✓Theory

✓Interrelationship
between theory and
research
✓Concept
✓Construct
✓Variables
✓Indicator
✓Reasoning (inductive
and deductive)
 Theory
•Theory in its simplest sense is a set of principles,
abstracts that is used to explain, analyze and predict
any phenomena, process and occurrence.

•Theory is an analytical framework to explain “if and

then” conditions.

•In simple sense any conjecture or deduction drawn

from general experience is called theory.

•It is a logical framework to explain a variety of

specific facts.

•Could also be viewed as, well established assumptions

and an approach for making systematic deduction
• A theory is essentially an explanation
of the relationship and underlying
principles that characterize a particular
phenomenon
• It explains the relationships, causality
and dependency of certain variables
• It also predicts the possible direction or
momentum of those variables
• It is not static but dynamic and always
open to revisions
• e.g. Educated peoples are more
aware of their rights and obligations.
This theory implies a clear relationship
between education and awareness.
Interrelationship
between theory and
research
•The relationship is intertwined.

•Is based on a kind of mutual

support and contributions.

•Theory presents a basis for

explanation and prediction, on the
other hand,

•Research findings can test theories

and suggests new theories
•The interrelationship between
these two can be better explain
from the following 4 relevant
functions of the research

✓Research initiates theory

✓Research helps recasting

theory

✓Research refocuses
theory

✓Research clarifies theory

 Research initiates theory

•Research in most cases leads to

formulate/establish new theory
(e.g. regardless of the pattern, an effective
government only can ensure rule of law)

•It also can refute any established

generalization (e.g. there is no perfect
relationship between democracy and
development)

•It creates intellectual vacuum leads towards

establishment of new set of theories (e.g.
scientists are surfing for innovation of
Anti-virus or vaccine for Corona Virus)
Research helps recasting theory

•Theories are no more constant

•Newer facts are generating every day

•Basis of the theories are either challenged or changed

•Research attempts to refurbish existing theories

•When any missing or unpresented or deviant case is coming

forward it presses reformulation of existing theory

•e.g. there is no established relationship between literacy and

violence
 Findings of empirical research often stimulates to
refocus or sharpen an existing theory

It may refocus by shifting interest to new areas of

interpretation or identifying constituting new variables
Research
refocuses Use of alternative research methods on same issue also
can refocus or redefine or highlight existing theory

theory e.g. similarity of political identity of City Corporation

Mayor and Government does not guarantee for a
good relationship between these two.
 Theories are generally abstract and predict the causal
relationship

Research findings provides data and information to

clarify existing theory

Research Changing the operational definition of the used

concept also can clarifies the existing theory

clarifies It generally produces easy and understandable

framework of theory
theory
e.g. after installation of anti-virus and regular
scanning of any external device (i.e. pen drive) with
laptop also sometimes fail to protect hacking.
 • A concept refers to a general idea
or notion that represents a
category of objects, events, or
phenomena. Concepts are mental
representations or cognitive units
that help us understand and
categorize the world around us.
Concept For example, "justice," "love,"
"democracy," and "happiness"
are all concepts that represent
abstract ideas.
 Concept is one of the basic tools for analysis in
research

A concept is a word or phrase that symbolizes

the phenomena under study

Helps the researcher to communicate the

experimented and observed findings

Concept Concept is based on the critical study of reality

Used to construct a framework to guide research

process and investigation approach

It helps to relate, integrate, and explain different

phenomena to draw generalized impressions
 Construct
• In the realm of research and psychological
measurement, a construct is an abstract concept that
is not directly observable but is inferred from
observable behaviors, responses, or indicators.
Constructs are typically used in the social sciences,
such as psychology, sociology, and education, to study
human behavior, attitudes, personality traits, or other
psychological phenomena.
• For example, "intelligence" is a construct in
psychology. It is not directly observable, but it is
inferred from various observable behaviors, such as
problem-solving abilities, memory, and reasoning
skills.
 Construct
• A construct is a concept devised to aid in scientific
analysis and generalization
• A construct is generally inferred from an observable
phenomenon
• It is an abstraction from reality, selecting and focusing
on certain aspects of reality and ignoring others
• Thus, a construct is also a concept with the added
meaning of having been deliberately and consciously
invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose
• Concepts are general ideas or notions, while constructs
are abstract concepts used in research to represent
unobservable phenomena and are operationalized
through observable indicators or measurements.
 Variables
•Variable is a general class or category of objects, events, or situations

•e.g. Gender, income, social class, etc.

•According to Webster’s dictionary a variable is something which is “able or apt

to vary, changeable.”

•A variable is a measurable dimension of a concept, e.g. height, it can take

different value in different time or different unit

•Major types are of continuous and discrete, dependent and independent

 Continuous Variable
•can take on any value within a specific range or interval. It is
characterized by an infinite number of possible values, allowing for a
wide range of measurements or observations.
•Continuous variables can have both decimal and fractional values.
They are typically associated with physical quantities that can be
measured, such as time, distance, temperature, weight, height, and
age.
•For example, consider the variable "height." Height is a continuous
variable because it can take on any value within a range, such as 150
cm, 150.5 cm, 150.53 cm, and so on. The variable can be measured
with increasing precision, depending on the measurement instrument
Continuous Variable

•The variables which can take values within a specified

interval of real numbers.

•In interval values can differ by infinitely small

amounts (2.001,….)

•It is not possible to count all the values

Discrete variable
• Variables that can take on a finite number of values
are called discrete variables

• e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 in 1 to 10

• It cannot take all the values within the limits of the

variable (1 to 10)

• All qualitative variables are discrete, and some

quantitative variables are discrete (e.g.
temperature, performance rating in 1, 2, 3, …)
Dependent
Variable
 •Independent variables are those that do not depend on
other variables

•In research, generally it is conceived as given, not

problematical

•Independent variable is that variable which causes change

in the dependent variable
Independent
variable •e.g. relationship of purchase of quantity of any goods and
price. Quantity is dependent variable and price is
independent variable.

•However, important to note that same variable can be

treated independent in one research or in a part of a
research, and dependent in another research or other part of
the same research.
Operational
definition
• The task operationally defining a variable forces the
researcher to discuss abstract concept in concrete
terms.

• e.g. job satisfaction can be defined as amount of

output produced, level of motivation at work,
level of variety of work, etc..
Indicator
 Reasoning
• Research as a scientific approach is based on logical
arguments and reasoning

• Research seeks facts to draw conclusions

• Drawing conclusions depends on the researcher’s ability

to reason logically

• Research generally has two important methods of

reasoning
• Inductive
• Deductive
Inductive Reasoning
• The reasoning process which works from specific observations to
broader generalizations and theories is called inductive reasoning

• The process starts with specific observations and measures, begin to

detect pattern and regularities, formulate some tentative hypothesis
finally developing general conclusions and theories

• Example: Kamal is mortal and observing a number of other mortals

as well, the researcher might then note that all the observed mortals
are men, therefore arriving at the tentative conclusion that all men
are mortal.
Deductive Reasoning
• The reasoning process that works from more general to more specific is deductive reasoning

• The researcher begins with a theory about research topic

• Narrow down to more specific hypothesis what can be test

• This involves reasoning from the universal or general to particular

• Main function is to clarify relationship between premises and conclusions in a logical

framework

• Example: All men are mortal. Kamal is a man. Kamal is mortal.

Thanks