What is soldering?

Soldering is a process for joining metal parts by making use of any of the various
fusible alloys (solder), whose melting temperature is lower than that of the material to be
joined, and whereby the surface of the parts creates an intermolecular bond, without
becoming molten.

Principle of solder connection:

The soldering process involves:
1. Intimate contact of the solder to materials being joined and application of flux if
required
2. Slow application of heat to warm the parts to be soldered
3. Melting of the flux which, in turn, removes the oxide film on the metal to be
soldered;
4. Melting of the solder which makes the lighter flux and brings the impurities
suspended in it to the surface;
5. Partial dissolution of some of the metal in the connection by the solder; (solder
Wetting or the Wetting action), and
6. Cooling (quenching) and fusing of the solder with the metal.

Wetting Action:
When the hot liquid solder dissolves and penetrates the metal surface to be soldered,
it is referred to as “wets the metal” or “the metal is wetted”. The molecules of solder and
say copper blend to form a new alloy, one that is part copper and part solder. It is this
solvent action which is called wetting, that forms an intermolecular bond between the
parts, an inter-metallic compound. The forming of a proper intermolecular bond is the heart
of soldering process that determines the quality and the strength of the solder joint.
Wetting can only occur if the surface of the copper is free from contaminations and from
any oxide film that forms when the metal is exposed to air. Also, the solder and work
surface need to have reached the proper temperature
Solder Joints:
A solder joint is the connection created by the process of soldering, which involves using
molten solder to join two or more metal components, typically wires, electronic components,
or printed circuit board (PCB) pads. Solder joints are a fundamental part of electronic
assembly and various other applications where reliable electrical connections are required.
Here are some key aspects of solder joints:

1. Components to be Joined: Solder joints typically connect two or more metal

components. These components can be electrical wires, pins of electronic components,
or the pads on a PCB.
2. Solder Material: Solder is a low-melting-point alloy that, when heated, turns into a
liquid state and then solidifies to form a strong bond when it cools. Common solder
materials include tin-lead alloys (less commonly used due to environmental concerns),
lead-free solder (containing materials like tin, silver, and copper), and specialized
solder alloys for specific applications.
3. Soldering Process: Soldering involves heating the components to be joined and
applying molten solder. The solder flows into the small gaps and adheres to the
surfaces of the components, creating a reliable electrical and mechanical connection.
Proper flux is used to clean the surfaces and promote solder wetting.
4. Wetting: Wetting is the term used to describe the way solder flows and adheres to the
metal surfaces. Proper wetting results in a smooth, shiny, and cone-shaped solder
joint. It ensures a strong and durable connection.
5. Solder Joint Types: There are various types of solder joints, including:
o Through-Hole Solder Joints: These connect electronic components with wire
leads to a PCB through holes in the board.
o Surface-Mount Solder Joints: These attach surface-mount components
directly to the surface of a PCB without holes.
o BGA Solder Joints: Ball Grid Array (BGA) solder joints involve small solder
balls beneath the component that create connections when melted.
 o THT and SMT Mixed Joints: Some PCBs have a combination of through-hole
and surface-mount components.
6. Reliability: Solder joints need to be reliable, as they provide both the electrical
connection and mechanical support for components. Poor solder joints can lead to
electrical problems, component failure, and reduced product reliability.
7. Visual Inspection: After soldering, visual inspection is important. The joint should
appear smooth, shiny, and without visible solder bridges (unwanted connections
between adjacent pads or wires). Proper visual inspection helps identify and correct
any defects.
8. Strength and Durability: Solder joints should be mechanically strong and durable.
They should withstand mechanical stress, temperature changes, and vibrations without
breaking or developing cracks.
9. Environmental Considerations: Environmental regulations have led to the use of
lead-free solder, which is safer for both workers and the environment. Compliance
with regulations, such as RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances), is important.

Solder joints are critical in the electronics industry, where they play a central role in
connecting electronic components on PCBs. Proper soldering techniques, materials, and
quality control are essential to ensure the reliability and performance of electronic devices
and circuits.

What are cold joints?

