticles, covering:
● Health aspects
● Information exchange
● Public information, awareness and education
● Research, development and monitoring
● Implementation plans
4. Administrative Matters:
● Reporting
● Effectiveness evaluation
● Conference of the Parties
● Secretariat, hosted by UNEP
● Procedures such as the settlement of disputes, amendments to the Convention, the adoption
and amendment of annexes, the right to vote, signature, ratification (or acceptance, approval or
accession), entry into force, reservations, withdrawal, depositary, authentic texts. India and
Minamata convention
● India approved the proposal for ratification of Minamata Convention on Mercury in 2018 thus
depositing the instrument of ratification enabling India to become a Party of the Convention.
51.1.5 London Dumping Convention

● The "Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter 1972", the "London Convention" for short, is one of the first global conventions to protect
the marine environment from human activities.
● It has been in force since 1975.
● Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take
all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.
● Currently, 87 States are Parties to this Convention.
● The purpose of the London Convention is to control all sources of marine pollution and
prevent pollution of the sea through regulation of dumping into the sea of waste materials.
● A so-called "black- and grey-list" approach is applied for wastes, which can be considered for
disposal at sea according to the hazard they present to the environment.
● For the blacklist items dumping is prohibited.
● Dumping of the grey-listed materials requires a special permit from a designated national
authority under strict control and provided certain conditions are met.
● All other materials or substances can be dumped after a general permit has been issued.
● It does not cover discharges from land-based sources such as pipes and outfalls, and wastes
generated incidental to normal operation of vessels.
● This is a non-legally binding convention.
● The efforts of the Parties are supported by a permanent secretariat hosted by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO). London, United Kingdom.
51.1.6 Marpol convention

● The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the
main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by
ships from operational or accidental causes.
● The MARPOL Convention was adopted in 1973 at InternationalMaritime Organization (IMO).
● The Protocol of 1978 was adopted in response to a spate of tanker accidents in 1976- 1977.
Marpol convention
● As the 1973 MARPOL Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL
Protocol absorbed the parent Convention.
● The combined instrument entered into force in 1983.
● MARPOL has been updated by amendments through the years.
● The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from
ships- both accidental pollution and that from routine operations- and currently includes six
technical Annexes.
● Special Areas with strict controls on operational discharges are included in most Annexes.
● India acceded to the convention in 2011. The six annexes are

1. Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil- Covers prevention of pollution by
oil from operational measures as well as from accidental discharges.
2. Annex II Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk-
Details the discharge criteria and measures for the control of pollution by noxious liquid
substances carried in bulk.
3. Annex III Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form-
Contains general requirements for the issuing of detailed standards on packing, marking,
labelling, documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications.
4. Annex IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships- Contains requirements to control
pollution of the sea by sewage.
5. Annex V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships- Deals with different types of
garbage and specifies the distances from land and the manner in which they may be disposed of.
6. Annex VI Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships- Sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen
oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone depleting
substances.
Pillar_5B_SDGs_&_Organisation_&_Blue_Flag_&_Indian_NGO
52 BioDiversity Organisation 283
52.1 Convention on BioDiversity(CBD) 283
52.1.1 Objective and goal 284
52.1.2 Convention on BioDiversity→ Protocol 284
Misc. Topic→ Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 (SPB 2011-2020) 288
India’s efforts towards SPB 2011-2020 289
Challenges faced by India in its efforts 290
Way Forward 290
52.1.3 Convention on BioDiversity→ More Organisation 290
53 International Summits and Organisations 301
Side Note: Blue Flag Beaches 308
54 Sustainable Development Goals 308
54.1 2030 Agenda – Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 308
54.2 Millennium Development Goals 311
54.3 How are SDGs different from MDGs? 311
54.4 MISC. TOPIC→ SEABED 2030 PROJECT 312
54.4.2 Benefits of Sea floor mapping 312
54.4 MISC. TOPIC→ SUSTAINABLE OCEAN ECONOMY FOR 2050 REPORT 313
55 India Institution & NGOs 313
55.1 India Institution & NGOs→ for Survey 313
55.2 India Institution & NGOs→ for Biodiversity 316
55.3 India Institution & NGOs→ for Wildlife 317
55.4 Legislative Institutions 321
55.5 Other Institution/NGOs/Organisation 322
52 BioDiversity Organisation
52.1 Convention on BioDiversity(CBD)
● Also known informally as the Biodiversity convention.

● Legally binding and multilateral treaty.
● Key documents regarding sustainable development.
● Was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio,1992.
● entered into effect in 1993.
(1st Batch) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_5B_SDGs_&_Organisation_&_Blue_Flag_&_Indian_NGO→ Page 283
● All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified the treaty.
● The meeting of the parties to the convention is known as the Conference of Parties(COP), with
the first one(COP1) held in Nassau, Bahamas in 1994 and the most recent one (COP14) held in
Sharm-El-Sheikh, Egypt.
● It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena protocol and Nagoya protocol.
52.1.1 Objective and goal
● Conservation on biosafety.
● Sustainable use of components of biodiversity.
● Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of commercial or other utilization of
genetic resources.
● In 2010, the strategic plan for biodiversity and the strategic plan for the Cartagena protocol on
biosafety were adopted, setting out targets and objectives to be achieved by the year 2020.
● In 2012, the meeting of the parties to the Cartagena protocol adopted the framework and the
action plan for capacity-building for the effective implementation of the Cartagena
protocol on biodiversity, to support parties in their efforts to give effect to the strategic plan on
biosafety and to support the implementation of the protocol.
52.1.2 Convention on BioDiversity→ Protocol
Cartagena ● The first extraordinary meeting of the conference of the party took place in
Protocol 1999 in Cartagena, Colombia. A couple of meetings on the adoption of
Cartagena protocol on Biosafety held in 2000, effective from the year 2003.
● Biosafety is the prevention of large-scale loss of biological integrity, focusing
both on ecology and human health.
● Objective: To contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the
field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms
(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.
● The protocol applies to the Transboundary movement, transit handling and
use of all LMOs that may have adverse effects on conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity, taking also into account risk to human health.
● LMOs→ any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic

material obtained from the use of modern biotechnology. (Living Organism⇒
any biological entity capable of transferring or replicating genetic material,
including strerial organism, virus and viroids).
● Common LMOs include Agriculture Corps that have been genetically
modified for greater productivity or for resistance to pests or disease.
● LMOs intended for direct use of food or feed, or for processing (LMO-FEP)
are agricultural commodities from GM crops.
Procedures Under Cartagena Protocol
● The "Advance Informed Agreement" (AIA) procedure to ensure that
importing countries assess and are prepared in advance to handle the risks that
may be associated with the LMOs before agreeing to its import.
● Parties to the Protocol must ensure that LMOs are handled, packaged and
transported under conditions of safety.
● The shipment of LMOs subject to transboundary movement must be
accompanied by appropriate documentation specifying, among other things,
identity of LMOs and contact point for further information.
Strategic Plan For The Cartagena Protocol On Biosafety For The Period
2011-2020
● The Strategic Plan comprises a vision, a mission statement and five strategic
objectives.
● For each strategic objective, a number of operational objectives, expected
outcomes and indicators are outlined. The focal areas underlying the five
strategic objectives are as follows:
1. Facilitating the establishment and further development of systems for the
implementation of the Protocol;
2. Capacity-building;
3. Compliance and review;
4. Information sharing; and 5. Outreach and cooperation.
Nagoya ● Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Equitable Sharing
Protocol of Benefits Arising from theirUtilization Fair and
● Also known as the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS).
● Supplementary agreement to CBD adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. It
entered into force in 2014.
● Its aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the
fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources.
● It sets out obligations for its contracting parties to take measures in relation to
access to genetic resources, benefit-sharing and compliance.
Significance of Nagoya protocol
● The Nagoya Protocol will create greater legal certainty and transparency for
both providers and users of genetic resources by:
○ Establishing more predictable conditions for access to genetic resources.
○ Helping to ensure benefit-sharing when genetic resources leave the country
providing the genetic resources
● By helping to ensure benefit-sharing, the Nagoya Protocol creates incentives
to conserve and sustainably use genetic resources, and therefore enhances the
contribution of biodiversity to development and human well-being.
● It also provides for the sharing of benefits arising from the use of traditional
knowledge associated with genetic resources, as well as benefits arising from
the use of genetic resources in accordance with domestic legislation. Benefit
sharing must be based on mutually agreed terms.
● In addition, Parties to the Protocol must ensure that their nationals comply
with the domestic legislation and regulatory requirements of provider countries
related to access and benefit-sharing of traditional knowledge associated with
genetic resources.
● The compliance of the countries are also reviewed in light of developments in
other relevant international organizations, including the World Intellectual
Property Organization.
Aichi Targets
● Adopted in COP-10 of CBD held in Nagoya, Japan in 2010
● 20 ambitious yet achievable targets divided into 5 sections (A toE)
● Strategic goals to be achieved by 2020.
● Eliminate or phase out incentives/subsidies which are harmful to Strategic
goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming
biodiversity across government and society biodiversity.
● Make people aware about the values of biodiversity to conserve and use it
sustainably.
● Integrate biodiversity values into development and poverty reduction plans.
● Help all stakeholders make plans for Sustainable production and
consumption.
Strategic goal B: Reduce the direct pressure on biodiversity and promote
sustainable use
● Reduce the rate of natural habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation to half.
● Reduce overfishing and ensure sustainable harvesting of aquatic resources.
● Sustainable management of Agriculture, aquaculture and forestry.
● Reduce pollution including excess nutrients.
● Regulate the introduction and establishment of invasive alien species.
● Minimise the impact of coral reefs from climate change and ocean
acidification. Strategic Goal C: Safeguard ecosystems, species and genetic
diversity
● Conserve terrestrial and inland water and coastal and marine areas.
● Prevent extinction of known threatened species.
● Maintain genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated
animals and formulate strategy for minimising genetic erosion.
Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem
services
● Safeguard ecosystems that provide essential services.
● Enhance ecosystem resilience for climate change mitigation.

● Operationalise the nagoya protocol on genetic resources, consistent with
national legislations.
Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning,
knowledge management and capacity building
● Parties to develop National biodiversity strategy and action plans.
● Integrate the traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous and local
communities.
● Improve and share knowledge, science base and technology related to
biodiversity.
● Financial resources mobilisation for implementation of strategic goals.
⦁ International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture (PGRFA)
• Popularly known as the International Seed Treaty.
• International agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
• Aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and
sustainable use of the world's plant genetic resources for food and agriculture
(PGRFA), as well as the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use. It
was signed in 2001 in Madrid, and entered into force on 29 June 2004.
•India is a signatory to the treaty.
Objective: Farmers’ Contribution: To recognize the contribution of farmers to
the diversity of crops, Access and Benefit Sharing: Establish a global system to
provide farmers, plant breeders and scientists with access to plant genetic
materials, Sustainability: To conserve and sustainably use plant genetic
resources for food and agriculture, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits
arising out of their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
⦁ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
• It is an international initiative to draw attention to the global economic
benefits of biodiversity.
• In 2007, environment ministers from the G8+5 countries meeting in Germany
proposed TEEB to initiate the process of
✓ analysing the global economic benefit of biological diversity,
✓ the costs of the loss of biodiversity and
✓ the failure to take protective measures versus the costs of effective
conservation.
• In response to TEEB, a global study was initiated in 2017 and was led by
Pavan Sukhdev.
• Pavan Sukhdev is an Indian environmental economist whose field of studies
include green economy and international finance.
Misc. Topic→ Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 (SPB 2011-2020)
- The year 2020 is the “Super Year For Biodiversity”, as the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
with 20 global Aichi targets adopted in 2010 ends in 2020.
- SPB 2011-2020 was adopted by the parties to the CBD, during the tenth meeting of the
Conference of the Parties (COP 10) in 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, with the purpose of
inspiring broad-based action in support of biodiversity over the next decade by all
countries and stakeholders.
- The Strategic Plan consists of a shared vision, a mission and 20 targets organized under 5
strategic goals, collectively known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (ABTs).
- Vision: Living in Harmony with Nature where by 2050, biodiversity is valued,
conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a
healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people.
- Mission: To take effective and urgent action to halt the loss of biodiversity in order to
ensure that by 2020 ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services,
thereby securing the planet's variety of life, and contributing to human well-being, and
poverty eradication.
- To implement the SPB 2011-2020, Parties to CBD agreed to: o Update their national
biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs) in line with the SPB 2011-2020.
- o Develop national targets (taking into account national priorities and capacities) using
the Strategic Plan and ABTs as a flexible framework, and integrate these national targets
into the updated NBSAPs.
- o Adopt the updated NBSAPs as a policy instrument for the integration of biodiversity
into national development, accounting and planning processes.
- o Report on progress achieved towards implementation of the Strategic Plan and Aichi
Biodiversity Targets through National Reports.
- Presently, the negotiations to develop the post-2020 global biodiversity framework are
ongoing.
India’s efforts towards SPB 2011-2020
- India prepared its first National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) entitled “National
Policy and Macro Level Action Strategy on Biodiversity” in 1999 which was revised and
updated into NBAP, 2008 to bring the biodiversity agenda in alignment with the National
Environment Policy (NEP), 2006.
- The NBAP, 2008 was updated with Addendum 2014 to NBAP, 2008 in order to integrate
it with the SPB 2011-20. o Accordingly, India developed 12 National Biodiversity
Targets (NBTs) which cover all the 20 ABTs.
- For overseeing and monitoring the implementation of these targets, agencies were
identified on the basis of their mandate, domain areas and geographical coverage in the
country.
- Indicators and monitoring framework were also developed for each NBT.
- According to India’s 6th National Report, India is on track to achieve 9 out of its 12
NBTs and exceed 1 of them (NBT 6), but is moving towards 2 of the targets (NBT 4 and
12) at an insufficient rate.
- Progress so far:
- 1. Increased area under biodiversity conservation: The number of Protected Areas under
Wildlife Protection Act in the country has increased from a total of 771 in 2018 to 870 in
2019.
- 2. Operationalising the Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit sharing (ABS): After
publishing the first internationally recognized certificate of compliance (IRCC) under the
Nagoya Protocol in India has since then published 997 IRCCs on the ABS Clearing
House (highest among all parties).
- 3. Developing an extensive policy and legislative framework: to achieve its NBTs. ✓
Major policies- National Forest Policy, 1988, National Environment Policy, 2006
National Policy on Marine Fisheries (NPMF), 2017, National Intellectual Property Right
Policy, 2016 etc.
- Major acts- Biological Diversity Act, 2002, Indian Forest Act, 1927, Environment
Protection Act, 1986, Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, Wildlife
Protection Act, 1972 etc.
- Implementation of Biological Diversity Act, 2002: About 2 lakh Biodiversity
Management Committees (BMCs) at local levels have been constituted as of 2019 and
7567 People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) have been prepared as of 2019.
- PBRs document local biological resources and associated traditional knowledge (TK).
Challenges faced by India in its efforts
• Low awareness regarding government programmes: especially among tribal communities

due to issues such as language barrier.
• Forest Fires: About 21.40% of forest cover in India is prone to fires as per a report by the
Forest Survey of India (FSI). They cause long term damage through loss of biodiversity, ozone
layer depletion, loss of habitat for wildlife and soil erosion etc.
• Threat of Invasive alien species: They can change the community structure and species
composition of native ecosystems directly by out-competing indigenous species for resources
and indirectly through changes in nutrient cycling, ecosystem function and ecological
relationships between native species.
• Poor capacity building at local level: Institutions of local governance, such as Biodiversity
Management Committees (BMCs) created under Biological Diversity Act, 2002, are often ill
equipped to take informed decisions regarding biodiversity related issues.
• Data collection: India lacks human and technical resources that are needed to compile and
analyze data for implementation and monitoring of NBSAP.
✍Way Forward
• Creation of toolkits in local dialects: for building capacities of traditional communities for
equipping them with skills to negotiate with users seeking access to traditional knowledge and
enabling them to undertake best practices regarding conversation.
• Additional funding, resources and technical support: for initiatives such as MoEFCC
scheme “Forest Fire Prevention and Management” that provides support to states to tackle forest
fires.
• Intensive and sustained training and capacity building: of institutions of local governance
such as Municipal and Panchayat bodies and BMCs.
• Developing a nationally coordinated system of Invasive alien species management: which
brings together domain experts such as botanists, foresters, wildlife biologists, researchers,
engineers, ecologists, hydrologists, and communication experts to make areas and
species-specific strategies.
• Creating a central database for tracking NBTs: through additional financial, technical and
human resources.
52.1.3 Convention on BioDiversity→ More Organisation
CITES ● CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between
governments.
● Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild
animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
● It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting
of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
● The text of the Convention was finally agreed at a meeting of
representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., the United States of
America in 1973. Therefore, it is also called the Washington convention.
● CITES entered into force in 1975.
● CITES is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
● CITES is an international agreement to which States and regional
economic integration organizations adhere voluntarily.
● States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention ('joined' CITES)
are known as Parties.
● Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties– in other words they
have to implement the Convention– it does not take the place of national
laws.
● Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which
has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is
implemented at the national level.
● It has 183 parties presently. CITES Species
● Roughly 5,800 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are
protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade.
● They are listed in the three CITES Appendices.
● The species are grouped in the Appendices according to how
threatened they are by international trade.
● They include some whole groups, such as primates, cetaceans (whales,
dolphins and porpoises), sea turtles, parrots, corals, cacti and orchids.
The CITES Appendices Appendices I, II and III to the Convention are
lists of species afforded different levels or types of protection from
over-exploitation.
Appendix I
● Appendix I lists species that are the most endangered among
CITES-listed animals and plants.
● They are threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international
trade in specimens of these species except when the purpose of the
import is not commercial, for instance for scientific research.
● In these exceptional cases, trade may take place provided it is
authorized by the granting of both an import permit and an export permit
(or re-export certificate).

