Geomorphology By Swagat Pradhan

Basic Concepts of geomorphology

 The word “geomorphology" comes from the Greek roots "geo,“ “morph,” and “logos,”
meaning “earth,” “form,” and “study,” respectively. Therefore, geomorphology is literally
“the study of earth forms.”
 Worcester (1939) defined geomorphology, it is a description and interpretation of the earth
relief features.
 Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution
of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological
processes operating at or near the Earth's surface.
 Geomorphologists are concerned primarily with earth’s surficial features, including their
origin, history, composition, and impact on human activity.
 Geomorphology concentrates primarily on Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) features.
 Earth’s landforms reflect the local and regional balance between hydrologic, tectonic,
Aeolian, glacial, atmospheric, and marine processes.
 Concepts of geomorphology:
1. The same physical processes and laws that operate today operated throughout
geological time, although not necessarily always with the same intensity as now.
Underlying principle is known as Principle of uniformitarianism .Proposed by Hutton
& popularized by Lyell. Intensity of various geological processes has varied through
geological time due to change in climate over geological past. Present is the key to
past. Eg. Volcanism is predicted mostly by this principle. There are ample evidences
to validate the observations that each geological process has completed several
cycles during geological past but it becomes difficult to find out as to when a
particular geological process began to work and it is equally a difficult task to predict
as to when a particular process would cease to work. Based on this connotation
Hutton postulated his concept, ‘no vestige of a beginning: no prospect of an end’.

2. Geological lithology & structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of

landforms and is reflected in them (W.D. Thornbury). Landscape is a function of
structure, process and time. The distinctive characteristics of landscape are
commonly a response to variations in rock type (lithology), to primary structures
within the rock units & to secondary structures involving groups of rocks units
mainly due to diastrophic processes. But sometimes the exogenic (denudational)
processes overshadow the control of geologic structures. Structure includes (i)
nature of rocks (lithology, meaning rock types), (ii) arrangement of rocks (widely
known as structure) and (iii) rock characteristics. Different types of rocks differ
 considerably as regards their composition and chemical characteristics and hence
weathering and erosional processes act upon them at varying rates thus giving birth
to variations in landform characteristics. Folds,Faults,joints etc give rise to different
drainage patterns

3. Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprint upon landforms and each
geomorphic process develops its own characteristic assemblage of landforms
(W.D. Thornbury). Geomorphic processes do produce distinctive landforms which
can be used for possible genetic classification.

4. As the different erosional agencies act upon the earth surface there is produced a
sequence of landforms having distinctive characteristics at the successive stages of
their development. This talks about the Davis’s Geomorphological Cycles. By Davis a
metaphorical terms youth, mature, old are commonly used to designate the stages
of development. These stages are irreversible. Partial cycles are more common than
complete cycles.
 Figure 1 Youth, Maturity (early), Maturity(Late), Old

5. Geomorphic scale is a significant parameter in the interpretation of landform

development and landform characteristics of geomorphic systems. Landscape is
function of time and space. The geomorphic scales, very often used in
geomorphological investigations, arc of two types e.g. (i) time scale and (ii) spatial
scale. The scale level resolutions depend on the objectives of study.
6. Complexity is more than the simplicity in geomorphic evolution. Rare to find a
landscape that influenced by single geomorphic process. More multicyclic than
monocyclic landscapes. Older topography when seen on the new landscapes is
called exhumation.
7. Little of the earth topography is older than tertiary and most of it no older than
Pleistocene. Most of the present-day landforms are the result of geomorphic
processes which operated in the Tertiary and Quaternary times as the landforms
older than Tertiary have been either obliterated by the dynamic wheels of
denudational processes or have been so greatly modified that they have lost their
original shapes and cannot be properly and accurately identified.
8. Each climatic type produces its own characteristic assemblage of landforms.
Climatic factors such as temperature precipitation should influence the operation of
the different geomorphic processes. Certain climatic parameters like humidity and
temperature directly control the weathering and erosion phenomenon while
indirect influence being via rainfall and vegetation. Eg. Pleistocene diastrophism
played important role in Himalayan formation and Grand Canyon.
9. Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present day landscapes,
attains its maximum usefulness by historic extension. This aspect is also called as
paleo geomorphology which includes stratigraphy and sedimentology.

