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 Unit – I
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Principles of Design and Graphics

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 Basic of Design and Graphics

Graphics (from Greek Graphikos/graphia)

The art and profession of selecting and arranging visual elements — such as typography, images,
symbols, colors and ideas to convey a message/information to an audience. Sometimes graphic
design is called "visual communications."

Elements of Design

 Line
 Shape
 Texture
 Value & Color
 Space

Principles of Design

 Movement
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Balance
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
Emphasis
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
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 Unity
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1. Line: A line is a form with width and length, but no depth. Artists use lines
to create edges, the outlines of objects. A line is created by the movement of the
artist's pen.

Line Direction

The direction of a line can convey mood.

Horizontal
lines are calm
and quiet,

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 Vertical lines
suggest more
of a potential
for movement.

Diagonal lines
strongly
suggest
movement
and give more
of a feeling of
vitality to a
picture.
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Contour and gesture
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Lines used to follow the edges of forms are called

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contour drawings.
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Drawings which seem to depict more movement than

actual outline are called gesture drawings.

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Line as Value

Lines or crosshatching can also be used to create areas of grey inside a drawing.
These areas of darker shading inside a figure, called areas of value, can give a
more three-dimensional feeling to an object.

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2. Shape
A shape is an enclosed object. Shapes can be created by line, or by color and value
changes which define their edges.

Volume and Mass

Shape is considered to be a two-dimensional element, while three-dimensional

elements have volume or mass. Therefore, a painting has shapes, while a sculpture
has volume and mass.

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Positive/Negative shapes

In a picture, the shapes that the artist has placed are considered the positive
shapes. The spaces around the shapes are the negative spaces. It is just as
important to consider the negative space in a picture as the positive shapes.
Sometimes artists create pieces that have no distinction between positive and
negative spaces. M. C. Escher was a master at creating drawings where there
was no distinction between positive and negative space. Here are two
examples of Escher's work which show the interplay between positive and
negative space:

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3. Texture
Texture is the surface quality of an object. We experience texture when we touch
objects and feel their roughness, smoothness or patterns. Texture is the artist's way
of mapping these tactile impressions on to the two-dimensional picture. Texture is
created by varying the pattern of light and dark areas on an object. Notice how the
areas of light and dark give the impression of depth to the image below.

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 Value Color Color Space

1. Properties of Color: 1. Color Schemes:

 Hue  Monochromatic
 Color Value  Analogous
 Intensity  Complementary
 Triadic
2. Optical Color Mixing
2. Color Discord

Value

Value refers to the relative lightness

or darkness of a certain area. Value
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can be used for emphasis. Variations

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in value are used to create a focal

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point for the design of a picture. A

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light figure on a dark background will

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be immediately recognized as the

center of attention, similarly for a
dark figure on a mostly white
background. Gradations of value are
also used to create the illusion of
depth. Areas of light and dark can
give a three-dimensional impression,
such as when shading areas of a
person's face.

Color

Color occurs when light in different wavelengths strikes our eyes. Objects have no
color of their own, only the ability to reflect a certain wavelength of light back to our
eyes. As you know, color can vary in differing circumstances. For example, grass can
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appear gray in the morning or evening or bright green at noon. Colors appear
different depending on whether you view them under incandescent, florescent or
natural sunlight. Colors also change according to their surroundings. You can see
this by looking at the color squares below - the reddish outline box is the same color
in all the examples.

Properties of Color

Hue

Hue refers to the color itself. Each different hue is a different reflected wavelength
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of light. White light broken in a prism has seven hues: red, orange, yellow, green,
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blue, indigo and violet. White light occurs when all the wavelengths are reflected
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back to your eye, and black light occurs when no light is reflected to your eye. This
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is the physics of light.

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When it comes to using color in art, things get quite messy. Looking at the color
wheel above, when using color pigments, the three primary colors used are yellow,
blue and red. These three colors are blended together to produce other colors, called
secondary colors, such as green, orange and purple. Mix enough colors together, and
you get black.

Computer Colors Printer Colors

Computer colors are produced by Things get even dicier on computers when you
combining the three colors of red, go to print out these colors. Printing uses the
green and blue together. Believe CYMK convention which takes cyan (light
it or not, you can get yellow by blue), yellow, magenta (pinky red) and black
combining these colors. inks and tries to recreate the color that your
computer created with red, green and blue
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light.
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Color Value

Color value refers to the lightness or darkness of the hue. Adding white to a hue
produces a high-value color, often called a tint. Adding black to a hue produces a
low-value color, often called a shade.

Intensity

Intensity, also called chroma or saturation, refers to the brightness of a color. A

color is at full intensity when not mixed with black or white - a pure hue. You can
change the intensity of a color, making it duller or more neutral by adding gray to
the color. You can also change the intensity of a color by adding its complement
(this is the color found directly opposite on the traditional color wheel). When
changing colors this way, the color produced is called a tone.

When you mix complementary colors together, you produce a dull tone. However,
when you put complementary colors side by side, you increase their intensity. This
effect is called simultaneous contrast - each color simultaneously intensifies the
visual brightness of the other color.

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Below are some examples of how this works, using a program called Metacreations
painter. As you can see, you choose a hue from the outer ring. Inside the triangle,
you can vary the saturation of the hue (amount of color), the tint or the shade.

Above: choosing a less saturated color of blue

Above: choosing a pure color of blue (hue)
(tone) by moving the cursor toward the center of
by moving the cursor all the way to the right.
the triangle.
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Above: adding white (tint) to the color by Above: adding black (shade) to the color by
moving the cursor to the top part of the moving the cursor toward the bottom part of the
triangle. triangle.

