Measurement and Scaling

Measurement; meaning
•Measurement is a research method that involves the systematic assignment of numbers or
values to variables or concepts in order to represent and quantify them. It is an essential aspect
of research, as it allows researchers to collect and analyze data in a meaningful and rigorous
manner.
In research, measurement refers to the process of assigning numerical or descriptive values to
objects, events, or characteristics. It involves quantifying variables or constructs of interest to
obtain meaningful data for analysis. Measurement is a fundamental aspect of research as it
allows researchers to collect data and make objective comparisons or draw conclusions based
on the collected information.

•e.g. Low 1, Medium 2, High 3

•True 1, False 0

•Married 1, Unmarried 2
Scaling; meaning
• Scaling is progressively arranging series of items according to value or magnitude into which
an item can be placed according to its quantification.
A scale, in the context of research, refers to a set of categories or levels that are used to
measure or represent the values of a variable or construct. Scales provide a structured
framework for assigning values to variables, allowing researchers to capture and organize data
in a meaningful way. Scales can be categorized into different types based on their characteristics
and purposes.
• Scaling is thus constituting a series of categories through marks.

• e.g. salary (monthly in BDT)

• Upto 10,000 10,000-20,000 20,000-30,000 …..
Types of scales; based
on mathematical
comparison

Based on mathematical
comparison scales are of four
types.
These are

1. Nominal
2. Ordinal,
3. Interval, and
4. Ratio
 Nominal scale classifies individuals into two or more categories, the
members of which differ with respect to the specific characteristics.

However, the categories have no rank order. Implies provide no

information regarding order or magnitude.

Nominal
e.g. male and female, young and old, rural and urban, rich and poor.
scale
A nominal scale is the simplest type of scale that categorizes data
into distinct categories or groups. It provides qualitative distinctions
without any inherent order or numerical value. Examples include
gender (male/female) or eye color (blue/green/brown).
•The nominal scale is often called
classificatory scale.

•Useful for quantifying qualitative data.

•The rules for assigning numbers in this

scale is very simple.

•e.g. male 1, female 2, young 1, old 2,

…..
Ordinal scale
Ordinal scale ranks individuals along the continuum of the
characteristic being scaled, say, from highest to lowest,
greatest to least, first to last, and so on.

e.g. undecided 1, bad 2, good 3, better 4, best 5

The ordinal scale provides a rank order of categories and

arranges objects according to their magnitude in an ordered
relationship.

However, it does not describe the distance or interval

between the objects.
• An ordinal scale involves
categories that have a natural
order or rank. The categories
represent different levels, but
the exact differences between
the categories may not be
known or equal. An example is
a Likert scale where
respondents rate their
agreement levels from
"strongly disagree" to
"strongly agree."
 Interval scale
• In interval scale, the distance between the numbers or units on
the scale is equal and the direction is known.

• e.g. salary (monthly in BDT)

• 10,000-20,000 20,000-30,000 30,000-40,000….

• This scale provides more powerful measurement than that of

ordinal scale and robust statistical measures (e.g. mean, standard
deviation) can be used in interval scale.
• An interval scale represents
ordered categories with equal
intervals between them. It has
a meaningful zero point and
allows for comparisons of
magnitude or differences
between values. Examples
include temperature scales
like Celsius or Fahrenheit.
 Ratio scale
Highest level of measurement
An interval scale with an absolute zero (0) point
e.g. Length (in cm) 0-10, 10-20, 20-30
Subsumes of above all three levels of
measurement
Explains proportion of one value to another
e.g. the ratio of female crime to male crime is
1:19, i.e. for every 5 female criminals there are
95 male criminals.
• A ratio scale is similar to an interval
scale but also includes an absolute
zero point, allowing for ratios and
meaningful ratios of values.
Variables such as weight, height, or
time are typically measured on a
ratio scale.
 Comparison of four scales; a synopsis
Criteria Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Properties of Naming Naming and ranking Naming, ranking and Naming, ranking, equal
measurement equal intervals intervals and zero point