Weathering and Soil formation

 WEATHERING: the set of exogenic (physical, chemical and biological) processes that alter
the physical and chemical state of rocks at or near the earth's surface.
 Intensity of most weathering decreases with depth, because variations in temperature and
moistures decrease with depth. Therefore, weathering is generally confined to the
uppermost few metres of soil and rock.
 Occurs insitu, unlike erosion which removes soil and weathered rock.
 Denudation=weathering+ erosion
 The 2 forms of weathering (disintegration & decomposition) act simultaneously and affect
the nature and rate of one another: disintegration produces an increase in rock surface area
while decomposition brings changes in strength with changes in composition.
 Two categories of weathering processes
1. Physical Weathering - disintegration of rocks and minerals by a physical or mechanical
process.
2. Chemical Weathering - chemical alteration or decomposition of rocks and minerals.
Although we separate these processes, both work together to break down rocks and
minerals to smaller fragments or to minerals more stable near the Earth's surface.
 Physical Weathering:
o Development of Joints - Joints are regularly spaced fractures or cracks in rocks that
show no offset across the fracture. Joints form as a result of expansion. Joints form
free space in rock by which other agents of chemical or physical weathering can
enter.
o Crystal Growth - As water percolates through fractures and pore spaces it may
contain ions that precipitate to form crystals. As these crystals grow they may exert
an outward force that can expand or weaken rocks.
o Heat - Although daily heating and cooling of rocks do not seem to have an effect,
sudden exposure to high temperature, such as in a forest or grass fire may cause
expansion and eventual breakage of rock.
o Plant and Animal Activities - Plant roots can extend into fractures and grow, causing
expansion of the fracture. Growth of plants can break rock. Animals burrowing or
moving through cracks can break rock.
o Frost Wedging - Upon freezing, there is an increase in the volume of the water, as
the water freezes it expands and exerts a force on its surroundings. Frost wedging is
more prevalent at high altitudes where there may be many freeze-thaw cycles.
o Exfoliation: The peeling off of the rocks from the outcrop of a homogeneous rock
like granite. In exfoliation, reduction in pressure due to removal of the overlying rock
plays an important part, as each slab breaks off, it releases weight from the
underlying mass. As a result the layer expands and separate from the rock mass.
 Chemical Weathering:
o Principle agents of chemical weathering are water and microorganisms.
o Since many rocks and minerals are formed under conditions present deep within the
Earth, when they arrive near the surface as a result of uplift and erosion, they
encounter conditions very different from those under which they originally formed.
Because of these differing conditions, minerals in rocks react with their new
environment to produce new minerals that are stable under conditions near the
surface.
o The main agent responsible for chemical weathering reactions is water and weak
acids formed in water eg. Carbonic acid. H+ is a small ion and can easily enter crystal
structures, releasing other ions into the water.
 Hydration- In hydration water molecules combine chemically with minerals to produce new
compounds. Eg. The formation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) from anhydrite (CaSO4)
 Limestones, dolomites, rock salt and gypsum are particularly susceptible to chemical
weathering.
 Biological Weathering- Many dead organisms produce organic acids as they decay. These
acids increase the solvent power of water. Biological weathering can be done by plants
whose roots enter the rocks and cause breaking. Plant roots form oxalic and citric acid via
their roots causing disintegration and decomposition of the rocks. Burrowing organisms too
cause weathering of soft rocks.
 Clay minerals and oxide minerals (including quartz) are the most common by products of
chemical weathering. Thus clay minerals and quartz are the most
abundant contributors to clastic sediment and soil.
 SOIL: A portion of the Regolith which supports the growth of plants is called “soil”. Thus
Soil= mineral+ organic matter+ water+ air
 Regolith: Any solid unconsolidated materials lying on top
of bedrock is called Regolith. This includes soil, alluvium
and rock fragments weathered from the bedrock. The
regolith includes all of the weathered material within the
profile. The regolith has two components: SOLUM+
SAPROLITE
 Soil is natural unit generated at the interface of
lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere
under mutual process of pedogenetic factors.
 Series of horizontal layers of soil= Soil Horizon
 A horizon= Surface soil B horizon= Sub soil, zone of accumulation C Horizon= altered
parent rock material
 Soil can be of 2 types:
o Residual: The products of rock weathering continues to accumulate in place over the
parent rock masses and give rise to a “residual soil deposit”. Eg. Terra-rosa, Laterite
o Transported: Weathered and broken rock materials are eroded and transported
from one place to another by natural agencies such as wind, water, ice or gravity.
 The soil containing mixture of clay and sand is called ‘loam’, and the clayey soil having
appreciable lime content is called ‘marl’.
 Climate and Soil formation
o Arid Regions- The rocks shatter due to unequal expansion and contraction. The soil
thus produced contains the grains of minerals which are disintegrated from the
original rock. The surface layers of such soils often become hard due to the
crystallisation of salts. The evaporation of water brings dissolved salts to the surface
by capillary action which cements the upper layer of the soil.
o Arctic regions- Rock disintegration happens due to ice and frost activity. The soil
formed is abundant with silt, peat and water in permanently frozen state.
o Humid Temperate Climate- Here Podzol type of soil is formed due to combined
action of decomposition and disintegration. This soil shows the characteristic
development of soil profile having A, B and C horizons.
o Tropical climate- Chemical weathering plays an important role and rocks are
weathered up to a great depth. The common soil of tropical areas is Laterite, which
results as a result of weathering of silicate rocks. During weathering the insoluble
silica is leached out and the iron and aluminium accumulate near the surface giving
it a reddish brown residual deposit.
o Soils of temperate and tropical regions may develop “hard pan” at some depth
below the surface. This forms as a result of the redeposition of the leached silica
from the upper layers forming a impervious and well cemented layer of soil called
Hard Pan.
Fluvial Landforms
 Fluvial processes comprises the motion of sediments and erosion or deposition on the river
bed.
 A river is a natural water source usually fresh water, flowing towards a ocean, a lake, a sea
or another river on a slope along a definite course.
 The geological works of fluvial processes or rivers are called three-phase work: Erosion,
transportation and Deposition
 Erosion Process & Landform:
o The erosional work of river depends upon river load, velocity & channel gradient.
o Erosion become maximum when the river having steep channel gradient and
optimal amount of load of good size & flows with high velocity.
o The erosional power α (velocity of the stream)2
o The river causes erosion in 4 ways:-
 Chemical action (solution or corrosion) - It involves the dissolution of
soluble materials through the
processes of disintegration &
decomposition.
 Hydraulic action- It involves the
breakdown of the rocks of valley
sides due to impact of water current
of channel.
 Abrasion- The process of wearing
away of surfaces by mechanical
processes such as rubbing, cutting,
scratching, grinding, polishing etc is
known as abrasion or corrasion.
 Attrition- The products of abrasion & hydraulic action often collide among
themselves and with the bed rock & in turn get themselves teared.
o The limit for maximum vertical erosion by a river beyond which it can’t degrade its
valley, known as base level of erosion.
o River valley- either U (mature) or V
shaped (young).
o This occurs because of Vertical
Erosion. The river cuts down into the
river bed, making it deeper. It
creates a narrow deep valley.
Mechanical weathering and mass
movement create the V shape.
o Interlocking Spurs- Zigzag movement of the
river as it encounters hard rock and cannot
erode it.
o Gorges-These are deep & narrow valleys having
very steep valley side slopes, say wall-like steep
valley sides.
o Canyons- Elongated forms of gorges.
o Potholes- The kettle-like small depressions in
the rocky bed s of the river valleys are called
 pot holes, which are usually cylindrical in shape.
These are formed due to localized abrasion.
o Waterfalls- Waterfalls are formed when rivers
flow over areas of hard and soft rock. The river
erodes the soft rock but cannot erode the hard
rock. This creates a step which the water starts
to fall over. The falling water erodes deeper into
the bed. The rivers load creates a Plunge Pool as
it fall

o Structural Terraces- The step-like

surfaces on either side of the present
lowest valley floors are called
structural benches. These formed due
to differential erosion of an alternate
bands of hard & soft rock beds.
o The narrow flat surfaces on either
side of the of the valley floor are
called river terraces.
o Meanders- The symmetrical ‘S’
shaped loops found in the course of a
river are called meanders. They
develop in mature rivers having an approx. graded profile.
o An ox-bow lake is a horseshoe shaped lake found beside a
river. Ox-bow lakes are formed when continued erosion and
deposition create very pronounced meanders. Eventually the
river cuts through the neck of the meander. Deposition then
occurs which leaves the ox-bow lake separated from the river.

o Peneplain is the term used for the nearly smooth erosion surface of relatively low
relief and altitude which covers a large area. Last level of erosion.
 o Escarpment: These are erosional landforms produced by rivers in regions composed
of alternating beds of hard & soft rocks.
 Hogbacks: These are sharp crested often sawtooth ridge
formed of the upturned edge of a resistant rock layer of
sandstone, limestone & lava. The beds dip at a angle of
450 & the ridges have steep slopes on both sides.
 Cuestas: Developed on resistant strata having low to
moderate dip.
 Mesa: The erosional landforms, have an isolated table-
land area with steep sides.
 Butte: with continued erosion sides of mesa is reduced to
smaller flat-topped hill known as butte.

Cuesta

 River Transportation: Erosion breaks off particles of rock and soil from the bed and banks of
the river. They are carried along by the river and are known as the Load. It occurs in 4 ways:

 Deposition Process & Landforms:

o A river drops some of its load when either its volume or its speed decreases when it
enters flat terrain, when it faces an obstruction, decrease in the volume of water or
when load exceeds the threshold. Material transported or deposited by a river is
called alluvium.
o Alluvial fans are fan-shaped deposits of water-transported material (alluvium). They
typically form at the base of topographic features where there is a marked break in
slope. Alluvial fans tend to be coarse-grained, especially at their mouths and fine
grained at their edges. Alluvial cones: These are similar to alluvial fan except the
slope of cones is much steeper then that of alluvial fans nearly 15˚.
o Point Bars are crescent shaped deposits formed along inner banks of meandering
channels.

o Flood Plain: A flood plain is a flat or nearly flat land adjacent to a river or stream
that stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls
and experience flooding during periods of high discharge.
o Natural Levees: Levees are raised banks of deposited material found along the
banks of the river. When the river floods and spreads out over the floodplain, the
heaviest material is deposited close to the river. Over time and after many periods
of flooding this deposited material forms levees along the banks of the river.

o Yazoo Tributaries: Parallel tributaries which flows along the main channel until it
can breach levees.
o Delta: A Delta is a triangular shaped piece of land which is formed at the mouth of
the river. As the river enters the sea it drops off all the remaining material it is
carrying. The river is forced to break up into smaller channels called distributaries.
 o In a delta larger materials are deposited towards the coastal land & the size of
sediments gradually decreases with increasing distance from the coastal land
towards the sea.
o An average delta consists of three beds of sediments-
 Top set beds.
 Fore set beds.
 Bottom set beds.