A cold joint, in the context of soldering and welding, refers to a joint or connection where the solder
or welding material did not properly melt and flow to create a solid and reliable bond between the two metal
components being joined. Cold joints are considered problematic and undesirable because they result in
weak, unreliable connections that may lead to electrical or structural issues. Here are some key
characteristics and causes of cold joints:

Characteristics of Cold Joints:

1. Incomplete Bond: In a cold joint, the solder or welding material may not fully wet the metal
surfaces it's supposed to join. This results in a partial, weak, or incomplete bond.
2. Dull or Grainy Appearance: Cold joints often have a dull or grainy appearance compared to
properly formed joints, which are typically smooth, shiny, and cone-shaped.
3. Weak Mechanical Strength: The mechanical strength of a cold joint is compromised. It may not be
able to withstand mechanical stress, vibration, or thermal expansion and contraction as effectively as
a properly formed joint.

Causes of Cold Joints:

1. Insufficient Heat: One of the main causes of cold joints is not providing enough heat during the
soldering or welding process. When the temperature is too low, the solder or welding material does
not melt and flow properly.
2. Quick Withdrawal of Heat: Soldering and welding require maintaining the heat source (soldering
iron, torch, etc.) on the joint long enough for the base metals and the solder to reach the proper
temperature for bonding. Premature withdrawal of heat can result in a cold joint.
3. Dirty or Oxidized Surfaces: The metal surfaces being joined must be clean and free from oxidation
or contaminants. Dirty or oxidized surfaces can prevent proper wetting and bonding of the solder or
welding material.
 4. Inadequate Flux: Flux is used to clean the metal surfaces and facilitate solder wetting. Using
insufficient or inappropriate flux can hinder the formation of a proper joint.

Consequences of Cold Joints:

1. Electrical Issues: In electronics, cold joints can result in poor electrical conductivity, leading to
intermittent electrical connections, signal distortion, or complete circuit failure.
2. Mechanical Weakness: In structural applications, cold joints can compromise the strength and
integrity of welded or soldered joints, potentially leading to failure under load.

3.Reduced Durability: Cold joints are more prone to damage from mechanical stress and temperature
fluctuations, which can reduce the overall durability of the joint.

Solder Alloys:
Solder alloys are mixtures of metals used to create a low-melting-point material that can be applied as a
liquid and solidify into a strong, electrically conductive bond when it cools. Solder is used for joining metal
components, typically in applications such as electronics, plumbing, and metalwork. Different solder alloys
are chosen based on the specific application, the required melting point, and environmental considerations.
Here are some common solder alloys:

1. Tin-Lead (Sn-Pb):
o Composition: Tin (Sn) and Lead (Pb) in various proportions.
o Melting Point: Typically in the range of 180°C to 230°C.
o Characteristics: Tin-lead solder was widely used in the past due to its ease of use and
reliable performance. However, it is now less common because of environmental and health
concerns associated with lead. It is being replaced by lead-free solder in many
applications.
o Even though the alloy Sn60/Pb40 is cheaper and still funds a good market, it is advisable to
prefer Sn63/Pb37 for high quality interconnections because of its following advantages: 
The alloy SN60/Pb40 has a 5 °C higher melting point which means that the soldering range is
also 5 °C higher, resulting in higher energy consumption.  The eutectic alloy SN63/Pb37 has,
during cooling, a rapid transition direct from liquid to solid. The time for solidification is
approximately 40 per cent less than for the 60/40 alloy. A slow solidification always has the
danger of unreliable solder joints caused by any vibration during solidification.  The tensile
strength as well as the shear strength of 63Sn/37Pb is higher in comparison to 60Sn/40Pb. 
Only tin forms the intermolecular bond with copper to Cu3Sn and Cu6Sn5. Higher tin
content is therefore better.  The specific gravity of SN63/Pb37 is also lesser than that of
SN60/Pb40 that makes the equipment lighter.  Higher composition of tin increases the
electrical as well as thermal conductivity. It also gives brightness to the joint
2. Lead-Free Solder Alloys:
o Various lead-free solder alloys are used to replace traditional tin-lead solder. Some common
lead-free alloys include:
▪ Tin-Silver-Copper (SAC): Various combinations of tin, silver, and copper, such as
SAC305 (Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu).
▪ Tin-Copper (Sn-Cu): Pure tin mixed with a small amount of copper.
▪ Tin-Silver (Sn-Ag): Solder containing tin and silver but no copper.
o Melting Point: Lead-free solder alloys typically have higher melting points than tin-lead
solder, often around 220°C to 230°C.
o Characteristics: Lead-free solder is used to comply with environmental regulations like
RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances). These alloys offer good electrical conductivity
and are now standard in most electronics manufacturing.
3. Bismuth-Based Alloys:
o Composition: Bismuth (Bi) combined with other metals, such as tin or indium.
 oMelting Point: Bismuth-based alloys have lower melting points (around 138°C) and are
often used for low-temperature applications, like soldering heat-sensitive components.
o Characteristics: These alloys are ideal for applications where you want to avoid subjecting
components to high temperatures.
4. Indium-Based Alloys:
o Composition: Indium (In) mixed with other metals, such as tin, silver, or bismuth.
o Melting Point: Indium-based alloys have low melting points, often below 150°C.
o Characteristics: These alloys are suitable for low-temperature applications, sensitive
electronics, and applications where precise control of the soldering temperature is required.
5. High-Temperature Solder Alloys:
o Composition: Various combinations of metals, including tin, silver, copper, and other
elements.
o Melting Point: These alloys have higher melting points, often above 250°C, and are used in
applications that require soldering at elevated temperatures, such as in automotive and
aerospace industries.
6. Lead-Bismuth (Pb-Bi):
o Composition: A mixture of lead and bismuth.
o Melting Point: Lead-bismuth alloys have a lower melting point than pure lead and are used
in applications like nuclear reactors as coolants and neutron moderators.