Nature of measurement Categorical Ranking Scoring Scoring

Examples Gender: Male and Income: Upper, middle IQ of A is 25% higher IQ of A to B is 1:1.5
female and low than B.
Residence: Rural and
urban
Nature of underlying Discrete Discrete or continuous Continuous Continuous
construct

Mathematical functions None None Addition and Addition, subtraction,

subtraction division, multiplication

Central tendency Mode Median Mean Mean

Statistical tests X2 test, Lambda test, U-test, Spearman’s p, Pearson’s r, t-test Pearson’s r, t-test
Phi Gamma
Types of scales;
based on other basis

Thurstone

Likert
On other basis
scales are of four
types.
Guttman, and

Bogardus
Thurstone scale
• Thurstone scale – A type of composite measure The
Thurstone scale, named after its developer Louis Leon
Thurstone, is a psychometric scaling technique used to
measure people's attitudes, preferences, or opinions
on a specific topic. It is a method of assessing
subjective opinions by assigning numerical values to
different response options. The scale is designed to
capture the intensity of an individual's position on a
continuum.
• The Thurstone scale consists of multiple statements or
items related to the topic being studied. Participants
are asked to rate their level of agreement or
disagreement with each statement using a predefined
set of response options. These response options
typically range from strongly agree to strongly
disagree.
• Here's an example of a Thurstone scale measuring people's attitudes towards climate change:
• Statement 1: Climate change is primarily caused by human activities. Statement 2: The impact of
climate change is exaggerated. Statement 3: Immediate action is necessary to mitigate the effects of
climate change. Statement 4: Climate change is a natural phenomenon that has happened throughout
history. Statement 5: Governments should implement stricter regulations to address climate change.
• Participants would be asked to rate their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement using
a set of response options. These response options could be, for instance:
• Strongly Agree
• Agree
• Neutral
• Disagree
• Strongly Disagree
• Based on participants' responses, researchers can analyze the data to determine the distribution of
attitudes and opinions on the topic being measured. They can calculate mean scores, assess the
variability of responses, and compare the attitudes of different groups of participants. The Thurstone
scale helps provide quantitative measurements for subjective constructs.
 Likert scale

• The Likert scale, developed by Rensis Likert, is a popular

rating scale used in surveys and questionnaires to measure
people's attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors. It
consists of a series of statements or items to which
participants indicate their level of agreement or
disagreement on a scale.
• The Likert scale typically consists of multiple response
options, which are commonly represented as a 5-point or 7-
point scale. Participants are asked to select the response
option that best represents their agreement or
disagreement with each statement.
• Here's an example of a Likert scale measuring satisfaction
with a customer service experience:
• Statement: Please indicate your level of satisfaction with our
customer service.
• Strongly Dissatisfied
• Dissatisfied
• Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
• Satisfied
• Very Satisfied
• Participants would be asked to choose the response option
that aligns with their level of satisfaction with the customer
service they received. Researchers can then analyze the data
to determine the distribution of satisfaction levels and
interpret the overall satisfaction of the respondents.
• Likert scales can also
 The Guttman scale, also known as the cumulative scaling or
scalogram analysis, is a measurement technique
developed by Louis Guttman. It is used to assess the
unidimensionality of a set of items or statements, where
the items are ordered based on their level of intensity or
agreement.
Guttman In a Guttman scale, a series of items or statements related
to a specific construct is presented to participants. The
scale items are carefully designed so that they reflect a
hierarchical order or a cumulative pattern of agreement
or intensity. Each item represents a different level of the
construct being measured, with higher-level items
implying agreement or intensity to a greater extent.
 Participants are asked to indicate their agreement or
disagreement with each item. The responses are then
analyzed to determine if the hierarchical order of the
items is upheld. If a participant agrees with a particular
Guttman item, it is expected that they would also agree with all the
items at lower levels. In other words, agreement with
scale higher-level items implies agreement with all the lower-
level items.
• Here's an example of a Guttman scale measuring attitudes towards
technology adoption:
• Item 1: I own a smartphone.
• Item 2: I use my smartphone to browse the internet.
• Item 3: I use various mobile applications on my smartphone.
• Item 4: I feel comfortable using new technology.
• Item 5: I enjoy exploring and learning about new technological
advancements.
• If a participant agrees with item 5, it implies that they would also agree
with items 1 to 4, as each subsequent item represents a higher level of
technology adoption or comfort. The Guttman scale analysis examines the
responses to determine if the hierarchical order is consistently upheld by
the participants.
• Guttman scaling helps establish a unidimensional continuum and provides
insights into the hierarchical structure of attitudes or behaviors. It can be
used to create a cumulative index or measure for the construct being
studied.
• Bogardus Social Distance Scale – A measurement technique
for determining the willingness of people to participate in
social relations – of varying degrees of closeness – with
other kinds of people.