Appendix II
● It lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction
but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.
● It also includes so-called "look-alike species", i.e. species whose
specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation
reasons.
● International trade in specimens of Appendix-II species may be
authorized by the granting of an export permit or re-export certificate.
Projects and Initiatives
1. International Consortium On Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC)
● ICCWC is the collaborative effort of five inter-governmental
organizations.
● They are working to bring coordinated support to the national wildlife
law enforcement agencies and to the sub-regional and regional networks
that, on a daily basis, act in defense of natural resources.
● This powerful alliance was formally established in 2010 in St.
Petersburg,
Russia The ICCWC partners are
1. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Secretariat,
2. INTERPOL,
3. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,
4. The World Bank and
5. The World Customs Organization
● ICCWC’s mission is to strengthen criminal justice systems and provide
coordinated support at national, regional and international level to
combat wildlife and forest crime.
2. CITES Tree Species Programme
● The CITES Tree Species Programme seeks to foster economically,
socially and environmentally sustainable development.

● It helps maximizing CITES contributions to the UN Sustainable
Development Goals, notably Goal 15 as it relates to sustainably
managing forests and halting biodiversity loss.
● The Programme aims to improve and strengthen forest governance to
ensure benefit from long-term species conservation and contribute to
rural development in often remote areas, sustainable economic growth at
country level and long-term poverty alleviation.
3. Monitoring The Illegal Killing Of Elephants (MIKE)
● The overall aim of MIKE is to provide information needed for elephant
range States and the Parties to CITES to make appropriate management
and enforcement decisions, and to build institutional capacity within the
range States for the long-term management of their elephant populations.
● MIKE aims to help range States improve their ability to monitor
elephant populations, detect changes in levels of illegal killing, and use
this information to provide more effective law enforcement and
strengthen any regulatory measures required to support such
enforcement.
CMS ● Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) of Wild

Animals (also known as CMS or Bonn Convention).
● It is an environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Nations
Environment Programme.
● The text was negotiated in 1979 in Bonn and the Convention entered
into force in 1983.
● It provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use
of migratory animals and their habitats.
● There are 130 Parties to the Convention – 129 countries plus the
European Union. The Republic of the Maldives is the latest Party to
join the Convention.
● CMS brings together the States through which migratory animals pass,
the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally
coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range.
● CMS is the only global convention specializing in the conservation of
migratory species, their habitats and migration routes.
● Thus, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other
international organizations, NGOs and partners in the media as well as in
the corporate sector.
Appendix I
● Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I
of the Convention.
Appendix II
● Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from
international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention.
India with CMS
● India hosts several migratory species which cross transboundary for
their biological needs.
● India has been a signatory to the CMS since 1983.
Global • The Global Environment Facility (GEF) unites 183 countries in

Environment partnership with international institutions, civil society organizations
Facility (CSOs), and the private sector to address global environmental issues
while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
• The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of
the 1992 Rio Earth Summit
• An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides
grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international
waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic
pollutants.
⦁ The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following
conventions:
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Minamata Convention on Mercury
• The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), supports implementation
of the Protocol in countries with economies in transition.
⦁ The GEF works with 18 agencies. Notable ones among them are: 1)
United Nations Development Programme 2) United Nations
Environment 3) World Bank 4) Food and Agriculture Organization
5) Asian Development Bank 6) International Fund for Agricultural
Development 7) World Wildlife Fund - US 8) Conservation
International 9) International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
⦁ Areas of work
• Biodiversity, Climate change, International waters, Land degradation,
Sustainable forest management / REDD+ and Ozone depletion
TRAFFIC • TRAFFIC: The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC).

• TRAFFIC is a NGO working globally on trade in wild animals and
plants in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable
development.
• TRAFFIC is a joint programme of the World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) and IUCN.
• Traffic is complementary to CITES.
• The programme was founded in 1976, with headquarters now located in
Cambridge, United Kingdom.
• TRAFFIC’s mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is
not a threat to the conservation of nature.
• It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts and

drivers to provide the leading knowledge base on trade in wild animals
and plants.
Conservation ● Conservation International is a nonprofit environmental organisation

International established in 1987.
● Conservation International works to spotlight and secure the critical
benefits that nature provides to humanity.
● The concept of biodiversity hotspots was initiated by Conservation
International.
● The foundation of CI's work is "science, partnership and field
demonstration." location-Arlington, Virginia, United States
WWF ● The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international

non-governmental organization founded in 1961.
● Works in the field of wilderness preservation, and the reduction of
human impact on the environment.
● It is the world's largest conservation organization with over five million
supporters worldwide.
● Currently, their work is organized around these six areas: food, climate,
freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.
● The Living Planet Report and Living Planet Index are published
every two years by WWF.
HQ- Gland, Vaud, Switzerland
International ● ITTO is an intergovernmental organization promoting the sustainable

Tropical Timber management and conservation of tropical forests and the expansion
Organisation and diversification of international trade in tropical timber from
sustainably managed and legally harvested forests.
● ITTO’s membership represents about 90% of the global tropical timber
trade and more than 80% of the world’s tropical forests.
HQ- Yokohama, Japan ,1986
● Develops internationally agreed policy guidelines and norms to

encourage sustainable forest management (SFM) and sustainable
tropical timber industries and trade.
● Assists tropical member countries to adapt such guidelines and norms
to local circumstances and to implement them in the field through
projects and other activities.
● Collects, analyzes and disseminates data on the production and trade of
tropical timber.
● Promotes sustainable tropical timber supply chains.
● Helps develop capacity in tropical forestry.
Birdlife ● Global partnership of conservation organisations (NGOs) that strives to

International conserve birds, their habitats, and global biodiversity.
● It is the world's largest partnership of conservation organisations, with
121 partner organisations.
● The group’s headquarters are located in Cambridge, UK.
● It works for preventing extinction of bird species, identifying and
safeguarding important sites for birds, maintaining and restoring key bird
habitats, and empowering conservationists worldwide.
● It is the official listing authority for birds for the IUCN’s Red List
of threatened species.
● Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)- Published by
Birdlife International.
IPBES ● IPBES- The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
● IPBES is an independent intergovernmental body established by States
to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem
services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity,
long-term human well-being and sustainable development.(BIODIV→
SUSTAINABLE GROWTH→ HUMAN DEV)
● 2012.
● IPBES currently has over 134 member States. IPBES Bonn,
Germany In 2010 a resolution by the 65th session of the United Nations
General Assembly urged the United Nations Environment Programme to
convene a plenary meeting to establish the IPBES
● It is not a United Nations body.
What does IPBES do? The work of IPBES can be broadly grouped into
four complementary areas:
● Assessments: On specific themes (e.g. “Pollinators, Pollination and
Food Production”); methodological issues (e.g. “Scenarios and
Modelling); and at both the regional and global levels (e.g. “Global
Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services”).
● Policy Support: Identifying policy-relevant tools and methodologies,
facilitating their use, and catalyzing their further development.
● Building Capacity & Knowledge: Identifying and meeting the
priority capacity, knowledge and data needs of member States, experts
and stakeholders.
● Communications & Outreach: Ensuring the widest reach and impact
of the work done.
SAWEN ● South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN) is an

inter-governmental wildlife law enforcement support body of South
Asian countries.
● The South Asian countries are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
● SAWEN was officially launched in 2011 in Bhutan.
● It promotes regional cooperation to combat wildlife crime in South
Asia.
● SAWEN operates its activities from the Secretariat based in
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Biodiversity ● Biodiversity Finance Initiative– BIOFIN, is a new global partnership

Finance Initiative seeking to address the biodiversity finance challenge in a comprehensive
manner– building a sound business case for increased investment in the
management of ecosystems and biodiversity.
● BIOFIN assesses the gap between the ‘available funding’ and the
required funding’ for biodiversity conservation and help in resource
mobilization.
● BIOFIN ⇒ managed by the UNDP Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Programme, in partnership with the European Union and the
Governments of Germany and Switzerland. 2012.
Critical ● Founded in 2000.

Ecosystem ● CEPF provides grants for nongovernmental and private sector
Partnership Fund organizations to help protect biodiversity hotspots, Earth’s most
(CEPF) biologically rich yet threatened areas.
• Arlington, Virginia, USA
- is a joint biodiversity conservation initiative of l'Agence Française de
Développement(FRANCE DEVELOPMENT AGENCY),
Conservation International, European Union, Global Environment
Facility, Government of Japan, and World Bank.
The Nature ● It is a global environmental organization, headquartered in Arlington,

Conservancy Virginia, United States. As of 2021 it works via affiliates or branches in
(TNC) 79 countries and territories, as well as across every state in the US.
● Founded in 1951, The Nature Conservancy has over one million
members globally as of 2021, and has protected more than 119,000,000
acres (48,000,000 ha) of land and thousands of miles of rivers worldwide
● The Nature Conservancy's Plant a Billion Trees campaign(VERY
MUCH IMPORTANT CONTENT FOR WAY FORWARD) is an effort
to plant one billion trees across the globe in forests with the greatest nee.
Greenpeace states ● International NGO

● Greenpeace states its goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth to
nurture life in all its diversity "and focuses its campaigning on
worldwide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing,
commercial whaling, genetic engineering, and anti-nuclear issues.
● Greenpeace have launched the "Go Beyond Oil" campaign.
● The campaign is focused on slowing, and eventually ending, the
world's consumption of oil.
United Nation ● HQ- New York, USA

Forum on Forest
The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) is a high-level
intergovernmental policy forum.
Global objectives on forests - UNFF
• Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest
management (SFM), including protection, restoration, afforestation and
reforestation, and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation;
• Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental benefits,
including by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people;
• Increase significantly the area of sustainably managed forests,
including protected forests, and increase the proportion of forest
products derived from sustainably managed forests;
53 International Summits and Organisations
United Nations ● It was an international conference convened under United Nations

Conference on auspices.
The Human ● It was held in Stockholm, Sweden in 1972.
Environment ● It was the UN's first major conference on international environmental
issues, and marked a turning point in the development of international
environmental politics.
● The meeting agreed upon a Declaration known as the Stockholm
Declaration.
Principles of Stockholm Declaration
1. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned.
2. Natural resources must be safeguarded.
3. The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained.
4. Wildlife must be safeguarded.
5. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted.
6. Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
7. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented.
8. Development is needed to improve the environment.
World ● The UN General Assembly, through a resolution in 1983, welcomed the

Commission establishment of a special commission.
on ● This commission was to make available a report on the environment and
Environment the global problematique to the year 2000 and beyond, including proposed
and strategies for sustainable development.
Development ● The commission later adopted the name World Commission on
Environment and Development.
⦁ United • UNEP is an agency of the United Nations.

Nations • It coordinates the UN’s environmental activities.
Environment • It assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound
Programme policies and practices.

(UNEP) or UN • It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the
Environment Human Environment 1972.
• It has overall responsibility for environmental problems among United
Nations agencies.
• Addressing climate change or combating desertification, are overseen by
other UN organizations, like the UNFCCC and the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification.
• UNEP's activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere,
marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green
economy.
• The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
• UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the
Implementation of the Montreal Protocol.
• It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.
• UNEP has registered several successes, such as the 1987 Montreal
Protocol, and the 2012 Minamata Convention, a treaty to limit toxic
mercury.
• UNEP has sponsored the development of solar loan programmes. The solar
loan programme sponsored by UN Environment helped finance solar power
systems in India
Intergovernme • IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body under the auspices of the

ntal Panel on United Nations.
Climate • It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the
Change World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
(IPCC) Environment Programme (UNEP).
• Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP. •
The IPCC produces reports that support the UNFCCC.
• IPCC reports cover all relevant information to understand the risk of

human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for
adaptation and mitigation.
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research.
• Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute on a voluntary basis.
• The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared, in two equal parts, between the
IPCC and an American Environmentalist.
⦁ The aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to:
• Human-induced climate change,
• The impacts of human-induced climate change, Options for adaptation and
mitigation
Brundtland - after the Chairperson of the Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland,

commission appointed by the United Nations Secretary-General in December 1983.
● The mission of the Brundtland Commission is to unite countries to pursue
sustainable development together.
● This commission was officially dissolved in 1987 after the release of the
Brundtland report, ‘Our Common Future’.
● The term ‘sustainable development’ was popularised from this report.
● The report highlighted three fundamental components to sustainable
development: environmental protection, economic growth and social equity.
● The commission was replaced with the centre for our common future in
1988.
United Nations ● UNCED is also known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, the Rio
Conference Summit, the Rio Conference, and the Earth Summit.
On ● It was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to
Environment 14 June 1992.
And • 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant
Development( reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local
UNCED) levels.
• As a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development

(Rio+10) was held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa.
• In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was
also held in Rio and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit
2012.
Issues discussed and addressed in UNCED
● Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production— particularly the production
of toxic components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including
radioactive chemicals.
● Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are
linked to global climate change.
● New reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle
emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted
air and smoke.
● The growing usage and limited supply of water.
Documents agreed upon at the UNCED
Legally binding agreements Non-binding agreements
CBD: The Convention on Rio declaration: It contains a set

Biological Diversity is a binding of 27 principles for sustainable
treaty requiring nations to take development throughout the world.
inventories of their plants and wild
animals and protect their
endangered species.
UNFCCC: The United Nations Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a

Framework Convention on Climate comprehensive plan of action to be
Change (UNFCCC), or Global taken globally, nationally and
Warming Convention, requires locally by organizations of the
nations to reduce their emission of United Nations System,
carbon dioxide, methane, and other Governments, and Major Groups in

“greenhouse” gases. every area in which human impacts
on the environment. It is related to
The Statement of Principles on

Forests, aimed at preserving the
world’s rapidly vanishing tropical
rainforests, is a non-binding
statement recommending that
nations monitor and assess the
impact of development on their
forest resources and take steps to
limit the damage done to them.
Agenda 21 ● Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard
to sustainable development.
● It is a product of the Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and
Development).
● It is an action agenda for all the stakeholders that can be executed at local,
national, and global levels.
● The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century.
● Its aim is achieving global sustainable development.
● One major objective of agenda 21 is that every local government should
draw its own local agenda 21.
● It has a preamble, four sections and a total of 40 chapters. It also includes
a Statement on Forest Principles.
Barbados ● The Barbados Programme of Action, adopted during the Global

Programme of Conference on the Sustainable Development of SIDS held in Barbados in
Action 1994, defines the priorities, the cross-sectoral areas as well as the actions
(BPOA) and strategies to be undertaken at national, regional and global level to
ensure the sustainable development of Small Island Developing States.
United Nations • The Convention stemmed from a direct recommendation of the Rio
Convention to Conference's Agenda 21 in 1994.
Combat • UNCCD is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects
Desertification of drought through national action programs (NAP).
(UNCCD) • National action programs (NAP) incorporate long-term strategies
supported by international cooperation.
• It is the only internationally legally binding framework set up to
address desertification.
• It was adopted in Paris, France in 1994 and entered into force in 1996.
• It has 196 parties, making it truly global in reach.
• 2006 was declared "International Year of Deserts and Desertification".
• The UN Convention to Combat Desertification has established a
Committee on Science and Technology (CST).
• CST is composed of government representatives competent in the fields of
expertise relevant to combating desertification and mitigating the effects of
drought.
• UNCCD collaborates closely with the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
Rio+5 (1997) • In 1997, the UN General Assembly held a special session to appraise the
status of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
• The Assembly recognized progress as "uneven" and identified key trends,
including increasing globalization, widening inequalities in income, and
continued deterioration of the global environment
Rio+10 (2002) • Rio+10 (2002) or Earth Summit 2002 or World Summit on Sustainable
or Earth Development.
Summit 2002 • Took place in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002.
• Rio+10 affirmed UN commitment to Agenda 21, alongside the Millennium

Development Goals.
• Johannesburg Declaration: committing the nations of the world to
Rio+20 (2012) • Rio+20 (2012) or United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development.