Aeolian Landforms
 WIND is defined as the natural movement of the air, esp. in the form of a current of air
blowing from a particular direction.
 ARID GEOMORPHOLOGY is defined as the study of effects of wind erosion on the
lithosphere.
 Erosional Landforms:
o Wind erosion occurs in three ways like:-
 Deflation-the process of removing, lifting& blowing away dry & loose
particles of sands & dusts by wind.
 Abrasion-abrasion is the mechanical scraping of a rock surface
by friction between rocks and moving particles during their transport
by wind.
 Attrition-attrition involves mechanical wear & tear of the particles suffered
by themselves while they are being transported by wind through the process
of saltation & surface creep.
o Wind erosion is largely controlled & determined by:
 wind velocity
 nature & amounts of sands, dusts & pebbles
 composition of rocks
  nature of vegetation
 humidity , rainfall amount & temperature
o Desert Pavement:

o Pedestal Rock/ Mushroom rocks: These are pillar like rock masses with narrow base
and wide rock caps. These are produced by combined action of weathering, gravity
and wind abrasion.

o Deflational Basins: The depression formed in the desert due to removal of sands.
These are also known as blow outs. When the deflation basin is filled with water, it
foms a typical water body called “OASIS”.

o Hamada: A hamada is a type of desert landscape consisting of largely barren, hard

rocky plateaus, with very little sand. It may sometimes also be called a reg though
this more properly refers to a stony plain rather than a highland.
o Natural Arch: Typically formed by a combination of wind and water. Narrow ridges
are formed and the softer part of the rock is weathered first, forming a bridge/arch
overhead.

o Inselberg: These are isolated resistant hill that stands above well-developed plains
formed in the penultimate stage of arid cycle of erosion. These are also called
bornhardts.

o Demoiselles: These are the rock pillars having relatively resistant rocks at the top &
soft rocks at the bottom formed due to differential erosion of hard rocks & soft
rocks. Formed in sedimentary and volcanic environments.
o Zeugen: A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed when
more resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks made up of shale ,
mudstone etc. It is generally formed in the areas showing alternate freeze & thawing
mechanism.

o Yardang: These are steep sided deeply undercut overhanging rock ridges separated
from one another by long grooves or corridors. These are also known as cockscomb.
Formed where alternate bands of hard & soft rocks are vertical or inclined to the
horizontal planes.

o Ventifacts: Wind carries fine particles that work like a sand blaster. The windward
face of the rock is flattened and smoothed. These geomorphic features are most
typically found where there is little vegetation to interfere with aeolian particle
transport, where there are frequently strong winds, and where there is a steady but
not overwhelming supply of sand. The rock pieces having two abrade facets are
called zweikanter & that having three are called dreikanter.
 o Ergs: An erg (also sand sea or dune sea, or sand sheet if it lacks dunes) is a broad,
flat area of desert covered with wind-swept sand with little or no vegetative cover.

o Stone Lattice: extremely rough rocks that have been abraded, pitted, grooved, or
polished by wind-driven sands.
 Wind transportation- Involves the mechanism of :-
o SUSPENSION-Only the finest materials derived from silts & clay are transported.
o SALTATION-Medium sized are transported through creeping , leaping & jumping.
o TRACTION-Large & heavy particles are transported through the process of rolling &
creeping.

 Depositional Landforms:
o Deposition of windblown sediments occurs due to marked reduction in wind speed
& obstructions caused by bushes, forests, marshes & swamps, lakes, big rivers, walls
etc.
o Sand Dunes: Heaps or mound of sands having a definite summit or crest. Windward
slope is gentle (5˚ -15˚) & leeward slope is steep (20˚ -30˚). They move in the
direction of prevailing wind.
o Conditions for Sand dune formation
 High wind velocity
 High vegetation cover
 High sand availability
o Types of Sand Dunes:
 Barchan: Crescent shaped dunes where the convex side is in windward
direction. These are formed when the wind is nearly unidirectional.
 Longitudinal Dunes: These dunes are parallel to the wind direction. Formed
in the inner parts of the continents where small amounts of sand is present.
Formed where high velocity winds are constant in one direction & Devoid of
vegetation. Also called ‘seif’ as they appear as Arab swords.

 Star Dunes: Dunes having multiple slip faces,high central peak,radially

extending three or more arms. Multi directional wind regimes. grow upward
rather than laterally.

 Transverse Dunes: Transverse to the direction of prevailing wind.

 Parabolic Dunes: These dunes are formed from blowout dunes where the
erosion of vegetated sand leads to a U-shaped depression. Well known in
 coastal deserts. The elongated arms are held in place by vegetation.
elongated arms extend upwind.

 Reversing Dunes: Formed when wind blowing from opposite directions are
balanced in strength & duration.

 Whale Back Dunes: smooth, elongated mound or hill of desert sand shaped
generally like a whale's back; formed by passage of a succession of
longitudinal dunes along the same path.
 o Loess: Suspended load consisting of silt and dust particles when settle down in form
of blanket deposits are called as Loess. These are non-stratified and have greyish
yellow colour. Occurs at distant places away from their source area.

o Ripple Marks: Miniature dunes within a dune (not more than 2 inches tall)

Landforms of Glacier
 Glacier= A huge mass of ice slowly flowing over a land mass, formed from compacted snow
in an area where snow accumulation exceeds melting and sublimation
 "Snow line” refers to the level above which snow is permanently found throughout the year.
It marks the base of permanent ice cover on the mountain slopes. In Polar Regions snowline
is much lowered to sea level.
 Glacier has characteristics that movement under the force of gravity. They move partly by
plastic flow and partly by shear movements. In moving glacier two zones to be identified
o Zone of flow ( i.e. behaves plastically)
o Zone of fracture (brittle mass)

 On the basis of their stage of development, size, shape and the relationship between the
supply and flow areas, three types of glaciers have been distinguished
o Mountain or valley glaciers- Glaciers which originate near the crest of the
mountains and move along the valley just like rivers, are called valley glacier,
mountain or alpine type glacier.
o Piedmont glaciers- At the end of hilly region a number of valley glaciers may unite to
form a comparatively thick sheet of ice, such a glacier is called piedmont glacier. It is
intermediate type of glacier as its origin is in between the valley glacier and
continental ice sheets e.g. Malaspina glacier of Alaska.
o Continental ice sheets- These are the largest forms of accumulations of ice and they
cover vast areas of the landmass including even the cliffs of mountains. They are of
enormous size and immensely thick.

Figure 2 A) Mountain Glacier B) Piedmont Glacier C) Continental Glacier

 Glacial erosion: maximum erosive power amongst all geomorphic agents

o Plucking- While forming over a jointed rocks surfaces, the glacier ice adheres to
blocks of jointed bed rocks, pulls them out and carries them along.
o Rasping/Corrasion/Abrasion- The front edge of glaciers functions somewhat like a
bulldozer pushing and scarping the ground and removes soil and partly consolidated
sediments.
o Mass wasting- Along the margins of a valley glacier, the valley sides are scarped and
blocks are broken off. Then slumping, sliding & “avalanching” occur.
 o Frost wedging – Thawing and freezing of water in the cracks and joints of rocks
break them by wedge action. In this manner rock fragments of all size added into the
glacier.