Optical Color Mixing

When small dots of color are placed adjacent to each other, your eye will combine
the colors into a blended color. This is the principle used when printing color in
magazines. Dots of cyan, magenta, yellow and black are distributed in a pattern on
the paper, and depending on the quantity of a certain dot, you will see a specific
color on the page. Paul Signac used a technique called pointillism that involved
creating art using the combination of dots to form images.

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Color and Space
Certain colors have an advancing or receding quality, based on how our eye has to
adjust to see them. Warm colors such as red, orange or yellow seem to come forward
while cool colors such as blue and green seem to recede slightly. In the atmosphere,
distant objects appear bluish and the further away an object appears, the less
colorful and distinct it becomes. Artists use this to give an illusion of depth, by
using more neutral and grayish colors in the background.

Color Schemes

Monochromatic

This color scheme involves the use of only one hue.

The hue can vary in value, and black or white may
be added to create various shades or tints.

Analogous u r
This color scheme involves the use of colors that are
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located adjacent on the color wheel. The hues may vary

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in value. The color scheme for this site is analogous, with

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the colors varying only slightly from each other.

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Complementary

This color scheme involves the use of colors that are

located opposite on the color wheel such as red and
green, yellow and purple, or orange and blue.
Complementary colors produce a very exciting, dynamic
pattern.

Triadic

This color scheme involves the use of colors that are equally
spaced on the color wheel. The primary colors of yellow, red
and green could be used together in a color scheme to produce
a lively result.

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Color Discord

While monochromatic, analogous, complementary or triadic color schemes are

considered to be harmonious, there are some color
schemes considered dissonant. Discordant colors are
visually disturbing - we say they clash. Colors that are
widely separated on the color wheel (but not
complementary or triadic) are considered to be
discordant. Discordant colors can be eye-catching and are often used for attention-
getting devices in advertising.

Illusion of Space and Depth

We live in a three-dimensional world of depth. When we look around us, some

things seem closer, some further away. The artist can also show the illusion of
depth by using the following means: r
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Size & Vertical Location

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
Overlapping
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 Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective)

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 Linear Perspective
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Size & Vertical Location

Since objects in our environment look smaller when

they are farther away, the easiest way to show depth
is to vary the size of objects, with closer objects being
larger and more distant objects being smaller. As well,
we perceive objects that are higher on the page and
smaller as being further away than objects which are
in the forefront of a picture.

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Overlapping

When objects are partially

obscured by other objects in
front of them, we perceive
them as further back than
the covering objects.
We do not see them as
incomplete forms, just
further back.

Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective)

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Atmospheric perspective uses color and value

contrasts to show depth. Objects which are further
away generally have less distinct contrast - they
may fade into the background or become indistinct
dark areas. The foreground objects will be clear
with sharper contrast.

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Linear Perspective (Converging Lines)

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Linear perspective is based on the idea that all lines will converge on a common
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point on the horizon called the vanishing point. You have observed linear
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perspective when you notice that the lines on the highway appear to meet at a
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point in the distance. Artists use linear perspective to create a focal point for a
picture. Any walls, ceilings, floors or other objects with lines will appear to come
together at the horizon line. These lines converging lead our eyes towards that
point. Often, the most important object or person in the picture will be located at
that point. You can see in the drawing above how all the lines in the drawing seem
to lead your eye toward the church in the center back of the drawing.

Other types of perspective, such as two-point or multipoint perspective are also

used. Two-point perspective, which occurs when you display a building from a
corner view, as opposed to a front view, is often used by architects to show a more
three-dimensional view of a building. To learn the mechanics of setting up a
picture using linear or multipoint perspective.

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 Principles of Design
 Movement
 Balance
 Emphasis
 Unity

Anticipated Movement

Live figures portrayed in unstable body positions cause us to

feel that motion is imminent. We know from past experience
with these positions that some kind of movement will occur.
This heightens the feeling of motion.

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
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Fuzzy Outlines
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When figures move past us at very high speeds, we

perceive that figure as somewhat blurry. This
experience leads us to interpret blurry or indistinct
outlines as conveying motion.


Multiple Image

Similarly, showing multiple overlapping images gives

us the impression of motion. We can see that the
person or figure has moved through a series of poses.

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Optical Movement

In optical movement, the eye is forced to move around

the picture dynamically in order to see all the different
elements. Optical movement can be enhanced by curved
forms that keep your eyes moving in a circular pattern
throughout the picture.


Optical Illusions

Certain optical illusions based on the repetition of

geometric forms will cause your eye to produce motion
where none is present.

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Rhythm and Movement

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Rhythm refers to the way your eye moves throughout a picture. Some pictures
move you throughout in a connected, flowing way much like a slow, stately
rhythm in music. Other pictures move you from one place to another in an
abrupt, dynamic way much like a fast, staccato rhythm in music will give you
the impression of movement. Rhythm in art is created by the repetition of
elements. Similarity of elements or flowing, circular elements will give a more
connected flowing rhythm to a picture, while jagged or unrelated elements will
create a more unsettling, dynamic picture.

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Look at the two images above. The painting by Matisse is full of sweeping circular
areas which move your eye around the picture (it is a good example of optical
movement). The elements are flowing and circular and give you the impression of a
calm quiet rhythm. The line drawing on the right is more dynamic due to its
incomplete nature and the feeling of motion is much more evident.

Balance:

To understand balance, think of the balance beam. When objects are of equal
weight, they are in balance. If you have several small items on one side, they can be
balanced by a large object on the other side. Visual balance works in much the same
way. It can be affected not only by the size of objects, but also their value (ie.
lightness or darkness, termed visual weight).

Symmetrical (Formal) Balance

Symmetrical balance is mirror image

balance. If you draw a line down the
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center of the page, all the objects on one
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side of the screen are mirrored on the

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other side (they may not be identical

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objects, but they are similar in terms of

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numbers of objects, colors and other

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elements. Sometimes they are

completely identical (often seen in
architecture).