• Rio+20 was a 20-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 1992 and 10-year
follow-up to the Earth Summit 2002.
• It is also known as Rio 2012 or Earth Summit 2012.
• Hosted by Brazil in Rio de Janeiro in 2012.
• It reaffirmed the commitment to Agenda 21.
• It was the third international conference on sustainable development.
Partnership • PAGE, launched in 2013, is a direct response to the Rio+20 Declaration,

for Action on The Future We Want.
Green • Rio+20 Declaration called upon the UN system and the international
Economy community to aid interested countries in developing, adopting and
(PAGE) implementing green economy policies and strategies.
• PAGE supports nations in reframing economic policies and practices
around sustainability.
• PAGE seeks to assist countries in achieving SDG (2030 Agenda),
especially SDG 8: "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive employment.”
• PAGE brings together the expertise of five UN agencies – UNEP, ILO,
UNIDO, UNDP and UNITAR.
ILO: International Labour Organization
UNIDO: UN Industrial Development Organization
UNITAR: UN Institute for Training and Research.
Side Note: Blue Flag Beaches
• The ‘Blue Flag' is an environmental certification or award that can be earned by a beach,
marina, or sustainable boating tourism operator. The certification is provided by the Foundation
for Environmental Education (FEE), a non-profit organization based in Denmark.
• Applicants must meet and maintain stringent environmental, safety, educational, and
accessibility requirements. It is provided to beaches and marinas in FEE member countries on an
annual basis.
• The Blue Flag initiative began in France in 1985 and expanded to include areas outside of
Europe in 2001. This initiative 185 encourages sustainable development in freshwater and
marine areas with the help of 33 criterias under four important major heads: environmental
education, water quality, environmental management, and safety.
• On the lines of Blue Flag Certification, India has also initiated a similar programme known as
BEAMS (Beach Environment & Aesthetics Management Services) under ICZM (Integrated
Coastal Zone Management) for development of world class Beaches in India.
• This programme is launched by Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM) and the
Union Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
⇒ What is the ICZM Project?
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project seeks to build national capacity for
implementation of a comprehensive coastal management approach in the country. This project is
assisted by the World Bank. The concept of ICZM was born in 1992 during the Earth Summit of
Rio de Janeiro.
⇒ Sept,2020- On the eve of International Coastal Clean-Up Day, Environment Minister
Prakash Javadekar said eight beaches of the country have been recommended for the coveted
'Blue Flag' international eco-label, the BlueFlag Certification. At the same event, the minister
also launched India’s own eco-label BEAMS (Beach Environment & Aesthetics Management
Services) under ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone Management) project. The Eight Beaches are:
Shivrajpur in Gujarat, Ghoghla in Daman & Diu, Kasarkod and Padubidri beach in
Karnataka, Kappad in Kerala, Rushikonda in Andhra Pradesh, Golden beach of Odisha
and Radhanagar beach in Andaman and Nicobar.
54 Sustainable Development Goals
54.1 2030 Agenda – Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was launched in 2015.

• The UN 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) aim at eradicating poverty in
all forms and “seek to realize the human rights of all and achieve gender equality”.
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals, and their 169
targets, set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030 (UNGA
resolution “2030 Agenda”).
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere
Goal 2: Zero Hunger

Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Goal 4: Quality education
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all
Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
Goal 8: Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for
all
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11: Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
Goal 15: Sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation,
halt biodiversity loss Goal 16: Promote just, peaceful and inclusive societies
Goal 17: Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development
Goal No. & Name Details
Goal 2: Zero hunger ⦁ "End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and
promote sustainable agriculture".
• This would be accomplished by
✓ doubling agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale
food producers (women and indigenous peoples),
✓ ensuring sustainable food production systems, and
✓ progressively improving land and soil quality.
• Other targets deal with maintaining genetic diversity of seeds,
increasing access to land, preventing trade restriction and
distortions in world agricultural markets, eliminating wastage and
ending malnutrition.
Goal 6: Clean water and ⦁ "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation sanitation for all."
• Safe drinking water and hygienic toilets.
• Toilets in schools and workplaces.
• Equitable sanitation for addressing the specific needs of women
and girls, disabled, aged persons.
Goal 7: Affordable and ⦁ "Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
clean energy energy for all."
• 2030 target: access to affordable and reliable energy while
increasing the share of renewable energy
Goal 11: Sustainable ⦁ "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and
cities and communities sustainable."
• 2030 target is to ensure access to safe and affordable housing
Goal 12: Responsible ⦁ "Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns."

consumption and • The targets of Goal 12 include:
production ✓ using eco-friendly production methods
✓ reducing the amount of waste.
✓ Increase national recycling rates.
Goal 13: Climate action ⦁ "Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by
regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable
energy."
Goal 14: Life below ⦁ "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
water resources for sustainable development."
• The targets include
✓ preventing and reducing marine pollution and acidification,
✓ protecting marine and coastal ecosystems and regulating
fishing.
• Microplastics come from a variety of sources, including from
larger plastic debris.

• Microbeads, a type of microplastic (tiny pieces of polyethylene),
are very tiny pieces of plastic that are added to health and beauty
products, such as some cleansers and toothpastes.
Goal 15: Life on Land ⦁ “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification,
and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss."
• Goal 15 calls for more attention to preventing invasion of
introduced species and more protection of endangered species.
54.2 Millennium Development Goals
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) replaced the MDGs in 2016.

• The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals for
the year 2015.
• MGDs had been established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000.
at the United Nations headquarters in New York
• The United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted.
⇒ Millennium Development Goals by 2015
1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. To achieve universal primary education
3. To promote gender equality and empower women
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. To ensure environmental sustainability
8. To develop a global partnership for
development
54.3 How are SDGs different from MDGs?
● The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets are broader in scope and go
further than the MDGs by addressing the root causes of poverty and the universal need for
development that works for all people.
● The goals cover the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic growth, social
inclusion and environmental protection.
● Building on the success and momentum of the MDGs, the new goals cover more ground, with
ambitions to address inequalities, economic growth, decent jobs, cities and human settlements,
industrialization, oceans, ecosystems, energy, climate change, sustainable consumption and
production, peace and justice.
● The new Goals are universal and apply to all countries, whereas the MDGs were intended for
action in developing countries only.
● A core feature of the SDGs is their strong focus on means of implementation—the
mobilization of financial resources—capacity-building and technology, as well as data and
institutions.
● The new Goals recognize that tackling climate change is essential for sustainable development
and poverty eradication. SDG 13 aims to promote urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts.
54.4 SDG India Index 2020-21:
By NITI Ayog(estd: 2015, Chairman: PM, Vice chairman: Rajiv Kumar, CEO: Amitabh Kant,
ThinkTank, replace PC),
Parameter: Health, Education, Gender, Economic Growth, Climate Change;
Top performer: 1) Kerala, 2) TamilNadu & Himachal Pradesh;
Worst performer: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam.
Index is developed in India with collaboration of UN. It tracks performance of States & UTs in
115 indicators aligned with the National Indicator framework by MOSPI.
⇒ Further Self Study about own state ranking through http://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in
54.5 MISC. TOPIC→ SEABED 2030 PROJECT
- Recently, researchers under the Seabed 2030 project had finished mapping nearly
one-fifth of the world’s ocean floor.
- It is a collaborative project between the Nippon Foundation of Japan and the General
Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO).
- It aims to bring together all available bathymetric data to produce the definitive map of
the world ocean floor by 2030 and make it available to all. o Bathymetry is the
measurement of the shape and depth of the ocean floor.
- It was launched at the United Nations Ocean Conference in 2017.
- It is aligned with the UN's Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 to conserve and
sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources.
- The Seabed 2030 project comprises four Regional Centers and a Global Center (in the
UK).
- GEBCO→ It is an international group of geoscientists and hydrographers, working on the
development of a range of bathymetric data sets and data products→ GEBCO operates
under the joint auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)
(of UNESCO) and the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) → GEBCO is
the only intergovernmental organisation with a mandate to map the entire ocean floor.
54.5.1 Benefits of Sea floor mapping
- Shape of the seabed is critical to understanding ocean circulation patterns which affect
climate and weather patterns, tides, sediment transport and resource exploration (oil, gas
and minerals).
- Strengthen understanding of marine ecosystems and marine life for the benefit of our
current and future food supply, as three billion people rely on fish as a source of protein.
- Understanding of climate change, as floor features including canyons and underwater
volcanoes influence vertical mixing of ocean water, ocean currents, sea-level rise.
- Disaster management by understanding tsunami wave propagation, earthquakes,
underwater geo-hazards etc. E.g. previously mapped seafloor helped Japan to reconstruct
forces behind 2011 Tohoku earthquake.
- Routing of submarine cables, between land-based stations to carry telecommunication

signals across stretches of ocean, is highly dependent on detailed knowledge of
bathymetry.
- Empower the world to make policy decisions, use the ocean sustainability and undertake
scientific research based on detailed bathymetric information.
54.6 MISC. TOPIC→ SUSTAINABLE OCEAN ECONOMY FOR 2050

REPORT
⇒ The High Level Panel for a sustainable Ocean Economy commissioned this report to examine
the global net benefit of implementing sustainable, ocean-based interventions over a 30year
period (2020-2050).
⇒ Key Highlights of report:
1. Report provides a benefit-cost ratio over a 30 year period (2020-2050) by focusing
on four ocean-based policy interventions:
o Conserving and restoring mangrove habitats.
o Scaling up offshore wind production.
o Decarbonising the international shipping sector. o Increasing the production of
sustainably sourced ocean based proteins.
2. Sustainable ocean-based investments will yield benefits at least five times greater
than the costs. It can deliver on three dimensions:
o Protect: reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while safeguarding biodiversity o
Produce: contribute to sustainably powering and feeding a planet of 9.7 billion people in
2050
o Prosper: create better jobs and support more equitable economic growth, household
income and well-being.
54.7 MISC. TOPIC→SDG India Index 2020-21
- Published By NITI Ayog (ESTD: 2015, Chairman: PM, Vice chairman: Rajiv Kumar,
CEO: Amitabh Kant, ThinkTank, replace PC),
- Parameter: Health, Education, Gender, Economic Growth, Climate Change;
- Top performer: 1) Kerala, 2) TamilNadu & Himachal Pradesh;
- Worst performer: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam.

- Index is developed in India with collaboration of UN. It tracks performance of States &
UTs in 115 indicators aligned with the National Indicator framework by MOSPI.
- Side Note: India’s rank has slipped by two places from last year to 117 on the 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted as a part of the 2030 agenda by 193
United Nations member states in 2015. (last year ranking 115)
55 India Institution & NGOs
55.1 India Institution & NGOs→ for Survey
Zoological ● ZSI was established in 1916 to promote the survey, exploration and
Survey Of India research of the fauna in the country.
● It is headquartered in Kolkata.
● Comes under MoEF&CC.
● The objectives of ZSI are classified as follows:
1. Primary Objectives
● Exploration, Survey, Inventorying and Monitoring of faunal diversity in
various States, Ecosystems and Protected areas of India.
● Periodic review of the Status of Threatened and Endemic species.
● Preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India and Fauna of States.
● Bioecological studies on selected important communities/species.
● Preparation of databases for the recorded species of the country.
● Maintenance & Development of National Zoological Collections.
● Training, Capacity Building and Human Resource Development.
● Faunal Identification, Advisory services and Library Services.
● Publication of results including Fauna of India and Fauna of States.
2. Secondary Objectives
● Environmental Impact Studies.
● Maintenance and Development of Museums at Headquarters and
Regional Stations.
● Development of ENVIS and CITES Centers.
● Research Fellowship, Associateship and Emeritus Scientist Programmes.
● Collaborative research programmes on Biodiversity with other
Organizations.
● GIS and Remote Sensing studies for animal diversity as well as for
selected threatened species.
Botanical ● Estd. in 1890.

Survey of India ● BSI is a premier research institute actively involved in the survey,
exploration and research of the immensely rich floral diversity of our
country.
● BSI is headquartered in Kolkata.
● BSI publishes Flora of India series books, states floras, flora of
Protected regions and Red Data Book of Indian Plants.
Primary Objectives:
● Exploration, inventorying and documentation of phytodiversity in general
and protected areas, hotspots and fragile ecosystems in particular;
publication of National, State and District Floras.
● Identification of threatened/red list species & species rich areas needing
conservation; ex-situ conservation of critically threatened species in
botanical gardens.
● Survey and documentation of traditional knowledge associated with
plants.
● Develop a National database of Indian plants, including herbarium and
live specimens, botanical paintings/ illustrations, etc
Forest Survey ● Founded in June 1981 and headquartered at Dehradun in Uttarakhand.

of India ● It is a premier national level organisation engaged in the assessment of
the country’s forest resources on a regular basis.
● Works under MoEF&CC.
● FSI assesses forest cover of the country every 2 years through digital
interpretation of remote sensing satellite data and publishes the results in a
biennial report called 'State of Forest Report' (SFR).
Objectives:
● To assess the forest cover of the country through Remote Sensing
technology, analyze the changes and prepare State of Forest Report
biennially. ● To conduct inventory in forests and non forest areas at national
level and develop a database on wood volume and also estimate tree cover.
● To function as a nodal agency for collection, compilation, storage and
dissemination of spatial databases on forest resources.
● To conduct training of forestry personnel in application of technologies
related to resources survey, remote sensing, GIS, etc.
🔠? Which of the following statement is INCORRECT about Forest Survey of India:

1. Its Headquarter at Kolkata
2. It is established before ZSI
3. It published ‘State of Forest Report’
The options are as given:
(a] 1 & 2 only (b] 2 only (c] 3 only (d] 1,
2&3
55.2 India Institution & NGOs→ for Biodiversity
National ● Statutory autonomous body under MoEF&CC.

Biodiversity ● The NBA has its headquarters in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Authority ● Estd. in 2003 to implement the provisions of Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
(NBA) The Act and the Rules are implemented in India through a decentralized
system.
● NBA advises the State Governments in the selection of areas of
biodiversity importance to be notified as heritage sites and measures for the
management of such heritage sites.
● It performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory functions for the
Government of India on issues of:
1. Conservation,
2. Sustainable use of biological resources and

3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological
resources.
State ● The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) advises the State Governments on
Biodiversity the above mentioned three matters.
Boards ● The SSBs also regulate, by granting of approvals or otherwise upon requests
(SBBs) for commercial utilization or bio-survey and bio-utilization of any biological
resource by the Indians.
GEAC ● GEAC= Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee

● Works under MoEF&CC.
● It was established as per Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and
Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered Organisms or
Cells notified in 1989 under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
Functions
● It is responsible for approval of activities involving large-scale use of
hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial
production from the environmental angle.
● The Committee is responsible for approval of proposals relating to release of
genetically engineered organisms and products into the environment including
experimental field trials.
● The committee or any persons authorized by it has powers to take punitive
action under the Environment Protection Act.
⇒Recently The Minister of MoEF announced his intention to change the name
of the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee to Genetic Engineering
Appraisal Committee .
55.3 India Institution & NGOs→ for Wildlife
IBWL/NBWL ● Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) was set up in 1952
● Under WPA, 1972- IBWL was replaced by the National Board for Wildlife
(NBWL).
● NBWL is chaired by the Prime Minister.
● 47 members including Chairman; 19 ex-officio members.
● It advises the Central Government on framing policies and measures for
conservation of wildlife in the country.
● Apex body to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in
and around national parks and sanctuaries.
● No alteration of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can
be done without approval of the NBWL.
Wildlife ● Wildlife Institute of India (WII) was established in 1986 as an autonomous

Institute of institute of the MoEF&CC.
India (WII) ● The Institute has emerged as a premier training and research institution in
the field of wildlife and protected area management in South and Southeast
Asia. Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
Aims and Objectives
● Build up scientific knowledge on wildlife resources.
● Train personnel at various levels for conservation and management of
wildlife.
● Carry out research relevant to management including the development of
techniques appropriate to Indian conditions.
● Provide information and advice on specific wildlife management problems.
● Collaborate with international organizations on wildlife research,
management and training.
● Develop as a regional centre of international importance on wildlife and
natural resource conservation.
Animal ● Estd. in 1962 under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960;

Welfare Board ● Animal Welfare Board of India was started under the stewardship of Late
of India Smt. Rukmini Devi Arundale, well known humanitarian.
(AWBI) ● Statutory, advisory body under MoEF&CC.