 Erosional Landforms made by Glaciers:

o Crevasses: Crevasse is a deep fissure or crack in a glacier, caused by stresses
resulting from differential movement over an uneven surface.

o Striations: Glaciers scratch, grind or groove the rock surface over which they move.
These scratches and grooves are called “Striation”.

o Rochees Mountonnes: These are small mounds of resistance bedrock which have a
typically asymmetrical appearance. The stoss side is gentle and smooth & leeward
side is steep and rough.
o Hanging Valley: When the erosion is more pronounced in the main valley the
tributary valley, gradually the tributary left at a higher level called “Hanging Valley.”
Water falls may develop in hanging valley when ice melts away.

o U shaped Valley: As glaciers erode their valleys both laterally and vertically, U-
shaped valleys with steep walls and flat floors are produced.

o Cirques: Cirques are semicircular depressions with steep sided walls developed by
glacial erosion. This depression is filled up with water when ice melts forming lakes
known as ‘Tarn’.

o Arete: When two cirque walls intersect from opposite sides, a jagged knife like ridge
is formed, that is called “Arete”.
o Horn: Horn is a sharp ‘pyramidal peak’ produced due to growth and enlargement of
three or more cirque together by headward erosion.
o Col: When two cirques meet, sometimes a depression in an Arete is formed that is
called ‘Col’.

o Truncated Spurs: In between two tributary valley there forms a spur. When main
glacier widens its valley, a ‘Truncated Spur’ is formed.

o Fjords: These are deep glacial troughs which have been eroded below sea level.
Within Fiords glaciers come in contact with sea water and broken off.
 Glacial Transportation: Glacial transport takes place via 3 processes:
o Superglacial load refers to the loads that fall from valley wall on the surface of
glacier.
o Subglacial load means the part of the debris is engulfed into crevasses.
o Englacial load i.e bottom of glacier contains plucked rocky floor.
 Glacial Deposition features-
o Deposition is resulted when wasting of ice takes place. Wasting describes the
melting, calving & evaporation of ice.
o Glacial deposits are of two types A) glacial deposits called tills B) glacio-fluvial
deposits
o Glacial deposits (Till): These are directly deposited by the glacier & a mixture of
sand, clay, pebbles and boulders. Heterogeneous, unassorted with no stratification.

 Ground Moraine-A layer of till deposited beneath the moving ice on the
ground

 The materials that falls from the valley walls, accumulates on the sides of a
glacier. When the glacier disappears, these materials are left as ridges along
the sides of the valley. Such deposits are called “Lateral Moraine”.
 When two glacier meet, a “Medial Moraine” is formed by the union of two
‘lateral’ moraines.
 A Terminal moraine, also called End moraine, is a moraine that forms at the
end of the glacier. An end moraine is at the present boundary of the glacier.
  When glaciers retreat, the melting water drops the load. When this end
margin remains in one position for a longer time then a ridge is formed
called “Recessional Moraine”
o Outwash Plain- In front of end moraines, streams of melt water deposits sediments
producing stratified deposits of sand, silts and gravels. Such deposits constitute
“outwash plains.”

o “Kettle holes” are basin-like depression formed in areas of till and outwash plain.
When the masses of buried ice melts these are formed.
o Drumlins are small, elliptical hills of till that lie parallel to the direction of ice
movement. They occur in clusters thereby forming Drumlin fields

o Fluvioglacial deposits i.e. Stratified, sorted, cross bedded.

 During the summer glaciers partly melt. The melt water moves as hidden
streams beneath the glacier while I t moves. So, it carries a little load . After
the retreat of glacier this forms a ridge making the previous stream
channels. It is called “Eskers”

 Depression on the top of glacier may be filled with load. This load may be
dropped as a small hill on ice valley floor when ice melts. And these hills are
called Kames. When these occur in group are called Kame Terraces.

 Varves are laminated deposits formed In Glacial lakes. They consists of

alternation of light colored bands of silt and dark colored bands of clays.
  Buried valleys are the ancient deep valleys which are excavated in the
bedrocks by glacial erosion.

 Erratic Boulder: Boulders of different rocks are formed on an entirely

different rock base. These are brought by glaciers by pushing.

Fluvial Cycle of Erosion

 Stages of fluvial cycle:
o Youth Stage
o Maturity Stage
o Old Stage
 Concept of Davis: There are sequential changes in landforms through the time (passing
through youth, mature and old stages) and these sequential changes are directed towards
well defined end product development of peneplain.
 Basic Assumptions:
 o Landforms are the evolved products of the interactions of endogenetic forces and
exogenetic forces
o The evolution of landforms takes place in an orderly manner in such a way that a
systematic sequence of landforms is developed through time
o Streams erode their valleys rapidly downward until the graded condition is achieved
o Here is a short period rapid rate of upliftment in land mass
o Erosion does not start until the upliftment is complete

 Youth Stage
o Valley deepening is the dominant process because:- the channel gradient is very
steep, increase in the velocity and kinetic energy, increase in transporting capacity,
valley incision is high
o Upper curve(UC) remains same whereas the lower curve falls rapidly due to valley
deepening
o Relative relief continues to increase until the maximum relief attains at the end of
youthful stage
o Valley shapes are V-shaped, and valley form is gorge or canyon

V-Shaped Valley
Rapids
Waterfalls
No Flood Plain
Drainage Divides Broad and Flat, Undissected by Erosion
Valley Being Deepened

 Maturity Stage
o Marked lateral erosion and well integrated drainage network
o Graded conditions spread over large area
o Valley deepening is remarkably reduced, summits of water divides are eroded, and
there is marked fall in the upper curve
o Valley widening transforms V shaped valley into wide V shaped valley
 o In later stage the upper summits are rounded off
o Substantial decrease in channel gradients, flow velocity, transport capacity
o Appearance of flood plains
 MATURITY(EARLY)

V-Shaped Valley
Beginnings of Flood Plain
Sand and Gravel Bars
Sharp Divides
Relief Reaches Maximum
Valleys stop deepening
 MATURITY (LATE)
Valley has flat bottom
Narrow Flood Plain
Divides begin to round off
Relief diminishes
Sediment builds up, flood plain
widens
River begins to meander

 Old Stage
o Valley incision is stopped, valley widening is still active process
o Rapid decrease in absolute relief due to erosion
o The valleys become almost flat, broad, open and gently sloping with extensive
flood plains
o Rivers are extensively meandered and monadnocks are seen
o The entire landscape is transformed into peneplain
o Graded conditions prevail until there is rejuvenation

Land worn to nearly flat surface (peneplain)

Resistant rocks remain as erosional remnants
(monadnocks)
Rivers meander across extremely wide
Flat flood plains

 Rejuvenation
o Some change causes stream to speed up and cut deeper
 Uplift of Land
 Lowering of Sea Level
 Greater stream flow
o Stream valley takes on youthful characteristics
but retains features of older stages as well
o Can happen at any point in the cycle
Aeolian Cycle of Erosion
 It is also characterised by youth, maturity and old stage.
 The stage of youth:
o Characterized by decrease of the original relief.
o Short, consequent, intermittent streams cut ravines and V-shaped valleys in the
mountain slopes results.
o Dunes are formed here and there on the valley floors from the sand washed down
by the intermittent streams.
 Stage of maturity:
o Due to small amount of rainfall the progress from youth to maturity is very slow.
o Begins when the mountains become like islands half submerged in their own debris,
because mountains are being cut back by erosion.
o The divides become narrower, and intervening basins or depressions become wider
and higher due to valley filling.
o Due to the widening of basins and greater proportion of the fine material deposited
into the valleys, the slopes of the streams are decreased.
 The stage of old age
o The highlands are worn away. Islands-like mountains or hills-called inselbergs-will
stand above the surrounding pediments or bajadas.
o Now, the number of dunes and wind- scoured hollows increase.
o However, wind erosion continues indefinitely, eroding the land lower until it may be
brought to an elevation far below sea level. Water table is the base level for the arid
cycle of erosion.