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 Asymmetrical (Informal) Balance

Asymmetrical balance occurs when several smaller items on one side are
balanced by a large item on the other side, or smaller items are placed further
away from the center of the screen than larger items. One darker item may need
to be balanced by several lighter items.

Although asymmetrical balance may appear more casual and less planned, it is
usually harder to to use because the artist must plan the layout very carefully to
ensure that it is still balanced. An unbalanced page or screen creates a feeling of
tension, as if the page or screen might tip, or things might slide off the side, just
as the unbalanced balance beam would tip to one side.

by color

Our eyes are drawn by color. Small

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areas of vibrant color can be used
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to balance larger areas of more

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neutral colors. The vivid red skirt

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on the left is balanced by the larger

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neutral pink dress.

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by value

Value refers to the darkness or

lightness of objects. Black against
white has a much stronger
contrast than gray against white.
To balance these two colors, you
would need a larger area of gray to
balance the stronger value of
black.

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by shape

Large flat areas without much

detail can be balanced by smaller
irregularly shaped objects since
the eye is led towards the more
intricate shape.

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by position
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Using a balance beam, a larger

weight closer to the center point
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can be balanced by a lighter weight

further away from the center. This
is the basis for balance by position.
Sometimes larger elements on one
side of the page can be balanced by
a smaller element that is
positioned by itself at the far end
of the other side of the page. This
is a very tricky type of
asymmetrical balance that often
ends up looking out of balance.

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by texture

Smaller areas with interesting

textures (variegated light and
dark, or random fluctuations) can
balance larger areas with
smoother, untextured looks.

by eye direction

Your eye can be led to a certain

point in a picture depending on
how the elements are arranged. If
the people in a picture are looking
in a certain direction, your eye will
be led there as well. Elements in a
picture, such as triangles or
arrows, will also lead your eye to
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look to a certain point and
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maintain the balance of a picture.

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Radial Balance

The third type of balance is radial balance, where

all elements radiate out from a center point in a
circular fashion. It is very easy to maintain a focal
point in radial balance, since all the elements lead
your eye toward the center.

One method used to attract attention in the design

of a page or work of art is the use of a focal point.
A focal point draws your attention to the most
important element on the page. There are several
techniques used to emphasize the most important
object on a page.

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Ways to Create a Focal Point

Emphasis by Contrast

In realistic art the focal

point is usually quite easy
to spot. Larger figures,
usually found in the
foreground, provide a focal
point. Even in non-realistic
art, it is usually easy to spot
the focal point. If most of
the figures are horizontal, a
vertical element will stand
out as a focal point.

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If the rest of the elements
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are irregular, a geometric

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shape will stand out.

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If most of the elements are

dark, a splash of light color
will catch the eye.

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 Emphasis by Isolation

If most of the elements in a work of art are grouped

closely together, an object by itself stands out as a
focal point.

Emphasis by Placement
An object placed in the center will often be perceived as a focal point. If all eyes in
the painting look at one object, or if an object is placed at the center of the lines of
perspective, that object will be perceived as the focus of the work.
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Unity
Classic design theory discusses unity in terms of the objects present in a piece of
art. Regarded in this way, unity discusses the need to tie the various elements of a
work of art together.

Unity is a measure of how the elements of a page seem to fit together - to belong
together. A unified work of art represents first a whole, then the sum of its parts.

Ways to Achieve Unity

Proximity

The simplest method of making objects appear to

belong together is to group them closely together.
This allows us to see a pattern.

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Repetition

Another method often used to

promote unity is the use of
repetition. Repetition of color,
shape, texture or object can be used
to tie a work together.

Continuation

A much more subtle method of unifying a work involves the continuation of line,
edge or direction from one area to another. Continuation is often used in books and
magazines to tie the elements of a page together with the use of rules, and by lining
up edges of copy, headlines and graphics.

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 RGB & CMYK Colors
CMYK (short for cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black) and often referred to as process color
or four color) is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, also used to describe the
printing process itself. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer and
press run, ink is typically applied in the order of the abbreviation.

The CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking certain colors on the typically white
background (that is, absorbing particular wavelengths of light). Such a model is called
subtractive because inks “subtract” brightness from white.

In additive color models such as RGB, white is the “additive” combination of all primary colored
lights, while black is the absence of light. In the CMYK model, it is just the opposite: white is
the natural color of the paper or other background, while black results from a full combination of
colored inks. To save money on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark
colors are produced by substituting black ink for the combination of cyan, magenta and yellow.

Why black ink is used u r

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The “black” generated by mixing Cyan, Magenta and Yellow primaries is unsatisfactory, and so
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four-color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive primaries. Common reasons for
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using black ink include:

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 Text is typically printed in black and includes fine detail (such as serifs), so to reproduce
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text or other finely detailed outlines using three inks without slight blurring would require
impractically accurate registration (i.e. all three images would need to be aligned
extremely precisely).

 A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making
it slower to dry, and sometimes impractically so.

 A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks often results in a muddy dark
brown color that does not quite appear black. Adding black ink absorbs more light, and
yields much darker blacks.

 Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks.

When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY “bedding” is applied first, then a full
black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black; this is called rich black. A black made
with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black.

The amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice
depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under

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color addition, and gray component replacements are used to decide on the final mix; different
CMYK recipes will be used depending on the printing task.