● The Board consists of 28 Members. The term of office of Members is for a
period of 3 years.
● Frames rules to ensure humane treatment of animals and litigates for
stricter laws against animal torture.
● It also grants recognition to AWOs and provides financial assistance to
recognised Animal Welfare Organisations(AWOs).
Wildlife Crime ● Statutory multi-disciplinary body under MoEF&CC to combat organized

Control wildlife crime in the country.
Bureau ● The Bureau has its headquarters in New Delhi and five regional offices at
Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Jabalpur.
● WCCB successfully coordinated Operation Thunderbird (INTERPOL’s
operation for wildlife protection).
● It also launched Operation Save Kurma to protect turtles from illegal
trade.
● Tasks assigned under Section 38 (Z) of the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972:
1. To collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime
activities.
2. To disseminate the same to State and other enforcement agencies for
immediate action so as to apprehend the criminals;
3. To establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank;
4. Coordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement
of the provisions of the Act;
5. Assist foreign authorities and international organizations concerned to
facilitate coordination and universal action for wildlife crime control;
6. Capacity building of the wildlife crime enforcement agencies for scientific
and professional investigation into wildlife crimes.
7. Assist State Governments to ensure success in prosecutions related to
wildlife crimes; and
8. Advise the Government of India on issues relating to wildlife crimes

having national and international ramifications, relevant policy and laws.
9. It also assists and advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the
consignments of flora & fauna as per the provisions of Wild Life Protection
Act, CITES and EXIM Policy governing such an item.
⇒ UNEP Award for WCCB (2018)
● Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was awarded with Asia
Environment Enforcement Awards, 2018 by the United Nation
Environment Programme in 2018.
● The award was given for excellent work done by the Bureau in combating
transboundary environmental crime.
🔠? Which of the following is Correct about ‘Asia Environment
Enforcement Award’:
1. It was given by UNEP
2. In 2018 WCCB was awarded
3. It was given for the excellent work in combating transboundary
environmental crime.
The options are: (a] 1 only (b] 2 only (c] 1 & 2 only (d] 1,2 & 3
National Tiger ● Estd. in 2005 following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force,
Conservation constituted by the Prime Minister of India.
Authority ● Constituted for reorganised management of Project Tiger and the many
Tiger Reserves in India.
● Statutory status given by 2006 amendment of the Wildlife Protection Act,
under MoEF&CC.
● Chaired by the Union minister of environment, forest and climate
change.
● Its main function is to approve the Tiger Conservation Plan prepared
by the State Governments.
● It also regulates any ecologically unsustainable land use such as mining,
industry and other projects within the tiger reserves.
Central Zoo •The CZA is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forest
Authority and Climate Change. It was constituted in 1992 under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972.
● Objective: Oversight of India’s zoos and bring them up to international
standards.
● Chaired by the Minister of State for Environment, Forests and Climate
Change.
● Functions:
1. Recognition of the Zoos.
2. Evaluation of the Zoos.
3. Providing assistance in conservation breeding programmes for endangered
species in Indian zoos.
4. Central Zoo Authority also regulates the exchange of animals of
endangered category listed under Schedule-I and II of the Wildlife
(Protection Act) among zoos.
5. Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos is also approved by
the Authority before the requisite clearances under EXIM Policy and the
CITES permits are issued by the competent authority.
National ● The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB), set up in

Afforestation August 1992, is responsible for promoting afforestation, tree planting,
And ecological restoration and eco-development activities in the country.
Eco-Developm ● It gives special attention to the degraded forest areas and lands adjoining
ent Board the forest areas, national parks, sanctuaries and other protected areas as well
as the ecologically fragile areas like the Western Himalayas, Aravallis,
Western Ghats, etc.
Role and functions of the NAEB:
● Evolve mechanisms for ecological restoration of degraded forest areas and
adjoining lands.
● Restore the forest cover in the country.
● Restore fuelwood, fodder, timber and other forest produce on the degraded
forest and adjoining lands.

● Create general awareness and help foster people's movement for promoting
afforestation and eco-development.
● Coordinate and monitor the Action Plans for afforestation, tree planting,
ecological restoration and eco-development.
NEERI-Counc ● The CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute

il of Scientific (CSIR-NEERI) is a research institute created and funded by GoI.
& Industrial ● It was established in Nagpur in 1958 with focus on water supply, sewage
Research disposal, communicable diseases and to some extent on industrial pollution
Nagpur, and occupational diseases.
Maharashtra ● NEERI is a pioneer laboratory in the field of environmental science and
engineering and part of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR).
● Note: It falls under the Ministry of Science and Technology (India) of
the central government.
🔠? Which of the following organisations comes under Ministry of Science & technology:
(a] WCCB (b] NEERI (c] NTCA (d] NBWL (e] GEAC
🔠? Arrange them with CORRECT sequence:

1. BSI
2. GEAC
3. IBWL
4. WII
5. NEERI
Options are as follows
(a] 1→ 2→ 3→ 4→ 5 (b] 1→ 3→ 5→ 4→ 2 (c] 3→ 2→ 5→ 4→ 1 (d] 2→ 1→ 4→ 5→ 3
55.4 Legislative Institutions
NGT ● Statutory body set up under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.
● Principal Bench: Delhi
● Regional benches: Bhopal, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata.
● Members:
○ A full time Chairman
○ At least 10 and maximum 20 Full time Judicial members
○ At least 10 and maximum 20 Full time Expert Members
● Objective: Effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to
1. Environmental protection.
2. Conservation of forests.
3. Compensation/relief for damages caused to people or property due to violation of
environmental laws.
Legal Jurisdiction of NGT
NGT can hear all civil cases related to following Acts:
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1981
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Note: NGT has no powers to hear cases related to Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
and Indian Forest Act, 1927.
Nationa ● NGRBA= Set up in 2009, as a financing, planning, implementing, monitoring and

l Ganga coordinating authority for the Ganges River.
Council ● It functions under the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation.
● Mission: To safeguard the drainage basin which feeds water into the Ganges by
protecting it from pollution or overuse.
● Chairman: Prime Minister of India
● A new body named " National Council for River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection
and Management)" NCRG replaced existing NGRBA in 2017.
● NMCG is the implementation wing of National Council for Rejuvenation,
Protection and Management of River Ganga (also referred as National Ganga

Council).
55.5 Other Institution/NGOs/Organisation
BNHS ● The Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883.

● It is one of the largest non-governmental organisations in India engaged in
conservation and biodiversity research.
● It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of
the Bombay Natural History Society.
● BNHS is the partner of BirdLife International in India.
● It has been designated as a 'Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation' by the Department of Science and Technology.
TERI (The ● TERI is a non profit public interest research and advocacy organisation
Energy and formally established in 1974.
Resources ● It works with the purpose of tackling and dealing with the rapid depletion of
Institute) the earth’s finite energy resources which are largely non-renewable.
● TERI has been actively working to develop solutions to global problems in
the fields of energy, environment and current patterns of development, which
are largely unsustainable.
● TERI not only has offices in different parts of the world, but its activities
have wide geographical relevance.
● It organizes the annual World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS),
a major event focusing on sustainable development, the pursuit of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and assessment of worldwide
progress in these critical areas.
● TERI has also established a World Sustainable Development Forum (WSDF),
which is guided by the patronage of a group of select world leaders
Wildlife ● Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is a leading Indian nature conservation
Trust Of organisation committed to the service of nature.

India Noida ● It is a non profit trust/organisation.
● Its mission is ‘to conserve wildlife and its habitat and to work for the welfare
of individual wild animals, in partnership with communities and governments’.
● WTI has been credited for achieving conservation milestones such as
Recovering population of critically endangered species, Translocation of
Species, Reducing Human-Animal Conflict, Rescue and Rehabilitation of
Animals including Elephants, Tigers, Leopards, One-horned Rhino and
Bears.
● 12-15 August, WTI celebrated ‘Gaj Mahotsav’.
CSE ● The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is a public interest
research and advocacy organisation based in New Delhi.
● CSE makes efforts to create awareness about problems and propose
sustainable solutions.
● Their tools for creating awareness are periodicals, publications, films,
exhibitions and other products.
● Two of their interesting publications are ‘Down to Earth’ and ‘Gobar
Times’ magazine for children
Kalpavriksh ● NGO established in 1979.

(Pune) ● It works on environmental awareness, campaigns, litigation, research, and
other areas.
● It has taken a position on a number of environment-development issues,
sometimes by protest letters to street demonstrations.
● It has continued to participate in mass movements challenging the state and
its policies.
Pillar_5C_EIA
56 Environmental Impact Assessment 330

56.2 Concept Of EIA 330
56.3 Objectives of EIA 331
56.4 EIA In India 331
56.5 Environmental Clearance 331
56.6 Environmental Components of EIA 332
Air Environment 332
Noise 332
Water Environment 332
Biological Environment 332
Land Environment 332
56.7 Steps In EIA Process 332
56.8 Main Participants of EIA 334
56.9 EIA notification, 2006 335
56.10 Issues With EIA 337
56.11 Issues with the provisions of draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), 2020 338
✍Conclusion 340
56 Environmental Impact Assessment
56.1 Introduction
● A country’s progress generally depends on economic development through activities such as
manufacturing, trading etc.
● Development projects in the past were undertaken without any consideration to their
environmental consequences.
● EIA enables the decision makers to analyse the effect of developmental activities on the
environment, if any, well before the developmental project is implemented.
56.2 Concept Of EIA

● EIA is a tool which helps to evaluate the environmental impacts of proposed developmental
projects or programs.
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_5C_EIA→ Page330
● It ensures that the mitigation strategies are included in the plan and the project under
construction is environmentally sound and within limits of the capacity of assimilation and
regeneration capacities of the ecosystem.
56.3 Objectives of EIA
● To serve as a primary environmental clearance tool.

● To assess consistently all proposals for potential environmental impacts.
● To suggest the use of scientific practice and strategies for mitigation.
● To address all possible factors such as short term, long term, small scale and large scale
impacts.
● To include mechanisms for monitoring, auditing and evaluation.
56.4 EIA In India
● EIA was introduced in India in 1978, with respect to river valley projects.
● EIA Notification comes under the provisions of Environment(Protection) Act, 1986.
● EIA is now mandatory for Red category projects, and other such categories as per notification
of the Ministry released in 2016 and these projects get Environmental Clearance (EC) only after
the EIA requirements are fulfilled.
● EIA comes under Notification on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of developmental
projects 1994 under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
56.5 Environmental Clearance
● Environmental clearance or the ‘go ahead’ signal is granted by the Impact Assessment Agency
in the MoEFCC.
● All projects that require clearance from central government can be broadly categorized into the
following:-
(1) Industries
(2) Mining
(3) Thermal power plants
(4) River valley projects
(5) Infrastructure and CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone)
(6) Nuclear power projects.
56.6 Environmental Components of EIA
Air Environment
• Quality of ambient air.

• Wind speed, direction, humidity etc.
• Quantity of emission likely from project.
• Impact of the emission on the area.
• Pollution control desires/air quality standards.
Noise
• Levels of noise present and predicted.

• Strategies for reducing noise pollution.
Water Environment
● Existing ground and surface water resources, their quality and quantity within the zone.
● Impact of proposed project on water resources.
Biological Environment
● Flora and fauna in the impact zone.

● Potential damage (likely) due to the project, due to effluents, emissions and landscaping.
● Biological stress (prediction).
Land Environment
● Study of soil characteristics, land use, and drainage pattern, and the likely adverse impact of
the project.
● Impact on historical monuments and heritage sites.
56.7 Steps In EIA Process
1. Screening.
2. Scoping and consideration of alternatives.
3. Baseline data collection.

4. Impact prediction.
5. Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation measures and environmental impact
statements.
6. Public hearing.
7. Decision making.
8. Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan.
● Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of
development and if the project needs statutory clearance.
● Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation possibilities and need for
monitoring. The EIA agency has to follow the published guidelines by the Ministry of
Environment and Forest (MoEF) of the government of India.
● Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of the study area.
● Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and
permanent impacts need to be predicted which presupposes a good understanding of the project
by the assessment agency.
● Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the actions and steps
for preventing, minimizing or by passing the impacts or else the level of compensation for
probable environmental damage or loss.
● Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living
close to the project site may be informed and consulted.
● Decision making: Impact Assessment (IA) Authority along with the experts consult the
project-in-charge along with the consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and
EMP (Environment ManagementPlan).
● Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan: The various phases
of implementation of the project are monitored. ○ Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and
hazard probability and index also form part of EIA procedures.
Environmental Appraisal Procedure In India
● Once an application has been submitted by a project authority along with all the requisite
documents specified in the EIA Notification, it is scrutinised by the technical staff of the
Ministry prior to placing it before the Environmental Appraisal Committees.
● The Appraisal Committees evaluate the impact of the project based on the data furnished by
the project authorities.
● If necessary, site visits or on-the-spot assessment of various environmental aspects are also
undertaken.
● Based on such examination, the Committees make recommendations for approval or rejection
of the project, which are then processed in the Ministry for approval or rejection.
● In case of site specific projects such as Mining, River Valley, Ports and Harbours etc., a two
stage clearance procedure has been adopted whereby the project authorities have to obtain site
clearance before applying for environmental clearance of their projects.
● This is to ensure avoiding areas which are ecologically fragile and environmentally sensitive.
● In case of projects where complete information has been submitted by the project proponents,
a decision is taken within 90 days.
Monitoring
● After considering all the facets of a project, environmental clearance is accorded subject to
implementation of the stipulated environmental safeguards.
● Monitoring of cleared projects is undertaken by the six regional offices of the Ministry
functioning at Shillong, Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh, Bangalore, Lucknow and Bhopal.
● The primary objective of such a procedure is to ensure adequacy of the suggested safeguards
and also to undertake mid-course corrections required, if any.
56.8 Main Participants of EIA
EIA applies to public and private sections. The six main players are:
1. Those who propose the project.
2. The environmental consultant who prepared EIA on behalf of the project proponent.
3. Pollution Control Board (State or National).
4. Public has the right to express their opinion.
5. The Impact Assessment Agency.
6. Regional centre of the MoEFCC.
56.9 EIA notification, 2006
The objective of EIA Notification 2006 is to address the limitations in the old EIA Notification
(1994).
Salient features:
● More number of projects brought within the purview of the environmental clearance process.
● A revised list of projects and activities has been redrawn that requires prior environmental
clearance.
● Doing away with the categorisation of projects requiring EIA based on investment.
● Now the size or capacity of the project determines whether it is cleared by the central or state
government.
● The major difference in the New EIA Notification 2006 from the earlier one (1994) is its
attempt to decentralise power to the State Government.
● Earlier all the projects under schedule 1 went to the Central Government for environmental
clearance.
● However, as per the new notification, a significant number of projects will go to the state for
clearance depending on its size/capacity/area.
● The EIA Notification, 2006, broadly divides all projects into two categories— Category A and
Category B —based on potential impacts over an area and on human health and natural and
man-made resources.
● All Category A projects (with potentially significant impacts) are required to carry out an EIA
and undertake a public hearing before an EC (Environmental clearance) may be granted by the
Union environment ministry.
● Category A projects include all physical infrastructure whose size and cost is greater than
certain minimum levels as defined in the Schedule.
● Environmental Clearances for these projects are granted at the Central level.
● Physical infrastructure includes projects in the ports, highways, water and sanitation, urban
transport, and solid waste management sectors.
● All new National Highways are classified as Category A.
● In addition, expansion of National Highways greater than 30 KMinvolving land acquisition
and passing through more than one State are categorized as Category A.
● Category B covers projects with lesser size or capacity, and smaller impacts than Category A.
● Category B projects (with potentially less significant impacts) are evaluated and given a
clearance by state level authorities, the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority
(SEIAA) and State Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC).
○ Projects under Category B1 also require an EIA and public consultation, but those falling
under B2 are exempted from requirements of both EIA and public consultation.
● The new notification also talks about ‘Scoping’, which was completely missing earlier. Issues
pertaining to draft EIA Notification 2020
Post-Facto Approval
•The new draft allows for post-facto approval for projects. It means that the clearances for
projects can be awarded even if they have started construction or have been in the running phase
without securing environmental clearances.
•Post facto approval is the derogation of the fundamental principles of environmental
jurisprudence and violation of the “precautionary principle,” which is a principle of
environmental sustainability.
Public Consultation Process
•The draft notification provides for a reduction of the time period from 30 days to 20 days for the
public to submit their responses during a public hearing for any application seeking
environmental clearance.
•The danger is that if adequate time is not given for the preparation of views, comments and
suggestions to those who would be affected by the project, then such public hearings would not
be meaningful.
•Unless a public hearing is meaningful, the whole EIA process would lack transparency and
credibility.
Bypassing EIA Process
•Through the draft notification, the central government gets the power to categorise projects as
“strategic.”
•Once a project is considered as strategic, the draft notification states that no information related
to such projects shall be placed in the public domain.
•Further, the draft notification states that the new construction projects up to 1,50,000 square
metres (instead of the existing 20,000 square metres) do not need “detailed scrutiny” by the
Expert Committee, nor do they need EIA studies and public consultation.
Compliance Report Issue