Karst Landforms
 Water that soaks into the ground and collects in pores and empty spaces become part of
groundwater.
 Water is recharged to the ground-water system by percolation of water from precipitation
and then flows to the stream through the ground-water system.

 14% of all fresh water stored as groundwater

 Porosity= the volume of void spaces in the soil that can
store water. Permeability= connectivity of these pore
spaces.
 If a rock or sediment has few pore spaces, or they are not
well connected, then the flow of groundwater is blocked.
Eg. Granite is impermeable, sandstone is permeable.
 Groundwater keeps going deeper into the Earth’s crust
until it reaches a layer of impermeable rock.
 The layer of permeable rock that lets water move freely is an aquifer.
 The zone of aeration is the first layer of soil that is permeable. Water and air pass through
this layer easily.
 The area where all of the rocks are filled with water is called the zone of saturation. The
upper surface of this zone is called the water table.

 People get the majority of their water from wells. A good well extends deep into the zone of
saturation, where groundwater flows into the well and a pump brings it to the surface.
 In some places, the water table is so close to Earth’s surface that water flows out and forms
a spring. Springs are found on hillsides or other places where the water table meets a
sloping surface.
 A geyser is a hot spring that erupts periodically,
shooting water and steam into the air. Groundwater is
heated to high temperatures from magma under the
Earth’s surface. As the water heats, it expands, forcing
water out of the ground along with steam, as the
remaining water boils.
 Groundwater mixes with carbon dioxide to form
carbonic acid. CO2 in air dissolved in cloud droplets fall
as precipitation (say, rainwater)
 H2O + CO2  H2CO3  H+ +HCO3-
 H2CO3 =Weak acid, very slow dissolution
 Limestone is a rock that is easily dissolved by carbonic acid. As
the acidic groundwater moves through pores in limestone, the
rock dissolves, enlarging cracks until an underground opening
called a cave is formed.
 Groundwater not only dissolves limestone to make caves, but
it also can make deposits on the insides of caves.
 Karst: distinctive landforms due to high rock solubility, which
causes secondary porosity and subsidence. Landforms
produced by chemical weathering or chemical erosion of
carbonate rocks mainly calcium carbonate (limestone) and
magnesium carbonate (dolomite) by surface and subsurface
water are called Karst topography.
 Temp: Cold water contains more CO2. Pressure: deeper H2O ,
more CO2 absorbed, more acidic
 Carbonates, limestone, and dolostone are dissolved by acidic
water. Evaporites, rock salt, and gypsum are dissolved by
water.
 Karst dissolutional features:
o Solution Holes: enlarged cracks formed due to dissolution of rocks due to corrosive
action of groundwater. Smaller holes are called Sink holes.
o Gradual enlargement of sink holes due to
continuous dissolution of limestones results in
coalescence of closely spaced sink holes into one
large hole which is called as Swallow hole.
o Shallow holes are further enlarged due to
continuous solution into larger depressions which
are called as Dolines. Collapse sinkholes which
form when water level drops=Dolines
o This when forms due to fall in GW level due to
active glaciation forms Cenotes
o linear and larger Doline: Polje. They are believed to be formed due to downfolding
and downfaulting of limestone areas due to earth movements.
o A feature almost similar to doline in appearance
but with shallow depth and larger areal extent is
called Solution pan.
o Sometimes the floor of the dolines is plugged due
to deposition of clay, with the result water cannot
percolate downward and thus doline is filled with
water. Such dolines filled up with water are called
Karst lakes.
o Caves or Caverns: Caves or Caverns are voids of large dimension below the ground
surface.
o Rock walled steep depressions caused by the
collapse of ground surface are called Cockpits.
o Karst window is formed due to collapse of upper
surface of sink holes or dolines.
o Extensive depressions are called Uvalas.
Elongated uvalas are formed either due to: The
elongated pattern of joints or Due to coalescence
of numerous sink holes aligned in a line.
o Sinking Creek: The surface of the karst plain looks like a sieve because of
development of closely spaced numerous sink holes. These sink holes act as a
funnels because surface water disappears to go underground through these holes.
When surface water disappears through numerous sink holes located in a line, the
resultant feature is called a Sinking Creek and the point through which water goes
downward is called Sink.
o Blind valley: It refers to the valley of that surface stream which disappears in
limestone formation through a swallow hole or sink hole.
o Lapies: The highly corrugated (uneven) and rough
surface of limestone lithology characterized by low
ridges and pinnacles (apex), narrow clefts (gaps or
splits) and numerous solution holes is called Lapies. It
is generally formed due to corrosion of limestones
along their joints when limestones are well exposed at
the ground surface. Also called Karren.
  Karst Depositional Features:
o All types of deposits in the caverns are collectively called as Speleothems of which
calcite is the most common constituent.
o Banded calcareous deposits are called Travertines whereas the calcareous deposits,
(softer than travertine) at the mouth of the caves are called Tufa or calc tufa.
o The calcareous deposits from dripping of water in dry caves are called Dripstones.
The columns of dripstones hanging from the cave ceiling are called Stalactites while
the calcareous columns of dripstones growing upwards from the cave floor are
called as Stalagmites.
o Cave pillars are formed when stalactites and stalagmites meet together. Numerous
needle shaped dripstones hanging from cave ceiling are called as Drapes or Curtains.
o Stalactites are formed due to deposition of calcareous solutes which are carried by
water dripping through the cave ceilings in dry environment.
o When a group of stalagmites is formed together from closely spaced centres the
resulting stalagmites are called Compound Stalagmites.
o Floor deposits caused by seepage water and water flowing out of stalagmites are
called Flowstones.