Comparison with RGB

Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult, since the color
reproduction technologies and properties are so different. A laser or ink-jet printer prints in dots
per inch (dpi) which is very different from a computer screen, which displays graphics in pixels
per inch (ppi). A computer screen mixes shades of red, green, and blue to create color pictures. A
CMYK printer must compete with the many shades of RGB with only one shade of each of cyan,
magenta and yellow, which it will mix using dithering, halftoning or some other optical
technique; this dithering produces a lower level of detail than the printer’s dpi suggests.

Conversion

Since RGB and CMYK spaces are both device-dependent spaces, there is no simple or general
conversion formula that converts between them. Conversions are generally done through color
management systems, using color profiles that describe the spaces being converted.
Nevertheless, the conversions cannot be exact, since these spaces have very different gamuts.
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 Color Psychology
Colors often have different meanings in various cultures. The meanings of various colors have
changed over the years. But the following are generally found to be accurate. Colors in the red
area of the color spectrum are known as warm colors and include red, orange, and yellow. These
warm colors evoke emotions ranging from feelings of warmth and comfort to feelings of anger
and hostility.

Colors on the blue side of the spectrum are known as cool colors and include blue, purple, and
green.

These colors are often described as calm, but can also call to mind feelings of sadness or
indifference.

Black
Black is the color of authority and power. It is popular in fashion because it makes people appear
thinner. It is also stylish and timeless. Black also implies submission. Priests wear black to
signify submission to God. Some fashion experts say a woman wearing black implies submission
to men. Black outfits can also be overpowering, or make the wearer seem aloof for evil. Villains,
such as Dracula, often wear black.
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White
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Brides wear white to symbolize innocence and purity. White reflects light and is considered a
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summer color. White is popular in decorating and in fashion because it is light, neutral, and goes
with everything. However, white shows dirt and is therefore more difficult to keep clean than
other colors. Doctors and nurses wear white to imply sterility.

Red

The most emotionally intense color, red stimulates a faster heartbeat and breathing. It is also the
color of love. Red clothing gets noticed and makes the wearer appear heavier. Since it is an
extreme color, red clothing might not help people in negotiations or confrontations. Red cars are
popular targets for thieves. In decorating, red is usually used as an accent. Decorators say that
red furniture should be perfect since it will attract attention.

The most romantic color, pink, is more tranquilizing. Sports teams sometimes paint the locker
rooms used by opposing teams bright pink so their opponents will lose energy.

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Blue

The color of the sky and the ocean, blue is one of the most popular colors. It causes the opposite
reaction as red. Peaceful, tranquil blue causes the body to produce calming chemicals, so it is
often used in bedrooms. Blue can also be cold and depressing. Fashion consultants recommend
wearing blue to job interviews because it symbolizes loyalty. People are more productive in blue
rooms. Studies show weightlifters are able to handle heavier weights in blue gyms.

Green

Currently the most popular decorating color, green symbolizes nature. It is the easiest color on
the eye and can improve vision. It is a calming, refreshing color. People waiting to appear on TV
sit in "green rooms" to relax. Hospitals often use green because it relaxes patients. Brides in the
Middle Ages wore green to symbolize fertility. Dark green is masculine, conservative, and
implies wealth. However, seamstresses often refuse to use green thread on the eve of a fashion
show for fear it will bring bad luck.

Yellow

Cheerful sunny yellow is an attention getter. While it is considered an optimistic color, people
lose their tempers more often in yellow rooms, and babies will cry more. It is the most difficult
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color for the eye to take in, so it can be overpowering if overused. Yellow enhances
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concentration, hence its use for legal pads. It also speeds metabolism.
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Purple
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The color of royalty, purple connotes luxury, wealth, and sophistication. It is also feminine and
romantic. However, because it is rare in nature, purple can appear artificial.

Brown

Solid, reliable brown is the color of earth and is abundant in nature. Light brown implies
genuineness while dark brown is similar to wood or leather. Brown can also be sad and wistful.
Men are more apt to say brown is one of their favorite colors.

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 Typography
Typography is the art and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.
Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The
arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing)
and letter spacing.

Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors,

and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.
Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.

Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The
arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing)
and letter spacing.

History

Typography (from the Greek words t?p?? type = “to strike” “That by which something is
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symbolized or figured...” and ??af?a graphia = to write).
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Typography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make seals and currency in
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ancient times. The first known movable type printing artifact is the Phaistos Disc, dating between
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1850 BC and 1600 BC. The item dates back to Minoan age and is now on display at the
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archaeological museum of Herakleion in Crete, Greece.

Typography with moveable type continued in 11th-century China, and modular moveable metal
type began in 13thcentury China and Korea, was developed again in mid-15th century Europe
with the development of specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of
letterpunches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts.

Scope

In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography is very broad, covering all aspects of
letter design and application, including: typesetting and typeface design; handwriting and
calligraphy; graffiti; inscriptional and architectural lettering; poster design and other large scale
lettering such as signage and billboards; business communications and promotional collateral;
advertising; wordmarks and typographic logos (logotypes); apparel (clothing); vehicle
instrument panels; kinetic typography in motion picture films and television; and as a component
of industrial design—type resides on household appliances, pens and wristwatches, for example.

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Since digitization typography’s range of applications has become more eclectic, appearing on
web pages, LCD mobile phone screens, and hand-held video games. The ubiquity of type has led
typographers to coin the phrase “Type is everywhere”.

Typography generally follows four principles, using repetition, contrast, proximity, and
alignment.

Text typography
In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying
whole that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution with a
minimum of distractions and anomalies are aimed at producing clarity and transparency.

Choice of font(s) is perhaps the primary aspect of text typography—prose fiction, non-fiction,
editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual and commercial writing all have differing
characteristics and requirements. For historic material, established text typefaces are frequently
chosen according to a scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with
considerable overlap between historical periods.

Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art seriffed “text romans” or
“book romans” with design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on
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traditional models such as those of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created
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the model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond.