•The 2006 notification required that the project proponent submit a report every six months,
showing that they are carrying out their activities as per the terms on which permission has been
given.
•However, the new draft requires the promoter to submit a report only once every year. New
Categorisation Of Industries, 2016
● Based on their pollution load.
● MoEFCC has developed the criteria of categorization of industrial sectors based on the
Pollution Index which is a function of the emissions (air pollutants), effluents (water pollutants),
hazardous wastes generated and consumption of resources.
● The new category of White industries which is practically non-polluting will not require
Environmental Clearance (EC) and Consent and will help in getting finance from lending
institutions.
● The Pollution Index PI of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing
value of PI denotes the increasing degree of pollution load from the industrial sector.
1. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above- Red category
2. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59- Orange category
3. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40- Green category
4. Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score incl. & upto 20- White category
● Screening: In the EIA notification released by the govt. in 2006, there is a lack of clarity in
overall conductance of the Screening process.
● Sometimes the EIA reports are too technical and often prepare lifting content and data from
other sources, thus presenting contradictory, inconsistent and outdated information.
● Moreover, there is no process for punishing the agencies involved in plagiarism and preparing
such dishonest EIA reports.
56.10 Issues With EIA
● Sometimes the agencies or project proponents include incomplete surveys, improperly

demarcated EIA study areas and publish unsubstantiated statements.
● Many agencies hire local and incompetent professionals at a cheaper cost which results into
poor quality of EIA reports.
● Generally the local people are unaware of the process of EIA, its significance for them, role of
various players and their own rights and responsibilities.
● They are also unable to comprehend the reports as the reports are seldom published in local
languages. The technical language of the report further makes understanding them difficult.
● Corruption and negligence of officials involved in public hearing committees.
⇒ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has published the draft
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2020, which replaces the existing EIA
Notification, 2006 brought under the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986.
56.11 Issues with the provisions of draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), 2020
• Public Consultation: It proposes to reduce the period of public consultation hearings to a

maximum of 40 days, and reduce from 30 to 20 days the time provided for the public to submit
their responses during a public hearing for any application seeking environmental clearance. This
can particularly pose a problem to those affected people who are forest dwellers or otherwise do
not have access to information and technology and those that are not aware of the process itself.
Unless a public hearing is meaningful, the whole EIA process would lack transparency and
credibility.
• Wide discretionary powers to government: It also allows the central government to declare
some areas as “economically sensitive areas” without a public hearing or environmental
clearance, and several “red” and “orange”-classified toxic industries could now operate as close
as 0-5 km from a Protected Area. o The government also gets to decide on the “strategic” tag for
any projects for which no information on such projects shall be placed in the public domain. This
opens a window for summary clearance for any project deemed strategic without having to
explain why.
• Provisions for post-facto project clearance: Projects that have commenced operations – by
way of construction, installation, excavation, production, etc – without obtaining necessary
clearances can be legalised after payment of a penalty o Post facto clearance is the violation of
the fundamental principles of environmental jurisprudence and is contrary to both the
precautionary principle as well as the need for sustainable development.
• Extended period of clearances: The increased validity of the environment clearances for
mining projects (50 years versus 30 years currently) and river valley projects (15 years versus 10
years currently) raises the risk of irreversible environmental, social and health consequences on
account of the project remaining unnoticed for long.
• Exemptions: The new draft exempts a long list of projects from public consultation and prior
clearance. For example, linear projects such as roads and pipelines in border areas will not
require any public hearing. All inland waterways projects and expansion/widening of national
highways including roads that cut through forests and dredging of major rivers, will be exempt
from prior clearance.
• Baseline data: The latest draft EIA notification does away with the need to carry out studies
covering all seasons in a year. This will lead to less reliable data and projections for pollutants
affecting air and water, according to several experts. The end result of the EIA will mask the full
environmental impact of a project.
• Private consultation: The notification allows project proponents to engage private consultants
for preparing the EIA reports propelling a situation where expertise and technicalities would be
adopted to obscure the process and make it difficult to understand – something that should have
been open and comprehensible to the communities for the process to be remotely transparent.
• Compliance Report Issue: The draft notification reduces the frequency of compliance reports
required from project owners from once every six months to once every year. During this period,
certain irreversible environmental, social or health consequences of the project could go
unnoticed.
✍Conclusion
Various provisions of Draft EIA aimed at facilitating the government’s doctrine of “ease of doing
business”. Environmental regulation must balance damage to the environment with sustainable
development and possible benefits. Government must incorporate the concerns of all stakeholder
before finalising the regulation
(Mock Question)
Q. GSM3-2020- How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020
differ from the existing EIA Notification, 2006?
Pillar_6_ 🌽Agriculture
60 🌽Agriculture 342
60.2 Soil 343
60.2.1 Structure of the soil 343
60.3 Essential Elements for Plant Growth 344
60.3.1 Tillage 344
Different methods of minimum tillage practiced 346
Advantages of zero tillage 347
60.4 Sustainable Agriculture 347
60.4.1 Methods of Sustainable Agriculture 348
Diverse or mixed cropping: 348
Rotation of crop: 349
Soil Management: 350
60.5 Fertigation 351
60.5.1 Advantages of fertigation method 351
60.5.2 Fertilizer used in fertigation process 351
60.6 Use of Bio-Fertilizers in Agriculture 352
60.7 Irrigation and Its Techniques 358
60.7.1 Surface Irrigation Methods: 358
60.7.2 Subsurface irrigation methods: 358
60.7.3 Micro irrigation methods: 359
60.8 Organic Farming and Its Benefits 359
60.9 Zero Budgeting Natural Farming (ZBNF): 361
16.9.1 Four Pillars of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) 362
60.9.2 Features of ZBNF: 363
60.9.3 Advantages of Zero Budget Natural Farming 363
60.10 System of Rice Intensification (SRI) 364
• Benefits of SRI: 364
60.11 Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) 364
• Overall Benefits: 365
60.12 Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA) 365
60.13 National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) 365
60.14 Misc. topic→ Desert Locusts 366
60.14.1 Reasons for recent locust attacks 367
60.14.2 Effects of locust attacks 367
60.14.3 Steps taken by India 368
🌽 Agriculture→ Page 341

(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_6_
60.14.4 Way Forward 369

60.15 MISC. TOPIC→ Green-Ag Project 369
60.16. Agricultural emissions in India 370
60.16.1 Impact of agricultural emissions 370
60.16.2 Challenges to reduce agricultural emissions 371
60.16.3 Way forward 371
(Mock Question) 372
60 🌽Agriculture
60.1 Introduction
• In the last century, agriculture has changed significantly. The use of emerging technology,
mechanisation, increased use of fertilisers and pesticides, and the expansion of irrigation
facilities have all increased food and fibre productivity. Farmers with lower labour demands were
able to produce the majority of food and fibre as a result of these reforms. While these
developments have had a positive impact, they have also resulted in some significant
environmental and social issues, such as topsoil degradation and groundwater contamination, as
well as the unemployment of farm labourers due to the increased use of farm machinery in
agricultural operations.
• Over the last two decades, a growing movement has arisen to challenge the agricultural
establishment's position in promoting practises that lead to these social problems. There is an
increasing demand to encourage "sustainable agriculture" in light of the growing negative
consequences of modern agriculture. Sustainable agriculture integrates a range of
environmentally sustainable farming practises while also offering creative and economically

viable opportunities for workers, producers, politicians, consumers, and those involved in the
food system.
60.2 Soil
• Soils are complex combinations of water, organic materials, minerals, air, and uncountable
organisms that are the decaying remains of once-living things. Soil forms at the surface of land –
it is also considered as the “skin of the earth.” Soil is capable of assisting plant life and is
essential to life on earth.
• The major important aspects influencing the formation of soil are climate, vegetation and other
types of life-forms, parent material, relief, and time. Along with these factors, human activities
also impact it to a large extent. Important elements of the soil are humus, water, mineral
particles, and air. The actual amount of each of these elements depends upon the nature of soil.
Some soils are lacking in one or more of these elements, while there are some other soils that
have varied combinations.
60.2.1 Structure of the soil
• Three layers which are called horizons are as

follows:
• ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost layer of the soil, where

various organic materials have got integrated with
the water, nutrients, and mineral matter, which are
essential for the plant's growth.
• ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone in the middle of

the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and includes
matter originating from below as well as from
above. This layer has some organic matter in it,
although the mineral matter is noticeably
weathered.

• ‘Horizon C’ is composed of loose parent material. This layer is the 1st stage in the soil
formation procedure and eventually forms the above two layers.
• This arrangement of layers is called the soil profile. Underneath these three horizons is the rock
which is also called the bedrock or parent rock.
60.3 Essential Elements for Plant Growth
• The essential elements can be divided into macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients
are mostly present in tissues of plants in large amounts (in excess of 10 mmol Kg-1 of dry
matter).
• The macronutrients consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium,

calcium, nitrogen, and magnesium. Amongst these carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are mainly
obtained from CO2 and H2O, while the other macronutrients are absorbed from the soil as
mineral nutrition.
• Trace elements or Micronutrients are required in very small amounts (less than 10 mmol Kg –1
of dry matter). These include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine, and
nickel. In addition to the 17 essential elements named above, there are some beneficial elements
such as sodium, silicon, cobalt, and selenium. They are required by higher plants.
• Plant growth is slowed when the availability of an integral element becomes scarce. The
concentration of the essential component below which plant growth is retarded is known as
critical concentration. The element is said to be deficient when present below the critical
concentration.
60.3.1 Tillage
• It is the basic operation in farming. Tillage is the systematic mechanical manipulation of soil to
provide favourable conditions for crop production. It is done to create a favourable condition for
seed placement and plant growth. Tillage operations include ploughing, harrowing and

mechanical destruction of weeds and soil crust etc. There are two types of tillage, Primary
tillage, and Secondary tillage. The purpose of ploughing is to obtain a seed bed of good texture,
to increase the water holding capacity of the soil, to improve soil aeration, to destroy weeds and
grasses, to destroy insects and pests, to prevent soil erosion and to add fertility to the soil by
covering vegetation.
Tillage can be classified into two types:
• Primary Tillage: It is the initial and primary major soil working operation to reduce soil
strength, to remove and cover plant materials and to rearrange aggregates in a view to prepare
seed bed, implements may be animal drawn or tractor drawn, some of the primary tillage
implements are:
a) Mould board plough or MB Plough
b) Disc Plough
c) Subsoiler
d) Chisel plough.
• Secondary Tillage: It is the tillage operation performed after primary tillage to create proper
soil tilth for seeding and planting. These are lighter and finer operations performed on the soil,
the implements include:
» Cultivators: Spring tine, Spring loaded, 164 Rigid tine and Duck foot cultivators.
» Harrows: Spike tooth, spring tooth, animal drawn disc harrow, Tractor drawn disc harrows,
acme harrow, Triangular harrow, Zigzag harrow, Blade harrow. Circular harrow, Power harrow,
Chain types.
» Levellers: As a measure used in surface irrigation, such as basin and furrow irrigation.

» Rotovator: Used for seed bed preparation in dry and garden lands, and also for puddling in
standing water.
» Puddler: Used for churning the soil in standing water for the preparation of fields for paddy
cultivation.
» Ridge & furrow opener: Used for opening ridges and furrows for line sowing watering.
» Bund former: Used to make bunds in and around the field, to conserve the top fertile soil, and
rain water.
Different methods of minimum tillage practiced
Row Zone Tillage
• After primary tillage with mould board plough, secondary tillage operations like disking and
harrowing are reduced. The secondary tillage is done in the row zone only. Plough-plant Tillage •
After the soil is ploughed, a special planter is used and in one run over the field, the row zone is
pulverised and seeds are sown.
Wheel Track Planting
• Ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing and the wheels of the tractor pulverise
the row zone.
Zero Tillage:
• It is defined “as a system of planting (seeding) crops into untilled soil by opening a narrow slot
trench or band only of sufficient width and depth to obtain proper seed coverage. No other soil
tillage is done.”

Advantages of zero tillage
• Reduces the number of field operations from an average of seven to one, translating into 8-12
hours per ha saved in tractor time (a 60-90% saving); farmers can save 36 litres of fuel per ha of
land, an 80% saving over conventional wheat cultivation.
• Reduces water usage by about 1 million litres per ha (a saving of 20-35%).
• Improves soil structure, fertility, and biological properties.
• Typically reduces the incidence of weeds, primarily due to the earlier emergence of wheat and
reduced soil disturbance.
• Improves the population dynamics of certain wheat pests and diseases.
• Increases wheat yield by 6-10% and reduced production costs by 5-10%. Zero tillage has
increased wheat yields by 5-7% for Indian farmers.
🔠? Consider the following agricultural practices: 1. Contour bunding 2. Relay cropping 3. Zero
tillage In the context of global climate change, which of the above helps/help in carbon
sequestration/storage in the soil? [UPSC CSE 2012]
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of them
60.4 Sustainable Agriculture
• It is a type of farming that aims to produce enough food to meet the needs of today's population
without depleting soil fertility or causing irreversible environmental harm. Low input agriculture
or organic farming are examples of sustainable farming systems that are less harmful and energy
intensive while also preserving efficiency and profitability.
• The following are the traits of sustainable agriculture:
» Will last for generations to come.
(PCB-1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_6_ 🌽 Agriculture→ Page 347

» Uses natural resources efficiently.
» Supports profitable production.
» Provides consumers with affordable, high-quality products.
» Protects environmental quality.
» Improves the quality of life for farmers and rural communities by reducing reliance on
non-renewable resources.
60.4.1 Methods of Sustainable Agriculture
• A variety of methods are used in sustainable production activities. Soil condition, local
geography (topography), local climate, nature, local inputs, pests, and the farmer's goals must all
be addressed at the planning point. Following that, the grower (farmer) must choose acceptable
practises. There are many approaches used in sustainable agriculture. They are:
» Increasing economic and biological stability through cultivation practises.
» Selection of improved varieties to suit the need.
» Soil management by proper method of tillage.
• Many farmers in India and other developing countries practise mixed cropping or varied
cropping and crop rotation as a common practise.
Diverse or mixed cropping:
• It is a long-standing custom in our country. In a field, two or more crops are grown at the same
time. If one crop fails by accident, the other crops would cover the risk of a complete crop
failure. Typically, a long-duration crop is grown alongside a short-duration crop so that both
receive enough nutrition when they reach maturity. Then there is the difference in water and
nutrient requirements.

• In most instances, a leguminous crop is planted alongside the main crop. By fixing atmospheric
nitrogen, legumes help to improve soil fertility. Chemical fertiliser costs are lowered as a result
of this. The different cropping plans used in mixed cropping practises are as follows:
• Polyvarietal cultivation is the planting of several genetic varieties of the same crop.
Intercropping is when two or more crops are grown on the same plot at the same time, such as a
carbohydrate rich cereal that uses soil nitrogen and a nitrogen-fixing legume that returns nitrogen
to the soil.
• Polyculture is a form of gardening in which different plants mature at different times and are
planted together. Since the fertiliser and water needs of plants vary, this approach has many
benefits. As a result, these inputs are used less frequently. Pests are naturally regulated, and their
natural predators seek out a variety of environments to survive. This method has been found to
produce a much higher yield per hectare.
• When only one cultivator is planted in a wide field, large-scale mechanisation leads to the
spread of monoculture, which is when only one crop variety is sown in the entire area. This
device consumes a significant amount of pesticide, fertiliser, and water. This practise can be
profitable for a while, but it has negative environmental and economic consequences.
Rotation of crop:
• It is the method of planting several crops in a row in the same area. Insects and diseases are
regulated, soil fertility is increased, and soil erosion is minimised. 166 In general, soil cannot
support continuous cropping with a high yielding single crop because certain nutrients needed by
the crop are depleted while others go unused, resulting in nutrient imbalance and encourages
certain pests and diseases. Sowing leguminous crops as a rotational crop (e.g., green gram) is
beneficial because legumes increase nitrogen levels in the soil by fixing atmospheric nitrogen,
reducing the need for chemical nitrogen fertiliser. As a result, costs are decreased, and the soil is
spared the adverse effects of high yielding varieties and the application of vast quantities of
fertiliser and pesticide. Multiple cropping is when two or three separate crops are grown in
succession on the same piece of land in the same year. This practise will continue for a while, but
the land will not be able to sustain a high yield in the long run.