Coastal Landforms
 Coastal landform, any of the relief features present along any Coast, the result of a
combination of coastal processes and sedimentation by sea.
 Waves and resultant currents erode, transport, and deposit sediment load.
 Tides affect all coastal life but have little topographic effect.
 Sea level changes repeatedly: specific landscapes form due to submergent or emergent
nature of the coastline, depending on tectonic change
 Submergent Coastlines: Sea level rise inundated many coastal valleys creating bays and
estuaries.
 Emergent Coastlines: Tectonic forces lift coastlines faster than sea-level rises. Forms
dramatic cliffs and marine terraces tower above the sea.
 Waves are of 2 types:
o Destructive waves= backwash stronger than swash, act as erosional agent

o Constructive waves = swash stronger than backwash, act as

depositional agent

 Coastal Erosion - dependent on wave size, angle, and frequency. Focused where waves
contact coast.
o Forms= Headlands, sea cliffs, bluffs, sea stacks, natural bridges, Wave-cut platform,
Caves, Arches, Stacks, Stumps, Coves
o Coastal erosional processes:
 Hydraulic Action – power of wave carries
away any loose material.
 Abrasion – Waves use their load to break
rock down into smaller fragments.
 Solution – water dissolves soft rock.
 Corrosion - the chemical action of sea
water over rock.
o Erosion rate depends on- Rock Type, Degree of
exposure, Wave Type, Slope of shoreline
o Agents- Sea waves, ocean currents, tidal
waves and tsunami
o Steep rocky coast rising almost vertically
above sea water is called sea cliff. The
steepness of true cliff is depend upon:
 Variations in lithology and geological
structure.
 rate of weathering and erosion of
cliff face.
o Wave cut platform- It is a rock cut flat
surface in front of cliffs. They are also known
as shore platform and they are formed where
the cliff recession is active due to
bombardment of cliff base by the uprushing breaker waves.
o Sea caves are formed along the coast due to
erosion of weak and strongly jointed rocks by
uprushing breakers waves
o The joints are widened into large cavities and
hollows which are further enlarged due to
wave erosion into well-developed sea caves.
o A sea arch is a natural arch or bridge created
where the cliffs meet.
o It is an opening through a headland, formed by wave
erosion or solution or meeting of two sea caves from
opposite sides, which leaves a bridge of rock over the
water.
o When a portion of the sea arch collapse, the remaining
column-like structure is called a stack, skarries or
chimney rock.
o It is a pillar like mass of rock detached by wave action
from a cliff-lined shore and surrounded water.
o Bands of hard and soft rock eroded at different rates –
Differential Erosion. Hard rock stands out as headlands
and soft rock retreats inland to form bays. Wave
refraction occurs as bays retreat so headlands receive
more high energy waves.
o Headlands are eroded by waves refracted towards them.
o More resistant rock (like sandstone) will be left behind as
sea stacks.
 Coastal Transportation - wave action creates strong currents parallel to shore. Large waves
move beach sand offshore. Small waves push it back on shore.
o Longshore current= as waves approach shore at an angle, they generate a current
parallel to shore called the longshore current.
o This movement of sediment along the coastline is called longshore drift.
o Beach Drift= net motion of sediments in zig zag manner
o Rip currents flow out to sea along narrow channels and broad sheets

Direction of Movement of sediments

Backwash is always at right angles to the

beach

 Coastal Deposition – where wave action is reduced, beaches and dunes form.
o Beaches, dunes, sand spits, bars and barriers, tombolo
o Beaches are temporary or short-lived deposits of marine sediments consisting sand,
shingles, cobbles etc. on the sea shore. Beaches are wedge-shaped sediment
deposits on sea shore.
o Beaches are deposited by breaker waves between high and low tide water. Beaches
are formed when a sea is calm and winds are of low velocity
o Upper beach- representing landward section of the beach is composed of coarser,
pebbles, cobbles and boulders
o Lower beach- representing the seaward section of the beach is composed of sand.
o The ridges, embankments or mounds of sands formed by sedimentation through sea
waves parallel to the shoreline are called bars.
o The larger forms of bars are called barriers.
o Sand bars formed in such a manner that one end is attached to the headland while
the other end free in the sea, are called spits.
o High-energy waves modify the shape of spits by bending them towards the coast.
o A shorter spit with one end curved towards the land is called hooked spit.
o When a bar connecting two headlands is called Tombolo. A tombolo acts as a bridge
between the coast and an island.
Genetic Classification of Streams
 Consequent streams are streams whose course is a direct consequence of the original slope
of the surface upon which it developed, i.e., streams that follow slope of the land over which
they originally formed.
 Subsequent streams are streams whose course has been determined by selective headward
erosion along weak strata. These streams have generally developed after the original
stream. Subsequent streams developed independently of the original relief of the land and
generally follow paths determined by the weak rock belts.
 Resequent streams are streams whose course follows the original relief, but at a lower level
than the original slope (e.g., flows down a course determined by the underlying strata in the
same direction). These streams develop later and are generally a tributary to a subsequent
stream.
 Obsequent streams are streams flowing in the opposite direction of the consequent
drainage.
 Insequent streams have an almost random drainage often forming dendritic patterns. These
are typically tributaries and have developed by a headward erosion on a horizontally
stratified belt or on homogeneous rocks. These streams follow courses that apparently were
not controlled by the original slope of the surface, its structure or the type of rock.