The choice of solder alloy depends on the specific application, the materials being joined, and the required
melting point. Environmental regulations, such as RoHS, have also played a significant role in the shift
toward lead-free solder in many industries. Different industries and applications may have specific standards
and requirements for the type of solder alloy used.

Solder Flux:
Solder flux is a chemical compound used in soldering to improve the quality of solder joints and
facilitate the soldering process. It serves several important functions when soldering, primarily by cleaning
the metal surfaces to be joined, preventing oxidation, and enhancing the wetting of the solder. There are
various types of solder flux, and the choice depends on the specific application and the type of solder being
used. Here are the key functions and types of solder flux:

Functions of Solder Flux:

1. Cleaning: Solder flux removes oxides, tarnish, and other contaminants from the metal surfaces,
ensuring a clean and chemically reactive surface for the solder to bond to.
2. Oxidation Prevention: By protecting the metal surfaces from oxidation during the soldering
process, flux helps maintain a suitable environment for solder wetting and bonding.
3. Promoting Wetting: Flux enhances the wetting action of solder by reducing surface tension. This
allows the solder to flow and adhere to the metal surfaces more effectively, creating strong and
reliable solder joints.
4. Solder Flow Control: Flux helps control the flow and spread of solder during the soldering process,
preventing excessive solder from forming solder bridges (unwanted connections) and ensuring solder
flows where it's needed.
5. Surface Activation: Some fluxes promote the formation of intermetallic compounds, which improve
the solder joint's strength and durability.

Types of Solder Flux:

1. Rosin Flux:
o Composition: Rosin flux is derived from natural pine resin and is available in different types,
including rosin mildly activated (RMA) and rosin activated (RA).
 o Applications: Commonly used in electronics soldering and plumbing. RMA flux is typically
used in electronic applications due to its cleaner residue.
2. Water-Soluble Flux:
o Composition: Water-soluble flux contains organic and inorganic materials and can be
cleaned with water after soldering.
o Applications: Used in electronics manufacturing where residue must be removed completely
after soldering.
3. No-Clean Flux:
o Composition: No-clean flux leaves a minimal, nearly transparent residue that does not
require cleaning.
o Applications: Suitable for applications where cleaning the residue is not practical, such as
some electronics assembly processes.
4. Activated Rosin Flux:
o Composition: Activated rosin flux is a more aggressive version of rosin flux, often
containing additional activators.
o Applications: Used for soldering difficult-to-solder materials, heavy oxidation, or
contaminated surfaces.
5. Inorganic Acid Flux:
o Composition: Inorganic acid fluxes are typically used for plumbing and may contain
materials like zinc chloride or hydrochloric acid.
o Applications: Used in plumbing applications with metals like copper.
6. Paste Flux:
o Composition: Paste flux is a thicker, paste-like flux that is often used with solder paste in
surface-mount technology (SMT) and reflow soldering.
o Applications: Common in SMT and reflow soldering for attaching surface-mount
components to PCBs.
7. Liquid Flux:
o Composition: Liquid flux is a thin, liquid form of flux used in various applications.
o Applications: Used in a range of soldering processes, including wave soldering and manual
soldering.

Soldering Tools:
Various tools are necessary for facilitating soldering work. The most essential tool in
the soldering practice is the soldering iron

1)Soldering Iron:

A soldering iron is the basic tool for hand soldering. It generates the heat
required to heat the surfaces to be soldered and to melt the solder. It should supply
sufficient heat to melt solder by heat transfer when the iron tip is applied to a
connection to be soldered. Soldering irons used for soldering electronic components
consist of the following three main parts: (i) a handle, (ii) a heating element, and (iii) a
bit/tip.