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With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly-
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fitted text romans specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability
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and efficient use of page space. Sans serif text fonts are often used for introductory paragraphs,
incidental text and whole short articles. A current fashion is to
pair sans serif type for headings with a high-performance seriffed font of matching style for the
text of an article.

The text layout, tone or color of set matter, and the interplay of text with white space of the page
and other graphic elements combine to impart a “feel” or “resonance” to the subject matter. With
printed media typographers are also concerned with binding margins, paper selection and
printing methods.

Typography is modulated by Orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies,

morphology, phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax. Typography also is subject to specific
cultural conventions. For example, in French it is customary to insert a non-breaking space
before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not.

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Readability and legibility

Readability and legibility are often confused. Readability is most often and more properly used
to describe the ease with which written language is read and understood – it concerns the
difficulty of the language itself, not its appearance. Factors that affect readability include
sentence and word length, and the frequency of uncommon words.

In contrast, legibility describes how easily or comfortably a typeset text can be read. It is not
connected with content or language, but rather with the size and appearance of the printed or
displayed text.

Studies of legibility have examined a wide range of factors including type size, type design (for
example, comparing serif vs sans serif type, italic type vs roman type), line length, line spacing,
colour contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification (straight right hand
edge) vs ranged left, and whether hyphenated). Legibility research was published from the late
nineteenth century on, but the overall finding has been that the reading process is remarkably
robust, and that significant differences are hard to find. So comparative studies of seriffed vs
sans serif type, or justified vs unjustified type, have failed to settle the argument over which is
best. (Serifs are the small crossstrokes at the end of letters in fonts such as Times; sans serif
fonts, such as Arial, lack these cross strokes). Unfortunately, the fashion for legibility research
was over by the time that revolutionary changes in printing and display technology (ie, laser
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printing and PC display screens) made it actually of potential interest.
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Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to
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check for effectiveness (ie, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who
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published numerous studies from the 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that
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required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness filter.

These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific
design solutions (for example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues
include typefaces (also called fonts) for people with visual impairment, and typefaces for
highway signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make a key difference.

Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoretical - various factors were tested
individually or in combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but
many tests were carried out in the absence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some
typographers believe that the overall word shape is very important in readability, and that letter
by letter recognition (sometimes known as parallel letterwise recognition) is either wrong, less
important, or not the entire picture. Studies that distinguish between the two models have favored
parallel letterwise recognition, and the latter is widely accepted by cognitive psychologists
(citation?).

Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include: text set in lower case is more
legible than text set all in upper case (capitals), presumably because lower case letter structures
and word shapes are more distinctive, having greater saliency with the presence of extenders
(ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts); regular upright type (roman) is found to be

31 | P a g e
more legible that italics, contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been found to be
important, with black on yellow/cream being most effective; positive images (eg, black on white)
are easier to read than negative or reversed (eg, white on black); the upper portions of letters play
a stonger part than the lower portions in the recognition process; legibility is compromised by
letterspacing, word spacing and leading that are too tight or too loose. Generous vertical space
separates lines of text, making it easier for the eye to distinguish one line from the next, or
previous line. Poorly designed fonts and those that are too tightly or loosely fitted can also result
in poor legibility.

Periodicals

Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical publications, especially newspapers

and magazines, use typographical elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid
readers in navigating the publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By formulating a
style guide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively small collection of typefaces, each used for
specific elements within the publication, and makes consistent use of type sizes, italic, boldface,
large and small capital letters, colours, and other typographic features. Some publications, such
as The Guardian and The Economist, go so far as to commission a type designer do create
bespoke typefaces for their exclusive use. u r
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a particular tone or style. For example, USAToday uses a bold, colourful, and comparatively
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modern style through their use of a variety of typefaces and colours; type sizes vary widely, and
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the newspaper’s name is placed on a coloured background. In contrast, the New York Times use
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a more traditional approach, with fewer colours, less typeface variation, and more columns.
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Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines are often set in
larger display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.

Display typography

Display typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there is less concern for
readability and more potential for using type in an artistic manner. Type is combined with
negative space, graphic elements and pictures, forming relationships and dialog between words
and images.

Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in text typography. Most display
typography exploits type at larger sizes, where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is
used for its emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject matter.

Display typography encompasses: posters; book covers; typographic logos and wordmarks;
billboards; packaging; on-product typography; calligraphy; graffiti; inscriptional and
architectural lettering; poster design and other large scale lettering signage; business
communications and promotional collateral; advertising; wordmarks and typographic logos

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(logotypes), and kinetic typography in motion pictures and television; vending machine displays;
online and computer screen displays.

The wanted poster for the assassins of Abraham Lincoln was printed with lead and woodcut type,
and incorporates photography.

Advertising

Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising. Designers often
use typography to set a theme and mood in an advertisement; for example using bold, large text
to convey a particular message to the reader. Type is often used to draw attention to a particular
advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes and images. Today, typography in
advertising often reflects a company’s brand. Fonts used in advertisements convey different
messages to the reader, classical fonts are for a strong personality, while more modern fonts are
for a cleaner, neutral look. Bold fonts are used for making statements and attracting attention.

Classification of Typefaces r
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Blackletter
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Definition: Blackletter is a style of typeface based on

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early written forms that features elaborate thick to thin

strokes and serifs. The Gutenberg Bible, the first book
ever printed with movable type, was set in a Blackletter
typeface to mimic the manuscript writing of the time.
Blackletter type is most often seen on diplomas,
certificates, formal invitations, and in the nameplates of
some newsletters and newspapers.

Also Known As: Text | Old English | Gothic (not Sans

Serif Gothic)

Examples: Black Forest, Linotext, Goudy Text, and

Wedding Text are some types of Blackletter fonts.