Drainage Pattern
Drainage Texture (Horton, 1957)
1. Drainage density: sum of stream lengths per unit area
2. Drainage frequency: number of stream per unit area.
Applications of geomorphology
 Increasing recognition of the practical application of geomorphic principles and the findings
of geomorphological research to human beings who are influenced by and, in turn, influence
the surface features of the earth.
 Human beings have over time tried to tame and modify geomorphic/environmental
processes to suit their economic needs.
 Continuous increase in population has led to pressure on land resources, over exploitation of
which has led to catastrophic consequences like soil erosion, landslides, sedimentation and
floods.
 A proper interpretation of landforms throws light upon the geologic history, structure, and
lithology of a region.
 The role of applied geomorphology= relates mainly to the problems of analysing and
monitoring landscape forming processes that may arise from human interference.
 Application in Hydrology
o Water is present in terms of surface runoff or groundwater
o Both act as resources for the survival of human beings
o The presence of groundwater is dependent on the geological structures, lithology
and porosity-permeability of the rocks
 Hydrology of limestone terrains: Limestone has the most variable porosity
and permeability amongst all rock types as it is chemically susceptible to
alterations and physically possess variable strength. Due to solution action in
karst environments the enlargement of the cavities take place, which might
lead to disappearing streams. This increases the porosity and permeability.
Presence of joints, fractures and faults are more common in limestone
terrains formed due to structural forces. The porosity and permeability
maybe primary or secondary in nature.
 Glaciated Areas: types of deposits and landforms determine the possibilities
of large supplies of groundwater potentials in glaciated regions. Yield of
large volume of water obtained from Outwash plains, valley trains, and
intertill gravels or buried outwash. Due to clay content most of the aquifers
are poor, but containing local strata of sand and gravel may hold and supply
enough water for domestic needs. The study of preglacial topography and
 geomorphic history of the area could detect the presence and absence of
underground water.
 The study of the geomorphology of the region is essential in determining the
drainage pattern, amount of influx or efflux of groundwater into stream
water and the recharge pattern.
 Application in Mineral Prospecting
o There is a close association of geological structure and minerals deposits.
Characteristic of landscapes of specific areas could indicate these geological
structures.
o In search for mineral deposits, these three points may serve for Geomorphic
features as:
 Some mineral have direct topographic expression for its deposits.
 the geologic structure and topography of an area have correlation which
clue the accumulation of minerals
 geomorphic history clearly indicates the physical condition under which the
minerals accumulated or were enriched of a particular area
o Surface expression of ore bodies Some of ore bodies have surface expression, but
many do as topographic forms, as outcrops of ore, gossan, or residual minerals, or as
such structural features as faults, fractures, and breccia zones. Some veins and
mineralized areas may lack conspicuous topographic expression or it may be
reflected by subsidence features or depressions. Though no generalization can be
made about the exact type of topography necessary for the ore accumulation,
distinct topographic expression is needed for a particular deposit.
o Weathering residues Geomorphology can play an important role for several
important economic minerals which are essentially weathering residues of present
or ancient geomorphic cycles. Apart from iron deposits, materials like clay minerals,
caliche, bauxite and some manganese and nickel ores are of this nature. Weathering
of igneous rocks produces both clay minerals or hydrous aluminum silicates and
hydrous oxides of aluminum, such as bauxite. The difference in the final product is
determined by the climatic conditions under which weathering takes could be one of
the explanation. The residual products from the weathering of igneous rocks are clay
minerals found in temperate climates known as kaolinization (kaolin deposits). On
the contrary, under tropical climates final weathering products are hydrous oxides
of such metals as aluminum, manganese and iron. This type of weathering is known
as laterization.
o Epigenetic minerals and unconformities Ancient erosion surfaces are associated
with numerous deposits of Epigenetic minerals. Minerals are uranium, vanadium,
copper, barite, fluorite, lead, nickel, and manganese.
o Placer deposits Placer deposits are mixtures of heavy metals. Geomorphic processes
are the main cause of placer concentration of minerals, found in specific positions
with distinctive topographic expression. Eg. Gold
o Oil exploration: oil fields are characterized by anticlinal structures and salt domes
which strikingly reflected in the topography. So topographic highs are generally
targeted by the exploration industries keeping in mind abound the geomorphology
of the region.
 Application in civil engineering
 o Evaluation of geologic factors of one type or another often involve in most of the
engineering projects, among all the factors terrain characteristics is most common,
which supports the proper evaluation of surficial materials
o Road & Bridge Construction: Topographic features of an area determined the most
feasible highway route. Road engineering faces a number of problems by different
types of terrain that includes geologic structure, geomorphic history of the area,
lithological and stratigraphic characteristics and strength of the surficial deposits.
Area like karst plain required repeated cut and fill, if not done then the road will be
flooded after heavy rains with surface runoff from the sinkholes. The presence of
enlarged solutional cavities in karst region emphasis on the designed of roads in
such a way that road should not be weakened. Landslides, earth flows, and slumping
depend on the slope of the region. Two factors largely determine the lifetime of a
highway under moderate loads is the quality of the aggregate used in the highway
and the soil texture and subgrade drainage. Subgrade or the soil beneath a road
surface has
become more significant because of its control over the drainage beneath a
highway, therefore construction design of highway should be in such a way to carry
heavy traffic. The most serious problems encountered by highway engineers is
Pumping which means expulsion of water from beneath road slabs through joints
and cracks. It is evident that pumping is particularly greater over glacial till. Poor
drainage in a subgrade is mainly responsible for pumping. Poor and best
performance of the highway is characterized by silty-clay subgrades with a high
water table and granular materials with a low water table respectively.
o Dam site selection five main requirements of good reservoir sites depend on
geologic conditions:
(1) adequate size water-tight basin;
(2) a narrow outlet of the basin with a foundation that will permit economical
construction of a dam;
(3) to build an adequate and safe spillway to carry excess waters;
(4) availability of resources needed for dam construction (earthen dams); and
(5) Assurance that excessive deposition of mud and silt will not short the life of
reservoir.
Constructing a dam in a Limestone terrain may prove a difficult one. Building a
dam in a valley may not be a good dam site from the standpoint of the size of the
dam. Buried bedrock valleys containing sand and gravel fills are common in glaciated
areas, which may not depict adequate picture of surface condition. Making dam on
those sites where subsurface topography is not supportive with buried preglacial
valley with sand and gravel in it would have a chance of leakage.
 Application in environmental studies:
o Coastal Zone Management: Coastal zones are not in linear as a boundary between
land and water rather viewed as dynamic region of interface of land and water. The
major threat to the fragile coastal zone is its deteriorating coastal environment
through shoreline erosion, loss of natural beauty, pollution and extinction of species
coastal zone management requires an integrated approach. Geomorphologists have
made some significant contribution towards an understanding of shoreline
equilibrium. Some measures have been designed or coast protection includes sea-
defence structures such as seawalls, breakwaters, jetties and groynes. It is necessary
to monitor and quantify wave conditions, tidal currents and sediment movement in
 the nearshore zone to evaluate how sea defenses and other man-made structures
affect shoreline equilibrium.
o Hazard Management: Hazards can be put in natural or man-induced where
tolerable level or unexpected nature exceeds. Geomorphic hazard may be defined as
“any change, natural or man- made, that may affect the geomorphic stability of a
landform to the adversity of living things”. These hazards may arise from immediate
and sudden movements like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches,
floods, etc. Faulting, folding, warping, uplifting, subsidence, or vegetation changes
and hydrologic regime due to climatic change arise from the long term factors. Areas
having past case histories of volcanism and seismic events help in making
predictions of possible eruptions and earthquakes respectively. Regular monitoring
of seismic waves, measurement of temperature of craters lake, hot springs, geysers
and changes in the configuration of volcanoes whether dormant or extinct can
reduce the hazard to some extent. A detailed knowledge of topography can predict
the path of lava flow and its eruptions points in advance. The behavior of a river
system can be well understood by its geomorphic knowledge through its channel,
morphology, flow pattern, river metamorphosis and so on. It may help controlling
excess water in river and control measures during flood season. Prior knowledge of
erosion in the upper catchment area and carrying sediments to its proportion may
help in understand the gradual rise in river bed, which may lead to levee breached
and cause sudden floods.