• It considers the following aspects:
» After non-leguminous crops, legumes should be planted.
» Crops that need less water (irrigation) should be planted after one that does.
» Crops that need less fertiliser should be planted after crops that require more.
Soil Management:
• Healthy soil is important for long-term agriculture. Healthy soil, combined with nutrients and
water, results in healthy crop plants that are less vulnerable to diseases and pests. To ensure
long-term growth and stability, soil must be preserved and nurtured. Use of compost, cover
crops, use of dead mulches and reduced tillage to conserve soil moisture increases the soil's
water holding ability.
• We need to increase production of fodder, food grains, oil, sugar, fabrics, fruits, and vegetables
because we have limited space. One of the most important ways to do this is to use plant
breeding, genetics, and other related sciences to develop established plant varieties. Using
traditional methods of selection and plant breeding, major improvements in crop production have
been achieved.
• The following are some of the varietal improvement goals: » development of high yielding
varieties of crop plants.
» food crops developed for better and higher nutritional quality like protein quality in pulses,
baking quality in wheat, preserving quality in fruits and vegetables, oil quality in oil seed
producing plants.
» Development of crop varieties resistance to diseases and pests.
» Improving varieties for resistance against heat, cold, frost, drought, and water logging.

60.5 Fertigation
• Fertigation is a fertilizer application process in which fertilizer is dissolved in irrigation water

by a drip irrigation device. The fertilizer solution is uniformly distributed in irrigation in this
method. Since The availability of nutrients is very high hence the efficiency is more. In this
process liquid fertilizer as well as water soluble fertilizers are utilized. By this procedure,
efficiency of fertilizer use is improved from 80 to 90 percent.
60.5.1 Advantages of fertigation method
• Water and Nutrients are supplied near the active root region with the help of fertigation which
results in better absorption by the crops.
• As water and fertilizer are supplied uniformly to every crop with the help of fertigation there is
a possibility for getting 167 25-50% higher yield.
• Efficiency of fertilizer use through fertigation methods ranges between 80-90%, which
facilitates a minimum of 25% of nutrients.
• By this method, along with less amount of water and saving of fertilizer, labour, time, and
energy use is also decreased substantially.
60.5.2 Fertilizer used in fertigation process
• Potash, urea, and highly water-soluble fertilizers are available for applying through fertigation
methods.
• Application of super phosphorus with the help of fertigation must be avoided as it makes
precipitation of phosphate salts. Therefore, phosphoric acid is more suitable for fertigation as it is
available in liquid form.
• Special fertilizers such as mono ammonium phosphate (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), poly feed
(Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium), Multi K (Nitrogen and Potassium), Potassium sulphate

(Potassium and Sulphur) are very suitable for fertigation as they are highly soluble in water. Fe,
Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Mo are also supplied along with special fertilizers.
60.6 Use of Bio-Fertilizers in Agriculture
• Renewable inputs (pesticides, fertiliser, water, etc.) that support the plant while causing no or
minimal environmental damage are necessary for a sustainable agriculture system. Reducing the
use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides is one choice.
• Exploiting the ability of certain microorganisms such as algae, bacteria, and fungi to fix
atmospheric nitrogen, decompose organic material, solubilize phosphorus, or oxidise sulphur in
the soil is one of the most energy efficient and pollution-free methods.
• They improve soil fertility, increase crop growth, and yield, and minimise emissions when
added to the soil. They are described as “bio fertilizers''.
• Bio-fertilizers are biologically active products or living microbial inoculants of algae, bacteria,
and fungi (individually or in combination) that can enrich soil with phosphorus, nitrogen, organic
matter, and other nutrients.
The following are some of the most popular forms of bio fertilisers that can be used in
agriculture.

Bio fertilizer Detail

name
Rhizobium • Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium forming root nodules in legume plants.

biofertilizer
• These nodules act as miniature nitrogen production factories in the fields.
• The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen (N2) than needed by legume plant
and the bacteria.
• The surplus fixed nitrogen is then secreted and fertilizes the soil. Rhizobium
is more efficient than-free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Azotobacter • Azotobacter are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers.

biofertilizer
• They grow in the rhizosphere (around the roots) and fix atmospheric
nitrogen non-symbiotically and make it available to the particular cereals.
These bacteria produce growth promoting hormones which helps in

enhancing growth and yield of the plant

Azospirillum • These are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers which live in associative
biofertilizer symbiosis.
• In this type of association bacteria live on the root surface of the host plant
and do not form any nodule with roots of grasses.
• It increases crop yield and its inoculation benefits crops.
• They also benefit the host plants by supplying growth hormones and
vitamins.
• These bacteria are commonly used for the preparation of commercial

inoculants (vaccines, culture medium).
Blue green • Blue green algae (BGA or cyanobacteria) like Nostoc and Anabaena are
algae free living photosynthetic organisms also capable of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen. In the flooded rice fields blue green algae serves as a nitrogen
biofertilizer

Azolla • Azolla is a water fern inside which grows the nitrogen fixing blue green
biofertilizers algae Anabaena.
• It contains 2-3% nitrogen when wet and also produces organic matter in the
soil.
• The Azolla-Anabaena combination type biofertilizer is used all over the

world.
• The only constraint in Azolla is that it is an aquatic plant and water becomes
a limiting factor in growing it particularly in summer.
A fern is a member of a group of plants that reproduce via spores and have
neither seeds nor flowers.
Phosphorus • Phosphorus is an important element required for plant growth.

solubilizing
biofertilizer • This element is also needed for nodulation by rhizobium.
• Some microorganisms are capable of solubilizing immobilized phosphorus

making it available to plants for absorption.

Mycorrhizal • Mycorrhizal fungi act as biofertilizers and are known to occur naturally on
fungi roots of forest trees and crop plants.
biofertilizer
• Mycorrhizal fungi resist disease in plants. The plants also show drought and
salinity resistance. Plants can tolerate adverse soil, pH, high temperature and
heavy metal toxicity.
• In soils low in available nutrients there is an increased absorption of

nutrients by plants infected with Mycorrhiza.
The fungus has the ability to dissolve and absorb phosphorus that plant roots
cannot readily absorb
Compost Tea • Compost Tea is a liquid fertilizer for flowers, vegetables and houseplants.
• Compost tea is an aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) water solution that
has extracted the microbe population from compost (dead and decaying
matter) along with the nutrients.
• In simple terms, it is a concentrated liquid created by a process to increase

the numbers of beneficial organisms as an organic approach to plant/soil care.
can be sprayed directly onto the leaf surface.

Biochar • Biochar is charcoal that is used as soil amendment (minor improvement).
• It is created using a pyrolysis process (decomposition brought about by high

temperatures), heating biomass in a low oxygen environment.
• Once the pyrolysis reaction has begun, it is self-sustaining, requiring no

outside energy input.
• By-products of the process include syngas (H2 + CO), minor quantities of

methane (CH4 ), organic acids and excess heat.
• Once it is produced, bio char is spread on agricultural fields and

incorporated into the top layer of soil.
• The syngas and excess heat can be used directly or employed to produce a
variety of biofuels.
• It increases crop yields, sometimes substantially if the soil is in poor

condition.
• It helps to prevent fertilizer runoff and leaching, allowing the use of less
fertilizers.
• It retains moisture, helping plants through periods of drought more easily. •

Most importantly, it replenishes exhausted or marginal soils with organic
carbon
• it promotes the growth of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms.
• to retain water for a longer time.

Gypsum: It is a Source of calcium and sulfur for plant nutrition. Gypsum will change soil pH
very slightly, yet it can promote better root development of crops, especially in acid soils.
60.7 Irrigation and Its Techniques
• Irrigation is the process of applying water to soil, primarily to meet the water needs of growing
plants. Water from rivers, reservoirs, lakes, or aquifers is pumped or flows by gravity through
pipes, canals, ditches, or even natural streams.
• According to the FAO, irrigation contributes to about 40% of the world’s food production.
• Intensity of irrigation is defined as the percentage of the irrigation proposed to be irrigated

annually.
60.7.1 Surface Irrigation Methods:
• In this system of field water application the water is applied directly to the soil from a channel
located at the upper reach of the field. Ex: Flooding method where the water is allowed to cover
the surface of land in a continuous sheet of water.
• Furrows Irrigation: Furrows are small channels, which carry water down the 169 land slope
between the crop rows. Water infiltrates into the soil as it moves along the slope. The crop is
usually grown on ridges between the furrows.
• The application of water to fields in this type of irrigation system is below the ground surface
so that
60.7.2 Subsurface irrigation methods:
• This water is supplied directly to the root zone of the plants. The main advantages of this type
of irrigation is reduction of evaporation losses and less hindrance to cultivation works which take
place on the surface. Subirrigation is not often used in arid or semi-arid irrigated areas where

irrigation is often needed to germinate crops. It is typically used in conjunction with subsurface
drainage, or controlled drainage.
60.7.3 Micro irrigation methods:
• Sprinkler Irrigation: Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water which is similar to

natural rainfall but spread uniformly over the land surface just when needed and at a rate less
than the infiltration rate of the soil so as to avoid surface runoff from irrigation.
• Drip Irrigation: Drip Irrigation system is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves
dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20 litres per hour) from a system of small
diameter plastic pipes filled with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to the
plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted.
60.8 Organic Farming and Its Benefits
• (Definition) Organic farming is a production system which avoids or excludes use of

synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators etc. It relies upon crop
rotations, use of crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, biofertilizers etc.
• Organic farming is a form of agriculture or farming that does not use synthetic fertilisers,
pesticides, growth regulators, or feed additives in livestock. Crop residues, crop rotation,
legumes, livestock manures, off-farm organic wastes, green manure and biofertilizers,
mechanical agriculture, and mineral bearing rocks are all used in organic farming systems. To
maintain soil fertility in order to provide plant nutrients and biological pest control (insects,
weeds, and other pests). Poultry, grain, eggs, dairy, fibres like, jute, cotton flowers, and other
agricultural products can all be grown organically. As a result, organic farming ensures a
long-term healthy lifestyle for future generations.
⇒ Status of Organic Farming in India
• India is home to 30% of the total organic producers in the world and ranks ninth in terms of
area under organic farming, 2.59% of the total organic cultivation area (57.8 million hectares).

o Major organic exports from India: flax seeds, sesame, soybean, tea, medicinal plants, rice, and
pulses etc o Sikkim is first fully organic state in the world.
• Such major advantages of organic foods and organic farming include:
» Organic farming is a science in and of itself, which any traditional farmer can easily learn.
» It has been discovered that converting to organic farming will save traditional farmers over
25% on their production costs as compared to conventional farming. This reduces soil erosion by
up to 50% by eliminating the use of costly synthetic fertilisers and pesticides and increasing crop
yields five-fold.
» Conventional farmers can be able to quickly implement modern, more sustainable organic
farming practises if they have a well-planned transition strategy.
» Organic farms can support significantly more wildlife, especially in low-lying areas where
animals can roam freely in pastures or graze on grassland. Not only does organic farming support
biodiversity, but it also benefits whole habitats and groundwater.
» Organic farming activities favour not only producers and customers, but also dairies. When
they feed their cows with organic feed and allow them to graze on organic fields, the cows are
healthier, have less illnesses, and produce better tasting milk for consumers.
» Organic farming encourages the creation of fertile soils that are rich 170 in micronutrients and
can be used to grow crops for decades without being depleted.
» Organically produced foods are tastier for customers. Consumers will smell, taste, and see the
difference in quality of organically produced food items, regardless of minor price differences.
» Organically grown products are free from harmful chemicals, artificial flavours and
preservatives that ultimately cost consumers more money than non-organically grown products.
You can always taste the difference between organically grown and conventionally grown
products.

DISADVANTAGES :
• Production declines in initial years
• Increased pest attacks
• Rising input costs
• Limited market
• More labour intensive
Initiatives for adopting organic farming:
o Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana under National Mission of Sustainable Agriculture aims at
development of sustainable models of organic farming.
o Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North East Region
o Organic ecommerce platform Jaivikkheti for directly linking farmers with retail as well as bulk
buyers.
⇒ Recently, India has been ranked first in the number of organic farmers as per the ‘The World
of Organic Agriculture, 2020’ report .
60.9 Zero Budgeting Natural Farming (ZBNF):
• Zero Budgeting Natural farming is a method of chemical free farming drawing from traditional
Indian practices. The cost of growing and harvesting plants is zero which means that the farmers
need not to buy fertilizers and pesticides. In this technique Biological pesticides are used instead
of chemical fertilizers. Farmers use cow dung, plants, cow urine, human excreta, earthworms etc.
for crop protection. It intends to bring down the cost of production to nearly zero and return to a
pre-green revolution style of farming.

16.9.1 Four Pillars of Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)
Jeevamrutha
• It is the first and important pillar of ZBNF. It is a mixture of aged cow urine and fresh cow
dung from India’s indigenous jaggery, pulse flour, soil, water, and cow breed. This mixture is a
kind of natural fertilizer which is utilized in the farmland.
Bijamrita
• It is the second pillar of ZBNF. It is a mixture of green chilies, tobacco, and neem leaf pulp,
utilized for insects and pest control. It is applied to treat seeds, and it gives natural protection to
seeds.
Acchadana (Mulching)
• It is the third pillar of ZBNF. It facilitates maintaining the overall soil moisture content. This
pillar supports to protect the cover of soil cultivation and does not ruin it by tilling.
Whapasa

• It is a condition where water molecules and air molecules are present in the soil. 171 It helps to
reduce the extra irrigation requirement. These are the basic and essential pillars of zero budget
farming.
60.9.2 Features of ZBNF:
• As per the zero budget natural farming principles, crops get around 98% of their supply of
nutrients from the sunlight, water, and air. And the remaining 2% can be achieved by good
quality with lots of favourable microorganisms.
» Microclimate of soil– The soil always covers an organic mulch, which forms humus and
promotes and encourages good microorganisms.
» Cow – The cultivation system requires cow urine and cow dung acquired by only Indian breed
cows.
60.9.3 Advantages of Zero Budget Natural Farming
• It decreases the initial cost of farmers.
• Farmer’s income automatically improves due to reduction in investment.
• The ecosystem of soil improves.
• Cow dung adds soil value. It is available locally and full of nutrients value.
• Bacteria found in cow dung decompose the various organic matter in soil and make soil for the
plants.
• It needs less water and electricity.
• ZBNF improves the overall productivity of the soil.
• It reduces the disease attack risk on the crop.

• In ZBNF, farming production quality improves due to less utilization of chemical fertilizer.
60.10 System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
• The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a climate-smart, agroecological methodology for

increasing the productivity of rice and more recently other crops by changing the management of
plants, soil, water, and nutrients.
• This method originated in Madagascar in the 1980s and is based on the cropping principles of
significantly reducing plant population, improving soil conditions and irrigation methods for root
and plant development, and improving plant establishment methods.
• The principles and practices of SRI have been adapted for rainfed rice as well as for other crops
(such as wheat, sugarcane and tef, among others), with yield increases and associated economic
benefits.
• Benefits of SRI:
» 20%-100% or more increased yields.
» Up to a 90% reduction in required seed.
» Up to 50% water savings.
60.11 Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI)
• It aims to boost water, property, and labour productivity at the same time as reducing the total
demand on water supplies.
• It is a realistic approach to sugarcane production based on the principle of ‘more with less' in
agriculture, similar to the Rice Intensification System (SRI).
• It supports intercropping in sugarcane with crops like wheat, potato, chickpea, watermelon, etc.