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Italic

Definition: While
roman typefaces are
upright, italic
typefaces slant to the
right. But rather than being just a slanted or
tilted version of the roman face, a true or pure
italic font is drawn from scratch and has unique
features not found in the roman face.

Most word processing and desktop publishing

programs have an option to turn a roman font into
italic. If a matching italic version is installed, this
may work fine. However, if an italic version is not available, some programs will create fake
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italics by simply slanting the roman typeface.
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Venetian printer Aldus Manutius and his type designer, Francesco Griffo are credited with
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creating the first italic typeface — the term italic paying homage to Italy where the style
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originated.
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Modern

Definition: In typography, Modern is a style of

typeface developed in the late 18th century that
continued through much of the 19th century.
Characterized by high contrast between thick
and thin strokes and flat serifs, Modern fonts are
harder to read than previous and later typestyles.
Some later variations include the Slab Serifs with bolder, square serifs and the related Clarendon
style with less contrast and softer, rounded shapes.

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Also Known As: Didone, New Antiqua

Alternate Spellings: Moderne

Examples: Bodoni, Didot, Bernhard Modern Roman

Old Style

Definition: In typography, Old Style is a style of font developed by Renaissance typographers to

replace the Blackletter style of type. Based on ancient Roman inscriptions, these fonts are
generally characterized by low contrast between thick and thin strokes, bracketed serifs, and a
left-leaning axis or stress. There are two groups of Old Style typefaces: Venetian (Renaissance)
and Garalde (Baroque).

Also Known As: Antiqua, Ancient, Renaissance, Baroque, Venetian, Garalde’

Alternate Spellings: oldstyle

Examples: Garamond, Centaur, Goudy Oldstyle, Century Oldstyle, Palatino, Sabon

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Roman
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Definition: Of the three major type classifications of Western

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typography, Roman is the style in widest use. The others are

Blackletter and Italic. Traditionally, Roman is a serif face based on a
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style of ancient Rome and is the typical classic serif of today.

However, Roman also refers to any upright typeface (as opposed to
italic, slanted, or script), even sans serif faces.

Sans Serif
Definition: Type which does not have
serifs — the little extra strokes found at
the end of main vertical and horizontal
strokes of some letterforms — are called
sans serif (without serif). Within sans serif
there are five main classifications: Grotesque,
Neo-Grotesque, Geometric, Humanist, and
Informal. Typefaces within each classification
usually share similarities in stroke thickness,
weight, and the shapes of certain letterforms.

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Although there were some sans serif typefaces in the 1800s, the 1920’s Bauhaus design
movement popularized the sans serif style.

Also Known As: Lineal(e) | Grotesque | Neo-Grotesque | Geometric | Humanist | Gothic (not
Blackletter Gothic)

Examples: “Arial, Helvetica, Verdana, Futura, Univers, and Franklin Gothic are some popular
sans serif fonts.”

Serif
Definition: A serif is the little extra stroke found at the end of main vertical and horizontal
strokes of some letterforms. Some are subtle and others may be
quite pronounced and obvious. In some cases serifs may aid in
the readability of a typeface. Serif refers, in general, to any
style of type that has serifs. Fonts without serifs are called sans
serif.

Serif is also the name of a company that produces a popular

line of desktop publishing software including Serif PagePlus
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for page layout and Serif
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DrawPlus for illustration.

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Examples: “Some of the

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main classifications of Serif type are: Blackletter, Old Style,

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Modern, Slab Serif, Transitional, and Informal. Fonts in each

classification share certain similar characteristics including
the shape or appearance of their serifs.”

Serifs fall into various groups and can be generally described

as hairline (hair), square (slab), or wedge and are either
bracketed or unbracketed. Hairline serifs are much thinner
than the main strokes. Square or slab serifs are thicker than
hairline serifs all the way up heavier weight than the main strokes. Wedge serifs are triangular in
shape. Unbracketed serifs attach directly to the strokes of the letterform, sometimes abrubtly or
at right angles. Bracketed serifs provide a curved transition between the serif and the main
strokes. Within these divisions serifs can be blunt, rounded, tapered, pointed, or some hyrid
shape.

Some special serif-like character parts are spurs and beaks.

Slab Serif

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Definition: A Slab Serif is a type of serif font that evolved from the Modern style. The serifs are
square and larger, bolder than serifs of previous typestyles. Considered a sub-classification of
Modern, Slab Serif is further divided into Clarendon, Typewriter, and Slab Serif (a separate sub-
category of Slab Serif) styles.

Also Known As: Square Serif, Clarendon, Typewriter

Examples: Clarendon, American Typewriter, Rockwell

Transitional

Definition: The Antiqua or Old Style of type of the 16th and 17th centuries evolved into a style
known as Transitional. The primary characteristics of Transitional type is medium contrast
between thick and thin strokes, less leftinclined stress than earlier Old Style faces, and a
triangular or flat tip where diagonal strokes meet (such the base of a W).

Basic typeface anatomy

Learning about serifs, strokes, counters, and other bits and pieces that make up the letters in a
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typeface is not something of interest only to font fanatics and type designers. The shape and size
of certain elements are generally consistent throughout any given typeface and can help you
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identify and categorize typefaces.

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It’s not absolutely necessary for most font users to know the precise difference between a spur
and a beak or a tail and a leg, but it is fun and can make you feel and sound smart. Instead of
resorting to terms such as “that little round thingamajig at the top of the f” or “the curvy
connector bit in the middle of the funny-looking g” you can use real terms like ball terminal or
the link in a double-storey g. Take a look at three broad terms with which most designers should
have at least a nodding acquaintance and several related elements that help define a typeface.