• In this scale there is a logical structure of intensity inherent

among the items.
Bogardus
• e.g. in case of relationship between upper class Hindu and
Dalits/Tribal in India different type of associations, say, as
office colleagues, as neighbors, as friends, and as marriage
scale
partner.

• If a person is willing to accept a Dalit as marriage partner

he/she must be willing to have associations of lesser-intensity.
 reliability, validity,
Criteria of
good
measurement
 Reliability – is that quality of measurement
method which suggests that the same data would
have been collected each time in repeated
observations of the same phenomenon.

Reliability is the consistency of measurement, or

the degree to which an instrument measures the
Reliability same way each time it is used under the same
condition with the same subjects.

There are several methods of reliability testing.

These are i) Test-retest; ii) internal consistency; iii)
split-half; and iv) equivalent form.
• Reliability in research refers to the consistency, stability, or
repeatability of measurements or results obtained from a study. It
indicates the degree to which a measure or instrument yields
consistent and dependable results when used repeatedly under
similar conditions.
• Reliability is important because it ensures that the data or
measurements obtained are trustworthy and free from random error.
It allows researchers to have confidence in the consistency of their
findings and supports the validity of the research.
 Validity
• Validity means the ability to produce findings that are in
agreement with conceptual or theoretical values.
• It can be of face, content, criterion, and construct validity.
• Validity in research refers to the extent to which a study or
measurement accurately measures or reflects the concept or
construct it is intended to assess. It assesses whether the research or
measurement is measuring what it claims to measure and provides
evidence to support the interpretation and generalization of the
results.
 Reliability and Validity -- Relationship

Reliability and validity are both important concepts in research, but they refer to different aspects of
measurement and data quality:
Reliability:
• Reliability refers to the consistency, stability, or repeatability of measurements or results obtained from a
study.
• It assesses the degree to which a measure or instrument produces consistent and dependable results when
used repeatedly under similar conditions.
• Reliability examines the extent to which random error is minimized in measurement, ensuring that the
obtained results are not due to chance variability.
• Reliability is necessary for valid measurement, as inconsistent or unreliable measures can introduce error and
decrease the accuracy of the findings.
• Reliability is typically assessed using statistical methods, such as correlation coefficients or internal
consistency measures (e.g., Cronbach's alpha).
• Validity:
• Validity refers to the extent to which a study or measurement accurately
measures or reflects the concept or construct it is intended to assess.
• It assesses whether the research or measurement is measuring what it claims to
measure and provides evidence to support the interpretation and generalization
of the results.
• Validity addresses the question of whether a measure is conceptually and
empirically sound and corresponds to the underlying theoretical construct.
• Validity is crucial for drawing accurate and meaningful conclusions from research
and ensuring that the findings can be applied to the broader population or
context of interest.
• Validity can be assessed through various methods, such as content validity,
criterion validity, construct validity, internal validity, and external validity.
• In summary, reliability focuses on the consistency and stability of measurements,
while validity pertains to the accuracy and appropriateness of measurements in
representing the concept or construct being studied. Reliability ensures
consistency, while validity ensures correctness and meaningfulness. Both
reliability and validity are important considerations in research to ensure that the
measurements are robust, trustworthy, and accurately represent the
intended constructs.
Continued
▪ For the research study to be considered reliable each time it is replicated it too should
produce similar results.

It is my belief that validity is more important than reliability because if an instrument does
not accurately measure what it is supposed to, there is no reason to take into cognizance the
result even if it measures consistently same.
Thanks