• This practice would reduce weed growth by 60% and provide additional income 172 to
farmers, in addition to efficient land utilization.
• Overall Benefits:
» In conventional methods, the cost of sets occupies a major part of the cost of cultivation.
» By practicing SSI, this seed cost can be reduced up to 75%.
» Reduction in the plant mortality rate.
» Increases in the length and weight of each cane. » It is easy to transport the young seedlings for
a longer distance.
» Intercultural operations can be carried out easily due to wider spacing.
60.12 Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA)
• GACSA is promoted by FAO along with various governments.
• Its vision is to improve food security, nutrition and resilience in the face of climate change.
• GACSA works towards three aspirational outcomes to:
1. Improve farmers’ agricultural productivity and incomes in a sustainable way;
2. Build farmers’ resilience to extreme weather and changing climate;
3. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture, when possible.
60.13 National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP)
• The Ministry of Industries and Commerce has implemented the NPOP since 2001.
⦁ What it does?

• Certification programme for organic agriculture and products as per the approved criteria.
• Accredit certification programmes of Certification Bodies seeking accreditation.
• Facilitate certification of organic products in conformity with the prescribed standards.
• Facilitate certification of organic products in conformity with the importing countries organic
standards.
• Encourage the development of organic farming and organic processing. APEDA
• The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was
established by APEDA Act in 1985. It came into effect in 1986.
• APEDA functions under the Ministry of Industries and Commerce.
60.14 Misc. topic→ Desert Locusts
• They belong to the family of grasshoppers and have a lifespan of 90 days.

• Four species of locusts are found in India: Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), Migratory
locust (Locusta migratoria), Bombay Locust (Nomadacris succincta) and Tree locust
(Anacridium sp.).
1. Desert locusts are usually restricted to the semi-arid and arid deserts of Africa, the Near
East and SouthWest Asia that receive less than 200 mm of rain annually.
• They lay eggs in damp soil in the bare ground, which is rarely found in areas with dense
vegetation.
• Desert locusts are “biphasic” animals, meaning they can take on two entirely different forms.
1. In their “solitary” form, they are drab brown in colour and relatively harmless to crops.
2. Under certain conditions (such as optimum moisture and vegetation), the insects can
switch into a “gregarious form” and start forming swarms – turning electric yellow and
displaying swarming behavior.
• A swarm may contain 40 to 80 million adults in one square km, and these can fly at 16-19 km
an hour, depending on the wind, and cover up to 150 km in a day.

• They are omnivorous and one adult desert locust can eat roughly its own weight or about 2 gm
of fresh food everyday.
• In all there are three breeding seasons for locusts -Winter breeding [November to December],
Spring breeding [January to June] and Summer breeding [July to October]. India has only one
locust breeding season and that is Summer breeding.
60.14.1 Reasons for recent locust attacks
1. Favourable weather conditions: Most of the attacks by locust swarms in India since
1993 have been localised to Rajasthan. But this time, favourable weather conditions have
facilitated locusts' travel from Rajasthan to Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
even Maharashtra.
2. Indian Ocean Dipole: The desert locusts usually breed in the areas in the countries along
the eastern coast of Africa in a region known as the Horn of Africa. o Rising
temperatures due to global warming amplified the Indian Ocean dipole and made the
western Indian Ocean particularly warm. o Heavy rain triggers the growth of vegetation
in arid areas where desert locusts can then grow and breed.
3. Cyclones: The cyclonic storms Mekunu and Luban that struck Oman and Yemen
respectively transformed the empty desert tracts into large lakes providing damp soils
where the locust swarms breed.
4. Wind Movement: Locusts generally follow the wind, and are known to be passive
flyers. o The low-pressure area created by Cyclone Amphan in the Bay of Bengal
strengthened the westerly winds which aided the movement of the locusts into South
Asia.
5. Westerlies: The westerlies also brought with them several bouts of rainfall over north
and western India which also helped the insects reproduce.
60.14.2 Effects of locust attacks
1. Crop damage: The desert locust attack has wiped out crops spread over 5,00,000
hectares in Rajasthan. It poses a serious threat to India's food security in the recent future.
o One square km swarm can eat food in a day upto food equivalent for 35,000 people.
2. Allergies: Locust swarms often create allergens that aggravate allergies.

3. Harmful pesticides: The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO) sprayed Malathion 96

and Chlorpyrifos, both organophosphate pesticides, to control the locust swarms across
states. o Both are extremely toxic and high levels of exposure to the pesticides may
cause nausea, dizziness and even death. They can also impact soil fertility by altering the
ecological balance.
4. Air travel: Generally locusts are found at lower levels and therefore pose a threat to
aircraft especially in the critical landing and takeoff phase of the flight.
5. Effect on trees: Locusts also destroy the forest and urban vegetation areas if they are
unable to find the crops to feed.
60.14.3 Steps taken by India
1. Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare,
is responsible for monitoring, survey and control of Desert Locust in Scheduled Desert
Areas mainly in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
2. The Indian government has established several Locust Circle Offices and temporary
camps to control and monitor the attack.
3. 200 Locust Circle Offices have been set up to conduct survey & control operations in
coordination with District Administration and agriculture field machinery of affected
States.
4. The country is procuring pesticide sprayers from the UK and has deployed fire brigades,
tractors and other vehicles for spraying insecticides.
5. The Centre has compensated some of the farmers who suffered losses from the National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF) Fund.
6. Hindustan Insecticides Limited is now in process of production and supply of 25 MT
Malathion for supply to locust control programme to Iran under Government to
Government arrangement.
7. Drones are used to spray pesticides on tall trees and inaccessible places for effective
control of locusts.
8. Regular coordination with South-West Asian countries like Afghanistan, Iran and
Pakistan where locust attacks are common.

60.14.4 Way Forward
1. Use of bio-pesticides: These are safe ways of controlling them without affecting the
health of humans and soil quality. o Aerial spraying of fertilizers and pesticides is the
most potent method of fighting the locusts and helicopters need to be used to cover large
areas to control. o There is some evidence that loud noises can effectively divert locusts.
This can be used in areas of food crops to divert the locusts.
2. Cooperation from East African countries to South Asia including the Middle East and
Pakistan with India to comprehensively control the growth and spread of locusts.
3. Active role of organisations: o United Nations Environment Programme’s role is to
disseminate the latest science on emerging climate trends to inform cross-sectorial
policies and ensure resilience is built in the relevant sectors. o World Meteorological
Organization’s role is to forecast the more immediate weather changes that may
exacerbate the locusts’ attacks. o World Health Organization's role is to classify potential
risks of different chemical agents to enable governments to invest in the safest one.
4. The Food and Agriculture Organisation has also laid out a standard operating
procedure to deal with locust menace: o Sand areas that have green vegetation are to be
monitored constantly to see if locusts are present. o Desert areas receiving rainfall are to
be surveyed for live locus or their eggs o Recommended pesticides are to be used to stop
their breeding.
⇒ Recently, Swarms of desert locusts invaded vast swathes of land in various Indian states
which entered via Pakistan’s Sindh province.
60.15 MISC. TOPIC→ Green-Ag Project
- The Union Government launched the Green-Ag Project to reduce emissions from
agriculture.
- Aim: to bring at least 104,070 ha of farms under sustainable land and water management
and ensure 49 million Carbon dioxides equivalent sequestered or reduced through
sustainable land use and agricultural practices.
- Project will be implemented in Mizoram, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and
Uttarakhand.

- It is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), while the Department of

Agriculture, Cooperation, and Farmers’ Welfare is the national executing agency.
- Other key players involved in its implementation are the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) and the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEF&CC).
60.16. Agricultural emissions in India
- In India agriculture and livestock accounts for 18% of gross national emissions, the
third-highest sector after energy and industry.
- Out of this more than 85% of emissions are due to cattle production system, rice
cultivation and ruminant meat and remaining 15% comes from other crops and nitrous
oxide emitted from fertilisers.
- Most of the GHG emission from Indian agriculture takes places from states like Punjab,
Haryana, UP, Bihar, West Bengal etc.
60.16.1 Impact of agricultural emissions
1. Pollution
▪ Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) are black carbon materials and particulate matter
PM10 and PM2.5 is generated due to burning of stubbles.
▪ Fertilisers rich in nitrogen can pollute water and threaten aquatic ecosystems.
o Greenhouse gases: Use of excess nitrogenous fertilizers, paddy cultivation and enteric
fermentation components which causes global warming.
2. Source of emissions
o Enteric fermentation: is a natural part of the digestive process in ruminant animals such
as cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo. Microbes in the digestive tract, or rumen, decompose
and ferment food, producing methane as a by-product
o Rice cultivation: GHG emissions from rice cultivation consist of methane gas from the
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in paddy fields due to standing water in the
rice fields.
o Manure management: GHG emissions from manure management consist of methane
and nitrous oxide gases from aerobic and anaerobic manure decomposition processes.

o Synthetic fertilisers: GHG emissions from synthetic fertilisers such as urea consist of
nitrous oxide gas from synthetic nitrogen additions to managed soils due to volatilisation.
o Crop residues: GHG emissions from crop residues consist of nitrous oxide gas deriving
from the decomposition of nitrogen in crop residues and burning of crop residues. Eg.
Stubble burning in the outskirts of Delhi causing rise of particulate matter.
o Energy use: Irrigation uses highly inefficient water pumps and accounts for around 70%
of the energy consumption of agriculture causing emissions of carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide gases associated with fuel burning and the generation of electricity used
in agriculture.
60.16.2 Challenges to reduce agricultural emissions
• High population & demand: Due to India’s population, the need for food grain production has
substantially increased to feed their demand which creates a challenge for sustainable
agriculture.
• Unfair government policies: Highly subsidised nitrogen-based fertilizers in India lead to
farmers overreliance on nitrogen-based fertilizers which are a major source of nitrogenous
emissions.
• Poor agro-tech advancement: Farmers’ adoption of the technology largely depends on the
socio-economic and political environment, hence farmers with poor socio-economic condition
cannot adopt it.
• Poor knowledge: To implement available technologies adequate dissipation of knowledge
among the farming community is lacking.
60.16.3 Way forward
- Technological measures of Adoption of zero tillage (no-till farming) to minimise

disturbing the soil by tillage and reduce emissions from fuel that would have been
consumed for tillage operations.
- Deep placement of manure and fertilizers into the soil using fertilizer guns to increase
nitrogen use efficiency and reduce N2O emissions.

- Managing rice water by letting the field dry after irrigating rather than keeping rice fields
continuously flooded will reduce methane emissions without compromising yield. This
also requires less energy for water pumping.
- Institutional measures: Strengthening of private and public research and development
for sustainable development of agriculture. Timely, simultaneous, and adequate
availability of credit, input, and extension support.
- Policy measures: Counterproductive policies should be avoided, for example of heavy
subsidies provided by the government to nitrogen fertilisers. Emphasis on biogas
production and maximizing aerobic fermentation of manure. Also, promotion of
vermicomposting and keeping decomposed manure in an airtight container or with a
proper cover.
- Other Measures: Less dependence on ruminant animals, feeding of good-quality feed to
reduce methanogenesis and addition of yeast culture in feeds, supplementing green
fodder to reduce enteric emissions. Mass awareness about climate change, global
warming, and the role of the livestock sector in climate change and the impact of climate
change on the livestock sector.
(Mock Question)
Q. GSM3-2018- Sikkim is the first ‘Organic State’ in India. What are the ecological and
economical benefits of an Organic State? 2018

Pillar_7_All_Acts_&_Species
70 ALL ACTS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT 373
70.1. General 373
70.2. Forest and wildlife 373
70.3 Air 374
SPECIES 388
70 ALL ACTS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT
The environmental legislations in India can be categorised as follows
70.1. General
● 1986- The Environment (Protection) Act

● 1989- The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
● 1989- The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Microorganisms/
Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules
● 1991- The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules and Amendment
● 1995- The National Environmental TribunalAct
● 1997- The National Environment Appellate Authority Act
● 1998- The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules
● 2000- The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules
● 2000- The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules
● 2002- The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules
● 2010- National Green Tribunal Act
70.2. Forest and wildlife
● 1927- The Indian Forest Act and Amendment,1984

● 1960- Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960
● 1972- The Wildlife Protection Act, Rules 1973 and Amendment1991
● 1980- The Forest (Conservation) Act and Rules, 1981
● 2001- Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act, 2001
● 2002- The Biological Diversity Act 3. Water
(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_7_All_Acts_&_Species→ Page 373
● 1882- The Easement Act

● 1897- The Indian FisheriesAct
● 1956- The River Boards Act
● 1970- The Merchant Shipping Act
● 1974- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act
● 1977- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) CessAct
● 1978- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules
● 1991- The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification
● 2010– Wetland Rules
70.3 Air
● 1948– The Factories Act and Amendment in1987

● 1981- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act
● 1982- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Rules
● 1982- The Atomic EnergyAct
● 1987- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act
● 1988- The Motor VehiclesAct
The Wild Life ● The Wild Life Act (Protection) Act, 1972 was enacted for the protection of
(Protection) plants and animals.
Act of 1972 Salient Features of Wildlife Protection Act
• This Act provides for the protection of a listed species of animals, birds,
and plants, and also for the establishment of a network of
ecologically-important protected areas in the country.
• It helped India become a party to the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
•It provides for the establishment of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, etc.
•Its provisions paved the way for the formation of the Central Zoo Authority.
•The Act created six schedules which gave varying degrees of protection to
classes of flora and fauna.
•The National Board for Wildlife was constituted as a statutory organization

under the provisions of this Act.
• This is an advisory board that offers advice to the central government on
issues of wildlife conservation in India.
• It is also the apex body to review and approve all matters related to
wildlife, projects of national parks, sanctuaries, etc.
• The chief function of the Board is to promote the conservation and
development of wildlife and forests.
• It is chaired by the Prime Minister.
•The Act also provided for the establishment of the National Tiger
•The Act also provided for the establishment of the National Tiger
• It is a statutory body of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change with an overall supervisory and coordination part, performing
capacities as given in the Act.
• Its mandate is to strengthen tiger conservation in India.
• It gives statutory authority to Project Tiger which was launched in 1973
and has put the endangered tiger on a guaranteed path of revival by
protecting it from extinction.
● It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection.
● Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection; offences
under these are prescribed the highest penalties.
● Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are also protected, but the
penalties are much lower.
● Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted.
● The specified endemic plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from
cultivation and planting.
Schedule I
•This Schedule covers endangered species.
•These species need rigorous protection and therefore, the harshest penalties
for violation of the law are under this Schedule.
•Species under this Schedule are prohibited to be hunted throughout India,
except under threat to human life.
•Absolute protection is accorded to species on this list.
•The Trade of these animals is prohibited.
•Examples: tiger, blackbuck, Himalayan Brown Bear, BrowAntlered Deer,
Blue whale, Common Dolphin, Cheetah, Clouded Leopard, hornbills, Indian
Gazelle, etc.
Schedule II
•Animals under this list are also accorded high protection.
•Their trade is prohibited.
•They cannot be hunted except under threat to human life.
•Examples: Kohinoor (insect), Assamese Macaque, Bengal Hanuman langur,
Large Indian Civet, Indian Fox, Larger Kashmir Flying Squirrel, Kashmir
Fox, etc.
Schedule III & IV
•This list is for species that are not endangered.
•This includes protected species but the penalty for any violation is less
compared to the first two schedules.
•Examples: hyena, Himalayan rat, porcupine, flying fox, Malabar tree toad,
etc.
Schedule V
•This schedule contains animals that can be hunted.
•Examples: mice, rats, common crow, fruit bats, etc.
Schedule VI
•This list contains plants that are forbidden from cultivation.
•Examples: pitcher plant, blue vanda, red vanda, kuth, etc.
Environment • In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the
(Protection) Environment Act of 1986.
Act of 1986 • The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment of 1972.
• The decisions relate to the protection and improvement of the human
environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property.
● “Environment” is defined to include water, air and land and the
interrelationships which exist among water, air and land and human beings
and other living creatures, plants, microorganisms and property.
● “Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutants, defined as any
solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such a concentration as may be
or may tend to be injurious to the environment.
● “Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may
cause harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms,
property or the environment.
Salient Features:
● Section 3(1) of EPA: Centre is empowered to “take all such measures as it
deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving
the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating
environmental pollution”.
● The Central Government can set new national standards for the quality of
the environment (ambient standards) as well as standards for controlling
emissions and effluent discharges:
1. To regulate industrial locations,
2. To prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances;
3. To establish safeguards preventing accidents, and
4. To collect and dismantle information regarding environmental pollution.
Powers of Central Government under EPA:
1. Coordination of action by state,
2. Planning and execution of nation wide programmes,
3. Laying down environmental quality standards, especially those governing
emission or discharge of environmental pollutants,

4. Placing restriction on the location of industries
5. Handling of hazardous substances,
6. Prevention of environmental accidents,
7. Inspection of polluting units,
8. Research and establishment of laboratories,
9. Dissemination of information.
Hazardous • Biosafety concerns have led to the development of a regulatory regime in

Microorganism India. Aim of ‘Rules 1989’ is to protect the environment, nature and health
s/Genetically in connection with application of gene technology and micro-organisms
Engineered 1. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC): The functions are of
Organisms or an advisory nature. It recommends safety regulations for India in
Cells 1989 recombinant research, use and applications.
2. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) established
under the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and
Technology, to monitor the safety related aspects in respect of ongoing
research projects.
3. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC): it is the apex body
constituted in the MoEF under ‘Rules 1989', under the Environment
Protection Act, 1986.
4. The State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC’s) have a
major role in monitoring. It also has powers to inspect, investigate and take
punitive action in case or violations of statutory provisions.
5. District Level Committees (DLCs) have a major role in monitoring the
safety regulations in installations engaged in the use of genetically modified
organisms/hazardous microorganisms and its applications in the
environment.
6. Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC) is established under the
institution engaged in GMO research to oversee such research and to
interface with the RCGM in regulating it.
The Ozone • The rules are framed under the jurisdiction of Environment (Protection)
Depleting Act.
Substances • These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various ODSs, besides
Rules regulating production, trade import and export of ODSs and the product
containing ODS.
National • National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) is a financing, planning,

Ganga River implementing, monitoring and coordinating authority for the Ganges River,
Basin functioning under the Ministry of Water Resources.
Authority • The mission of the organization is to safeguard the drainage basin which
(NGRBA) feeds water into the Ganges by protecting it from pollution or overuse.
• In 2014, the NGRBA was transferred from the Ministry of Environment
and Forests to the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation.
• It was established by the Central Government of India, in 2009 under
Section 3(3) of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, which also declared
Ganges as the ‘National River’ of India.
⦁ Composition of NGRBA
• The Prime Minister chairs the authority.
▪ Members belonging to the government sector are as follows:
• Prime Minister of India
• Minister of Environment and Forests (Union Minister)
• Minister of Finance
• Minister of Urban Development
• Minister of Water Resources
• Minister of Power
• Minister of Sciences and Technology
• Chief Ministers of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West
Bengal
• Ministry of Environment and Forests (state minister)
• Ministry of Environment and Forests, secretary
⦁ Forest • The First Forest Act was enacted in 1927.