Geomorphology of Indian sub-continent

 The term physiography is used to imply the broad, all-comprehensive aspects of physical
geology including the structure (implying landform types), relief, and drainage pattern.
 Geomorphology, on the other hand, emphasizes on geomorphologic processes and landform
patterns and their origin and expressions of relief.
 The Indian Subcontinent constitutes a distinctive geographic entity that is virtually cut off
from the rest of Asia by lofty mountain chains; the countries included are Bangladesh, India,
Nepal, and Pakistan
 Almost the entire Subcontinent’s boundary in the north is bordered by the Himalayas and its
associated branches, the Sulaiman and Kirthar Ranges passing on to the Hindu Kush in the
northwest and the Naga Hills and the Arakan Yoma constituting the Indo-Myanmar Ranges
in the southeast.
 The present landform pattern of the Indian Subcontinent has been described as ‘palimpsest’
that is, it has evolved through repeated superimposition of geotectonic history since the
early Precambrian.
 On the basis of common geologic and geomorphic attributes, the Indian Subcontinent can be
divided into three geomorphic provinces:
(a) The Indian Peninsula
(b) The Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain, and
(c) The Himalayas
 An important physiographic entity is the 5700 km-long coastline that borders the
south-pointing Peninsula from the Sundarban Delta in the Bengal region in the east to the
Gujarat Plain in the west.
 The Indian Peninsular
o lying south of Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (also known as the Indus Ganga-
Brahmaputra Plains)
o It is a unique macrogeomorphic terrain representing a huge triangular shaped
landscape made of ancient landmass with records of a prolonged post-Precambrian
history of erosion, denudation, and resurgent tectonic activities.
o The average elevation of this easterly tilted undulating tableland is about 300m
above the mean sea level and is dissected by several narrow river valleys, chiefly the
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri (Cauvery), Narmada, and Tapti.
o Constituting the largest geomorphic component of the Indian Subcontinent, the
Indian Peninsula shows extreme diversity in relief because of the presence of high
mountains and several isolated plateaus characteristically having steep scarp faces.
o Deccan traps is the principal sub-province of the Indian Peninsula
o Its southern tip is nested between two mountain ranges, the Western Ghats and the
Eastern Ghats
o Both the Western and Eastern Ghats form elongate ranges along the west and the
east coast, respectively. The attribute ‘Ghats’ is used to the name of these
geomorphic features because of the fact that these mountain ranges are
characterized by step like succession of elevation from east to west.
o Western Ghats with steep west-facing escarpments almost all along the western
edge
o There are at least 24 peaks above 2000m in the southern part of the Western Ghats.
The highest ones are Doddabetta (2637m in the Nilgiri Hills), Anamudi (2695m),
Chembra (2100 m), and Banasura (2073m) in the southern most ranges.
o The Eastern Ghats constitute a series of discontinuous, much denuded mountain
ranges running northeast-southwest parallel to the coastline of the Bay of Bengal. It
is breached by a number of easterly flowing rivers.
 o The largest single sector of the Eastern Ghats, the remnant of an ancient mountain
range that eroded and subsequently rejuvenated, is found between the Mahanadi
and Godavari Rivers
o The highest peak of the Eastern Ghats is Jindhagada (1690 m). Other
important peaks are the Arma Konda (1680m), Deomali (1672m), Gali Konda
(1643m), and Sinkram Gutta (1620m).
o In the west occurs the prominent mountain range, the Aravalli Mountains, which
separate the Peninsular India from the Thar Desert and the western plains of Indus
Valley. The Aravalli Mountains conventionally thought as the most ancient mountain
range in Indian Peninsula
o The highest point in the Aravalli Mountains is Guru Shikhar (about 1722m above the
mean sea level) in Mount Abu in the southwestern part of the mountains.
o Like the Western Ghats, the Aravalli Mountains show easterly tilt controlling the
drainage pattern in the region and a scarp-like western face
o Smaller plateaus in the northern part of Indian Peninsular: the Malwa Plateau in the
western part, the Chhota Nagpur Plateau in the east, and Bastar Plateau in the
southeast
o The two most important mountain ranges in the northern part of the Indian
Peninsula are the Vindhya and the Satpura Ranges, which run subparallel to each
other and separated by the steep valley of the Narmada and Son Rivers mainly in the
western part. The satpura range forms a part of the deccan plateau. The Satpura
Range includes the Mahadeo Hills to the north, the Maikala Range to the east, and
the Rajpipla Hills to the west.
o Amongst the isolated plateaus in NE india: Shillong Plateau (also called Meghalaya
Plateau) is the largest.
o These isolated tablelands occurring south of the east-west-running Brahmaputra
River are now detached from the Indian Peninsula due to subsidence in the Bengal
Basin that occurs in between. The topographic break is commonly known as the
Garo-Rajmahal Gap
o Thus overall, the topography of individual geomorphic entities is generally
undulating with prominent granite hills having dome-like outlines. Another
interesting feature is the retention of the pristine horizontality of bedding or other
depositional features even in those which had undergone considerable vertical
uplifts
o the invariable presence of scarp faces and the development of water falls especially
o The evidence of ancient gently rolling, almost featureless ‘peneplain’ surfaces
marking the top of upland areas like plateaus and mountains provides proofs of a
prolonged period of denudation reaching the base level of erosion much before its
elevation to the mountainous height
 The Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain
o also known as Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain constitutes the vast plain land
o between the Himalayas in the north and the tableland of the Peninsular India in the
south
o Extending from the Indus Plains in the western part of the Subcontinent to the
Bengal Delta in the east, this low-relief alluvial plain is irrigated by three important
rivers, Indus (Sindhu), Ganga (Ganges), and Brahmaputra.
o The Indus River rises beyond the Himalayas, and its major tributaries are the Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. The Punjab Plains are benefited by the Indus river
 system. The literal meaning of the term ‘Punjab’ is the land of five rivers. Sind is
situated at the lower valley of the Indus.
o Ganga rises in the Himalayas and flows south and then towards the east. The river
Yamuna flows almost parallel to the Ganges before joining it near Allahabad. The
area between these two rivers is called ‘doab’, meaning the land between two
rivers. The important tributaries of the Ganga are the Gomati, Sarayu, Ghagra, Kosi,
and Gandak. In the eastern India, the Ganga Plains merge with the plains of
Brahmaputra.
o The river Brahmaputra rises beyond the Himalayas, flows across Tibet, and then
after turning southward continues to flow through the plains of northeast India. In
the plains, it is a vast but a slow-moving river forming several islands.
o Geologically, this is the youngest geomorphic unit evolved as the foreland basin in
the frontal region of the rising Himalayas
o The IndusGanga belt is the world’s most extensive expanse of uninterrupted
alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by numerous rivers. The plains are the
world’s most intensely farmed areas and rank amongst the world’s most densely
populated areas.
o The average height of the plain is about 200 m above the mean sea level
o The lowest parts lie in parts of the Bengal Delta having a height nearer to that of the
mean sea level.
o The most distinctive relief and geomorphology are observed in the piedmont zone of
the Himalayas, which are known locally as Bhabar and Tarai.
o Bhabar is a zone built up of unsorted debris, boulders, and pebbles, mixed with
coarse-textured sands brought down from the Himalayas by a number of rivers. As
the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground and emerge onto
the surface in the belt known as Tarai which lies on south of Bhabar
o It is generally a marshy and forested track in the Himalayan foothills, and is
composed of newer alluvium consisting of finer silts. The high water table with
improper drainage pattern in the belt causes waterlogging leading to the formation
of swamps and marshes.
o The two types of alluvial deposits generally recognized in the vast stretch of the
Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain are the Bhangar (older alluvium) and Khadar (newer
alluvium). The former generally occupys the higher interfluves of the Indus-Ganga
system while the later constitues the lower flood plains. The older alluvium of the
Bhangar plains is generally infertile in character composed of coarser materials and
is more overleached and quite widespread in the upper Ganga plains.
o The Khadar belt, lying in the lowland areas of Bhangar, is made up of fresh newer
alluvium, which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain. In this region,
floods bring new alluvium every year. Khadar region is mainly found along the river
banks and contains fine particles or clays making this a fertile region.
o It is suggested that a topographic high did exist in the form of a mountain (Delhi
Haridwar Ridge), which had acted as the drainage divide between the Ganga and
Indus river systems. The feature has now been subsided below the ground level
during the process of deepening of the frontal basin simultaneously with the rise of
the Himalayas.
 The Himalayas
o The Himalayas constitute an imposing crescent-shaped mountain range extending
for over 2500 km from south of the Indus Valley beyond Nanga Parbat (height,
8114m) in the west to Namcha Barwa (height, 7755 m) in the east.
o With a prominent southward convexity, the majestic mountain chain stands like a
wall bordering the entire northern margin of the Indian Subcontinent.
o Himalayas are bent sharply at the western end to join with the Sulaiman and Kirthar
Ranges, south of the Pamir. There is a similar sharp bending at the eastern end,
where the mountain range joins the northsouth trending Indo-Myanmar Range,
represented by the Naga Hills and Arakan Yoma.
o One of the most striking aspects of the Himalayan orogen is the lateral continuity of
its major tectonic elements.
o A unique feature of the Himalayas is the crustal thickness, which rises from about 35
km in the Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains to between 65 and 80 km over the
Higher Himalayas.
o The mountain range is divided axially into the following six units, each showing
distinct lithotectonic and geomorphic character and evolutionary history: The Sub
Himalayas, The lesser Himalayas, The higher Himalayas, The tethyan Himalayas,
Indus Tsangpo zone, Trans Himalayan Batholiths.