1. Strokes
Think about the strokes you make with a pen when printing
letters and you’ll have an idea what the broad meaning of stroke
is for a font.

Most letterforms are made up of several

specific types of strokes:

Stems - In a way, it’s like a flower

stem. Definition: The stem is the main,
usually vertical
stroke of a letterform. Also Known As: stroke

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Examples: Not all letters have a stem, such as C or S. The vertical, non-curved portions of L, l, d,
B, and p are examples of stems. H, N, and M have two stems each. Some letterforms such as y
and A may have a sloped or diagonal stem.

Extenders - Reach for the sky or touch your toes. In typography,

an extender is that part of a letter that extends above the x-height
or below the baseline.

Ascender: An ascender and a

descender are extenders.

Definition: In typography, the

upward vertical stem on some
lowercase letters, such as h and b,
that extends above the x-height is
the ascender. The height of the ascenders is an identifying
characteristic of many typefaces.
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The ascenders of some letters may touch or almost touch letters in the line above causing
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awkward or distracting patterns. This is most likely to happen or be obvious when a line of text
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with tall ascenders is below a line of text with long descenders. To resolve the problem of
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touching ascenders and descenders you can: Increase the leading (line spacing) between lines of
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type; Choose a different typeface; For headlines and subheads, some careful editing/re-wording
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can eliminate the problem; Changing the alignment of the text may also help.

Descender:
Definition: The portion of some lowercase letters, such as g and y, that extends or descends
below the baseline is the descender. The length and shape of the descender can affect readability
of lines of type and is an identifying factor for some typefaces.

The descenders of some letters may touch or almost touch letters

in the line below causing awkward or distracting patterns. This is
most likely to happen or be obvious when a line of text with long
descenders is above a line of text with tall ascenders and capital
letters. Some solutions include: Increase the leading (line
spacing) between lines of type; Choose a different typeface; For
headlines and subheads, some careful editing/re-wording can
eliminate the problem; Changing the alignment of the text may
also help.

Arms - If a letter were a person, these would be like arms.

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Definition: The arm of a letter is the horizontal stroke on some characters that does not connect
to a stroke or stem at one or both ends. The top of the capital T and the horizontal strokes of the
F and E are examples of arms. Additionally, the diagonal upward stroke on a K is its arm.
Sometimes arm is used interchangeably with bar or crossbar or cross stroke.

Arm is often also used to describe the mostly horizontal top stroke of C, double-storey a, G, and
other glyphs, to include the finial, terminal, spur, or other elements of the stroke.

Also Known As: crossbar, cross stroke

Examples: The arms of an uppercase F connect to the stem only at one end and the arm of an
uppercase T sits at the top of the stem and doesn’t connect at either end. In contrast a cross stroke
intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f and the cross bar connects the diagonal strokes of an
uppercase A or the vertical stems of an H.

Crossbars - Think of them as connecting strokes.

Definition: The (usually) horizontal stroke across the
middle of uppercase A and H is a crossbar. The
horizontal or sloping stroke enclosing the bottom of the
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eye of an e is also a crossbar. Although often used
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interchangeably, the crossbar differs from an arm and a

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cross stroke because each end connects to a stem or

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stroke and doesn’t (usually) intersect/cross over the

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stem or stroke. The varying positioning, thickness, and

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slope of the bar is an identifying feature of many type

designs.

Also Known As: bar, arm, cross stroke

Alternate Spellings: cross bar (two words)

Examples: The cross bar connects the diagonal strokes of an uppercase A or the vertical stems of
an H. In contrast, the cross stroke intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f while the arms of an
uppercase F connect to the stem only at one end.

Cross Strokes - Cross your t’s. Definition: The horizontal

stroke across the stem of a lowercase t or f is a cross stroke.
Although often used interchangeably, the cross stroke differs
from an arm and a crossbar because it intersects/crosses over the
stem. The varying positioning, thickness, and slope of the cross
stroke is an identifying feature of many type designs. Also
Known As: arm, crossbar, Alternate Spellings: cross bar (two
words)

39 | P a g e
Examples: The cross stroke intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f. In contrast, the cross bar
connects the diagonal strokes of an uppercase A or the vertical stems of an H while the arms of
an uppercase F connect to the stem only at one end and the arm of an
uppercase T sits at the top of the stem and doesn’t connect at either
end.
Tail - A few letters love to wag their tails. Definition: In
typography, the descending, often decorative stroke on the letter Q
or the descending, often curved diagonal stroke on K or R is the tail.
The descender on g, j, p, q, and y are also called tails.

Leg - Most letters don’t have one to stand on. Definition: The
lower, down sloping stroke of the K and k is called a leg. The
same stroke on R as well as the tail of a Q is sometimes also called
a leg.

Also Known As: tail r

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Bowls - Not for soup or cereal, they hold nothing.

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Definition: In typography, the curved part of the

character that encloses the circular or curved parts
(counter) of some letters such as d, b, o, D, and B is the
bowl. Some sources call any parts of a letter enclosing a
space a bowl, including both parts of a double-storey g
and the straight stem on a D or B. The curved strokes of a
C are sometimes also referred to as bowls although they
aren’t closed. The shape and size of the counter and bowl
can affect readability and is also an identifying factor for
some typefaces.

Examples: The bowl usually refers to the main, enclosed

circular portion of some characters and not usually the curved loops that may be a part of the
extenders or other flourishes on letters such as the double-storey g, cursive y, or cursive d.

2. Counters

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 This part of a letter is what’s inside the bowl. It’s white space or negative
space, not a stroke at all. Definition: In typography, the enclosed or
partially enclosed circular or curved negative space (white space) of some
letters such as d, o, and s is the counter. The term counter may sometimes
be used to refer only to closed space, while partially enclosed spaces in m,
n, or h are the aperture. The shape and size of the counter and bowl
(curved stroke enclosing the counter) can affect readability and is also an
identifying factor for some typefaces.