(Conservation) • Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental
Act of 1980 degradation, the Centre Government enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act
in1980.
• Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
• Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government
is required for diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
• An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Centre on
these approvals.
• The Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely reserved
forests, village forests, protected forests and private forests.
⦁ Reserved forest
• A state may declare forestlands or waste lands as reserved forest and may
sell the produce from these forests.
• Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in
reserved forests is punishable with a fine or imprisonment, or both
⦁ Village forests
• Reserved forests assigned to a village community are called village forests.
⦁ Protected forests
• The state governments are empowered to designate protected forests and
may prohibit the felling of trees, quarrying and the removal of forest produce
from these forests.
• The preservation of protected forests is enforced through rules, licenses
and criminal prosecutions.
Biodiversity • India’s richness in biological resources and indigenous knowledge relating

Act 2000 to them is well recognized.
• The legislation aims at regulating access to biological resources so as to
ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use.
• The Biological Diversity Bill was introduced in the Parliament in 2000 and
was passed in 2002.
⦁ Salient features of the biodiversity legislation

• The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity and
associated knowledge against their use by foreign individuals and
organizations without sharing the benefits arising out of such use, and to
check biopiracy.
• This bill seeks to check biopiracy, protect biological diversity and local
growers through a three-tier structure of central and state boards and local
committees.
• The Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority
(NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management
Committees (BMCs) in local bodies.
• While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and conditions to secure
equitable sharing of benefits
• Before applying for any form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) in or
outside India for an invention based on research on a biological resource
obtained from India, prior approval of NBA will be required.
• The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a result of approvals by the NBA
will be deposited in National Biodiversity Fund.
• NBF will be used for conservation and development of areas from where
resource has been accessed, in consultation with the local self-government
concerned.
• There is provision for notifying National Heritage Sites important from the
standpoint of biodiversity by State Governments in consultation with local
self-government.
Forest Rights • The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
Act, 2006 of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
• Forest Rights Act, 2006 provides for the restitution of deprived forest
rights across India.
• The Act is providing scope of integrating conservation and livelihood
rights of the people.
⦁ FRA is tool
• To empower and strengthen the local self-governance
• To address the livelihood security of the people
• To address the issues of Conservation and management of the Natural
Resources and conservation governance of India.
⦁ For the first time Forest Rights Act recognizes and secures
• Community Rights in addition to their individual rights
• Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest
resource which the communities have been traditionally protecting and
conserving for sustainable use.
• Right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge related to
biodiversity and cultural diversity
• Rights of displaced communities & Rights over developmental activity.
⦁ Salient Features
• Nodal Agency for the implementation is the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
(MoTA).
• This Act is applicable for Tribal and Other Traditional Forest Dwelling
Communities.
• The maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest land is 4 ha.
• National Parks and Sanctuaries have been included along with Reserve
Forest, Protected Forests for the recognition of Rights.
• The Act recognizes the right of ownership access to collect, use, and
dispose of minor forest produce by tribals.
• Minor forest produce includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin.
• As per the Act, the Gram Sabha has been designated as the competent
authority for initiating the process of determining the nature and extent of
individual or community forest rights.
⦁ Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH)
• The Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH) have been envisaged in the Forest
Rights Act, 2006.
• Critical wildlife habitats (CWHs) are areas inside wildlife sanctuaries,

national parks and tiger reserves – known as ‘protected areas’ – where
people’s activities like cattle grazing or collecting leaves compete with the
needs of wildlife.
• MoTA is the nodal authority for FRA.
• The Chief Wildlife Warden of a state will notify a seven-member expert
committee, chaired by a chief conservator of forest in-charge of a national
park or sanctuary, for the purpose of identification of CWH in a national
park or sanctuary.
• The Expert Committee will identify areas within national parks and
sanctuaries, based on scientific and objective criteria relevant to the
protected area.
• The Expert Committee shall issue a public notice 15 days in advance on
the intention to notify CWH.
• The public notice shall include details of areas required to be kept
inviolate, criteria adopted for CWH identification, implication of the
notification, and options of resettlement and rehabilitation schemes.
• The Expert Committee shall carry out open consultations with all
stakeholders, and the proceedings and objections will be documented
appropriately.
• The committee wills submit the CWH proposal to the Chief Wildlife
Warden.
• The decision on the proposal will be taken by the Standing Committee of
the National Board for Wildlife.
• A MoTA representative would be invited during the deliberation of the
proposal by the standing committee.
• Following the committee’s recommendation, the notification of CWH will
be published in the official gazette.
The Water Some important provisions of this Act are given below:
(Prevention • The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards to
and Control of establish and enforce effluent standards for factories.

Pollution) Act • A Central Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union
of 1974 and Territories and formulate policies and coordinates activities of different State
Amendment, Boards.
1988 • The Act grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and to take the
sample for the purpose of analysis.
• Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved
through criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
• The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a
defaulting industrial plant
The Water • The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet
(Prevention expenses of the Central and State Pollution Boards.
and Control of • The Act creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires
Pollution) Cess local authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for
Act of 1977 water effluent discharge.
• The Central Government, after deducting the expenses of collection, pays
the central and state boards such sums, as it seems necessary.
• To encourage capital investment in pollution control, the Act gives a
polluter a 70% rebate of the applicable cess upon installing effluent
treatment equipment
The Air • To implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the
(Prevention Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, Parliament enacted
and Control of the nationwide Air Act.
Pollution) Act • The main objectives of this Act are to improve the quality of air and to
of 1981 and prevent, control and abate air pollution in the country. Important provisions
amendment, of this Act are given below:
1987 • The Air Act’s framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974.
• The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards
established under the Water Act, to include air pollution control.
• States not having water pollution boards were required to set up air
pollution boards.
• Under the Air Act, all industries operating within designated air pollution
control areas must obtain a “consent” (permit) from the State Boards.
• The states are required to prescribe emission standards for industry and
automobiles after consulting the central board and noting its ambient air
quality standards.
• The Act grants power to SPCB and to test equipment and to take the
sample for the purpose of analysis from any chimney, fly ash or dust or any
other.
• Prior to its amendment in 1988, enforcement under the Act was achieved
through criminal prosecutions initiated by the Boards.
• The 1988 amendment act empowered SPCB and CPCB to close a
defaulting industrial plant.
• Notably, the 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the
Air Act and extended the Act to include noise pollution.
Coastal • The coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and back waters
Regulation which are influenced by tidal action were declared "Coastal Regulation Zone
Zone (CRZ) '' (CRZ) in 1991.
• India has created institutional mechanisms such as National Coastal Zone
Management Authority (NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone Management
Authority (SCZMA) for enforcement and monitoring of the CRZ
Notification.
• These authorities have been delegated powers under Section 5 of the
Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 to take various measures for
protecting and improving the quality of the coastal environment and
preventing, abating and controlling environmental pollution in coastal areas.
⦁ Classification Criteria and Regulatory Norms
• The coastal regulation zone has been classified for the purpose of
regulation of the permitted activities.
⦁ CRZ-I:
• Ecological sensitive area and the area between High Tide Line (HTL) and
Low Tide Line (LTL).
• No new construction is permitted except for a few specified most essential
activities like support activities for Atomic Energy Plants and Defence
requirements, facilities required for disposal of treated effluents and other
port related waterfront activities.
⦁ CRZ-II:
• The area that has been developed up to or close to the shore line which
includes the designated urban areas that are substantially built up.
• Buildings permitted only on the landward side of the existing authorized
structures as defined in the notification.
⦁ CRZ-III:
• The areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to
either CRZ-I or CRZ-II which includes mainly the rural area and those not
substantially built up within designated urban areas.
• The area up to 200 meters from HTL is earmarked as "No Development
Zone".
• No construction is permitted within this zone except for repairs to the
existing authorized structures.
• Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500 meters of HTL is
permitted in CRZ III for the purpose of construction of dwelling units and
hotels/beach resorts subject to certain conditions.
⦁ CRZ-IV
• The activities impugning on the sea and tidal influenced water bodies will
be regulated except for traditional fishing and related activities undertaken
by local communities.
• No untreated sewage, effluents, pollution from oil drilling shall be let off or
dumped.
Two separate categories for CRZ-III (Rural) areas
CRZ-III A: The category of CRZ-III areas are densely populated rural areas
with a population density of 2161 per square kilometer as per 2011 Census.
Such areas have a No Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters from the High
Tide Line (HTL) as against 200 meters from the High Tide Line stipulated in
the CRZ Notification, 2011.
CRZ-III B - The B category of CRZ-III rural areas have population density
of below 2161 per square kilometer as per 2011 Census. Such areas have a
No Development Zone of 200 meters from the HTL.
Environment Ministry notifies CRZ Regulations 2019; replaces CRZ norms
of 2011
Tourism infrastructure permitted in coastal areas
The new norms permit temporary tourism facilities such as shacks, toilet
blocks, change rooms, drinking water facilities, etc. in Beaches
Streamlining of CRZ Clearances
The procedure for CRZ clearances has been streamlined. Now, the only such
projects which are located in the CRZ-I (Ecologically Sensitive Areas) and
CRZ IV (area covered between Low Tide Line and 12 Nautical Miles
seaward) will be dealt with for CRZ clearance by the Ministry. The powers
for clearances with respect to CRZ-II and III have been delegated at the
State level.
CRZ-IV, which includes the shallow belt of coastal waters extending up to
12 nautical miles, is not only a crucial fishing zone for small fishers but also
bears the maximum brunt of waste from offshore activities, such as oil
exploration, mining and shipping. The 2011 notification had thus laid
importance on regulation of pollution from such offshore activities. Instead
of strengthening the regulation, the 2018 notification allows land
reclamation for setting up ports, harbours and roads; facilities for
discharging treated effluents; transfer of hazardous substances; and
construction of memorials or monuments.
SPECIES
Critically Endengered
Kashmiri Stag- Dachigam National Park
Himalayan Brown bear- Great Himalayan NP
Siberian Crane-Kalesar NP, Keoladeo NP
Great Indian Bustard- Desert NP
Bengal Florican- Manas NP
Pygmy Hog- Manas NP
Namdapha Flying Squirrel- Namdapha NP
White Backed Vulture- Sri Venkateswara NP
Raorchestes Resplendens- Eravikulam NP
Indian Vulture- Mudumalai NP
White Rumped Vulture- Mudumalai NP
Endangered
Asian Elephant- Rajaji NP
White Bellied musk deer- Gangotri NP
Assam roofed turtle- Manas NP
Hispid Hare- Manas NP
Gee’s golden Langur- Manas NP
Wild Water Buffalo- Kaziranga NP
Red Panda- Mouling NP, Nokrek NP
Hoolock Gibbon- Itanki NP
Sangai Deer/ Dancing Deer- Keibul Lamjao NP
Asian Wild Dog- Khangchendzonga NP
Asiatic Lion- Gir NP
Lion Tailed Macaque- Kudremukh NP
Wild buffalo- Indravati NP/ Kutru district
Black-Bellied tern- Papikonda NP
Nilgiri Tahr- Eravikulam NP
Indian Pangolin- Silent Valley NP
Indian Elephant- Periyar NP
Salim Ali Fruit Bat- Periyar NP

Vulnerable
Snow leopard- Dachigam NP
Himalayan Serow- Salim Ali NP, Manas NP
Sambar, Slag,- Valley of Flower NP
Asian Brown Bear- Valley of Flower NP
Greater spotted Eagle- Keoladeo NP
Sarus Crane- Keoladeo NP
Indian Rhinoceros- Valmiki NP
One Horned rhino- Kaziranga NP
Barasingha/ Swamp deer- Kaziranga NP
Clouded Leopard- Namdapha NP
Stump-tailed Macaque- Nokrek NP
Macqueen Bustard- Blackbuck NP
Olive ridley Turtle-Bhitarkanika NP
Mugger Crocodile-Simlipal NP
Yellow Throated Bulbul-Sri Venkateswara NP
Pale- Capped Pigeon- Papikonda NP
Nilgiri Langur- Eravikulam NP
Nilgiri Marter- Eravikulam NP
Indian Star Tortoise- Guindy NP
Near Threatened
Himalayan Tahr- Great Himalayan NP
Asian Golden Cat- Balpakram NP
Oriental Darter-Papikonda NP
Least Concern
Great White Pelican-Kalesar NP
Flemingo-Kalesar NP
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Environmental Sudarshan Gurjar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Environmental Sudarshan Gurjar

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environmental Sudarshan Gurjar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sudarshan Gurjar’s Environment for UPSC & Other Competitive Exams 2021

10. Environment Pillar#1-A) Protected Area Network

10. Environment Pillar#1-A) Protected Area Network 1

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page1

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page2

10.1 National Park

• It comes under IUCN Category II

• Their boundaries are fixed and defined.

• Here, no human activity is allowed.

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page3

• They cannot be downgraded to the status of a ‘sanctuary’.

➢ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

10.2.1 IUCN and India

10.2.2 IUCN protected area categories:

▪ Category Ia – Strict Nature Reserve

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page4

10.2.3 IUCN Red List

10.2.4 IUCN criteria

10.2.5 IUCN Red list categories

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page5

3. Critically endangered (CR)–

● 🧔Centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1973.

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page6

10.3.1 National Tiger Conservation Authority(NTCA)

● Boss? Ministry of Environment & Forest

10.3.2 Powers and functions of NTCA

● Approval of Tiger Conservation Plan prepared by States 👨‍🦲.

10.3.3 Structure of a Tiger Reserve

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page7

10.3.5 Methods for Tiger Census

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page8

10.3.6 Tiger Census, 2014

● “Status of Tigers in India, 2014” report by NTCA Findings:

10.3.7 Tiger Census, 2018

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page9

● M-STrIPES = Monitoring System for Tigers-Intensive Protection and Ecological Status.

10.3.9 Protection Status:

⚾⚾🎓✋Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I International Union for

10.3.10 Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP)

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page10

10.4 National Park & Tiger Reserve in India→ State wise

(#for Tiger Reserve 🐅be used)

Salim Ali NP, Dachingham NP, Kishtwar NP (#पश्चिम से पर्बा

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page11

Govind Pashu Vihar NP

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page12

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page13

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page14

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page15

Nokrek NP, Balpakram NP

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page16

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page17

Kangchenjunga NP→ Asian Wild Dog-EN

Marine NP, Gir NP, Blackbuck NP, Vansda NP

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page18

(PCB 1) Sudarshan Gurjar Environment HDT Pillar_1A_PAN→ Page19

Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS 🐅