Handle: This is made of a good electrical and thermal insulator having an

ergonomic shape so that it is comfortable for the operator.

Heating Element: This must have sufficient thermal capacity so that the set and
working temperatures are, as much as possible, the same. The state-of-the-art hand
irons are microprocessor-controlled. They compare the tip temperature sensed with a
 sensor with the set temperature. The heating element responds immediately to heat
loss at tip while soldering and returns lost heat to the tip. The heating element must
be properly insulated so that there is no electrical leakage appearing on the tip of the
bit to cause damage to the components.

Bit/Tip: This is made of copper to provide good heat transfer. It is plated to

prevent the solder dissolving them. Iron on the other hand is not attacked by solder,
so iron plated copper bits are normally used. Unfortunately, iron is not readily wetted
by solder, so the bit is further covered by nickel or chromium in order to provide a
hard outer surface that will wet properly by the solder. With the passage of time and
usage, the outer plated coat (nickel or chrome) will dissolve away. The bit then must
be replaced. Since a bit is the tip of the hand soldering iron, it is often called ‘tip’.

Traditional soldering tips which are made of copper, conduct heat well and
are inexpensive. However, they have the disadvantage that the tip oxidizes heavily
when heated and copper particles are set free into the solder until it has been
corroded entirely. New soldering iron tips have been designed which are galvanically
plated with an iron coating and is then shielded against oxidation and corrosion by a
layer of chrome. The heating element of the soldering iron is protected against over-
heating and premature wear due to quick heat transfer. Such tips are available from
M/s ERSA GmbH and are called ERSADUR soldering tips

Soldering iron Photo

Soldering Gun:
A gun is usually heavier and generates more heat than the average pencil.
Soldering of heavy duty conductors or connectors requires the use of a gun because it can
generate enough heat to quickly bring a heavy metal joint up to the proper soldering
temperature. These soldering tools are called guns simply because they resemble pistols.
The gun’s trigger (Figure 13.6) is actually a switch that controls application of ac power to
the heating element. The working temperature is reached instantaneously. Some guns
provide for selection of different heat levels through multi-position trigger switch.
 F i g . 13 . 6 Solder i ng gun

Soldering Stations:
Soldering stations (Figure 13.7) contain an iron and a control console that offers
switch selectable temperatures, marked low, medium and high. Obviously, this is more
convenient than waiting for a modular pencils’ heating element to cool, unscrewing it from
the holder and then replacing it with another heater tip combination. The tip temperature is
controlled by using a heat sensor and closed-loop feedback control to gate power to heating
element. Obviously, soldering stations are expensive compared to basic soldering pencils.

Soldering
iron

........
. ..............
On/Off . ..............
. ..............
. ..............
. .............
switch ............
............
Sponge

Fig. 13 .7 Soldering stat ion

Some Other Hand Soldering tools are:

The typical tools may include:
1. Solder iron;
2. Cleaning material;
3. Cored solder;
4. Pliers (bent, nose and straight);
5. Wire stripper;
6. Lead forming tools;
7. Toolbox
8. Fume absorber;
 9. Solder iron station including holder;
10. Set of soldering iron bits;
11. Flux; sponge; soldering braid;
12. Tweezers;
13. Wire cutter
Desoldering?
Desoldering is the process of removing solder from a soldered joint or component.
It's commonly used in electronics, plumbing, and various other applications where it's
necessary to disassemble or replace soldered parts. Desoldering can be done using several
methods and tools. The main goal of desoldering is to remove the solder without damaging
the components or the surrounding materials. Here are some common desoldering tools:

1. Desoldering Pump (Solder Sucker):

o Description: A desoldering pump is a handheld tool with a spring-loaded plunger and a
nozzle. It creates a vacuum to suck up molten solder.
o How to Use:
1. Heat the soldered joint with a soldering iron until the solder becomes molten.
2. Place the nozzle of the desoldering pump over the molten solder.
3. Press the plunger to create suction, drawing the molten solder into the pump.
2. Desoldering Braid (Desoldering Wick):
o Description: Desoldering braid is a braided copper wire coated with flux. It is used to wick
away molten solder.
o How to Use:
1. Place the desoldering braid over the soldered joint.
2. Heat the braid with a soldering iron. The flux on the braid helps to draw the molten
solder into the braid.
3. Remove the braid once it has absorbed the solder.
3. Hot Air Rework Station:
o Description: A hot air rework station uses a stream of hot air to melt and remove solder. It is
often used for surface-mount components.
o How to Use:
1. Aim the hot air nozzle at the soldered joint.
2. Heat the solder until it melts.
3. Use tweezers or a vacuum tool to lift the component or wipe away the molten solder.
4. Desoldering Iron (Soldering Iron with Vacuum):
o Description: A desoldering iron combines a soldering iron with a built-in vacuum pump. It is
designed for precision desoldering.
o How to Use:
1. Heat the soldered joint with the desoldering iron.
2. Activate the vacuum pump to remove the molten solder.
5. Soldering Gun (Desoldering Gun):
o Description: A soldering gun with a trigger-activated vacuum pump is used for desoldering.
It is suitable for larger components and joints.
o How to Use:
1. Heat the soldered joint with the soldering gun.
2. Pull the trigger to activate the vacuum pump, removing the molten solder.
6. Solder Pot:
o Description: A solder pot is a container filled with molten solder used to dip components for
desoldering. It's often used for bulk desoldering and lead removal.
o How to Use:
1. Heat the solder pot to the appropriate temperature.
 2. Dip the soldered component into the pot to melt the solder.
3. Remove the component and clean it to remove excess solder.
7. Solvent-Based Desoldering Tools:
o Description: These tools use chemicals to soften or dissolve solder. They are less common
and require safety precautions.
o How to Use:
1. Apply the solvent to the soldered joint.
2. Allow the solvent to soften the solder.
3. Wipe away the softened solder with a suitable material.
8. Tweezers and Vacuum Tools:
o Description: Tweezers and vacuum tools are used to manually lift or remove molten solder
and components during the desoldering process.

Techniques:
Soldering and desoldering are fundamental skills in electronics. Proper techniques are essential to create
strong, reliable solder joints and to remove solder without damaging components. Here are basic soldering
and desoldering techniques:

Soldering Techniques:

1. Selecting the Right Soldering Iron:

o Choose a soldering iron with the appropriate wattage for the job. Lower wattage for delicate
electronics, higher wattage for larger components or plumbing.
2. Preparing the Soldering Iron:
o Ensure the soldering iron tip is clean and tinned (coated with a thin layer of solder) before
use.
3. Cleaning the Work Area:
o Make sure the components to be soldered are clean and free from contaminants.
4. Tinning the Components:
o Apply a small amount of solder to the tip of the soldering iron and to the components (e.g.,
wires, pads, or leads) to be soldered. Tinning helps to create a clean, reliable connection.
5. Positioning the Components:
o Hold the components to be soldered in place with a third hand tool, clamps, or other aids,
ensuring they are properly aligned.
6. Heating the Joint:
o Heat the components by touching the soldering iron tip to the joint, not the solder. Apply heat
evenly to both components to allow solder to flow and wet the surfaces.
7. Applying Solder:
o Touch the solder to the joint, not the iron, once the components are sufficiently heated. The
solder should melt and flow smoothly onto the joint. Use just enough solder to form a good
connection without creating solder bridges.
8. Cooling and Solidifying:
o Hold the components steady until the solder cools and solidifies. Do not move or disturb the
joint during this time.
9. Visual Inspection:
o After soldering, inspect the joint. It should appear smooth, shiny, and have a concave or
convex fillet shape.

Desoldering Techniques:

1. Prepare Desoldering Tools:

 o Select the appropriate desoldering tool, such as a desoldering pump, desoldering braid, or a
hot air rework station.
2. Heat the Solder Joint:
o Heat the solder joint you want to remove using a soldering iron or a hot air rework station.
Ensure the solder is molten.
3. Use a Desoldering Pump: (or)
o For a desoldering pump (solder sucker), place the pump's nozzle over the molten solder and
press the plunger to create suction, removing the solder.
4. Use Desoldering Braid:(or)
o Place the desoldering braid over the molten solder, and then heat it with a soldering iron. The
braid wicks away the solder as it melts. Remove the braid once it absorbs the solder.
5. Hot Air Rework Station:(or)
o Use a hot air rework station to heat and melt the solder. Then, use tweezers or a vacuum tool
to lift the component or wipe away the molten solder.
6. Tweezers or Vacuum Tools:
o Use tweezers or vacuum tools to manually remove components and excess solder during
desoldering.
7. Clean the Area:
o After desoldering, clean the area to remove any residue, flux, or solder from the components
or PCB.