Also Known As: aperture, inner space, enclosed space

Examples: Fonts with very small or thin counters may not reproduce well at very small font
sizes. Depending on the size and the printing method the counters may close up (fill with ink).

There are other more specific terms for some of the negative space that defines a letterform:

Eye - I spy a special counter.

Definition: Much like a counter, the eye refers specifically to
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the enclosed space in a lowercase e. Also Known As: counter
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Examples: At very small sizes the eye of some fonts could fill
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with ink making the letter e appear as a c or blob of ink.

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Aperture - This space could escape. Definition: The aperture

is the partially enclosed, somewhat rounded negative space in
some characters such as n, C, S, the lower part of e, or the upper
part of a double-storey a.

Also Known As: counter

Common Misspellings: aperature Examples: One identifying

characteristic of some fonts is the even or uneven shape of the
rounded part of the aperture of letters such as h, n, and u.

41 | P a g e
3. Serifs
Probably the most familiar characteristic of type, serifs come in
three basic shapes and fall into one of two groups.

Definition: In typography, a serif is the little extra stroke found

at the end of main vertical and horizontal strokes of some
letterforms. Serifs fall into various groups and can be generally
described as hairline (hair), square (slab), or wedge and are
either bracketed or unbracketed.
Hairline serifs are much thinner than the main strokes. Square
or slab serifs are thicker than hairline serifs all the way up
heavier weight than the main strokes. Wedge serifs are triangular in shape.

Unbracketed serifs attach directly to the strokes of the letterform, sometimes abrubtly or at right
angles. Bracketed serifs provide a curved transition between the serif and the main strokes.
Within these divisions serifs can be blunt, rounded, tapered, pointed, or some hyrid shape.

Similar to serifs, each of these letterparts may be understated or may form a distinctive, readily
identifiable element of a typeface: u r
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Ears - Gee, why can’t I hear you? Definition: Typically found on the
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lower case g, an ear is a decorative flourish usually on the upper right

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side of the bowl. Similar to a serif, the ear can be a distinctive,

identifying element of some typefaces.
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Spurs - Not just for cowboys. Definition: Similar to but generally smaller
than a serif or beak, a spur is a small bit at the end of certain curved
portions of a letterform such as the end(s) of a C or S or the middle of G.

Also Known As: serif, barb, cat’s ear

Beaks - No birds here. Definition: A beak is a type of decorative stroke at

the end of the arm of a letter, connected to the arm by the terminal. Similar
to a spur or serif, it is usually more pronounced.

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Chins - Some letters have a strong one. Definition: The right
angled stroke on the capital letter G is its chin.

Examples: The horizontal arm and the vertical spur of the G meet
to form the chin.

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 Baseline

Definition: In typography, the baseline is the imaginary line upon

which a line of text rests. In most typefaces, the descenders on
characters such as g or p extend down below the baseline while
curved letters such as c or o extend ever-so-slightly below the
baseline. The baseline is the point from which other elements of type
are measured including x-height and leading. The baseline is also
significant in the alignment of drop caps and other page elements.

Examples: The amount of space between the baselines of two lines of

type — the leading — combined with how far below the baseline
that descenders go (and how high ascenders go), can affect the
readability of the text.

You may need to adjust the baseline alignment between

your initial cap and the rest of the text. Your initial cap
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should share a baseline with the adjacent text. Ideally the
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top of your initial cap should be even or above the top of

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the top line of text in the paragraph. Move it or resize it to

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get the right balance.

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Reading (the space) between the lines

Leading is the space between lines of text.

Pronounced ledd-ing, its name comes from the
practice of using metal strips (usually lead) of varying
widths to separate lines of text in the days of metal
type. Leading is also called line spacing. Some
programs offer multiple ways to specify leading which
can lead to some confusion.

Although it refers to the space between lines of text, leading measurements are generally
specified as the amount of space from baseline to baseline. Leading is normally measured in
points, just like type.

How much leading?

One rule of thumb suggests adding about 20% or around 2 points to the point size of your text as
a starting point for adjusting line spacing. Less is generally too crowded.

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Changing the leading of text affects its appearance and readability. When starting a new project,
experiment with the amount of leading to find what works best. Increased line spacing is also
another way to combat gray pages and introduce more white space into a page layout.

Do all programs set leading the same way?

Depending on the software, leading can be a point measurement (10 pt, 12 pt, 29.5 pt, etc.) or a
percentage of the typesize (10 pt type set with 120% leading). Some software programs give
multiple options.

Three methods of specifying leading are described here:

 In the PageMaker control palette select

a point measurement for leading from
the drop down menu or type in a
number. Choosing Auto will calculate
leading for each line based on the
percentage set for Autoleading
(described below).
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 In some programs, to get 10 point type with 12 point leading don’t put 12 points for line
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spacing — tell the program to add 2 pts to the point size of the type (10+2=12).
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 CorelDRAW allows the user to specify an exact point amount or to use a percentage of
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the type size.

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There are other options associated with leading.

Page layout programs will generally provide
greater control over these options. For example,
in PageMaker the user can select a Leading
method — proportional, top of caps, or baseline.
It simply changes the way the software allocates
or measures the leading between lines of text.

Normally the leading is measured from the baseline of one line of text to the baseline of the next.
Or, the user could measure it from the top of the caps (Capitals) of one line to the top of the caps
of the next. The amount of space is the same, but it affects the space between the first line of text
and the text frame.

If text frames that have the same leading throughout don’t seem to line up line for line with each
other — check the leading method. A change from one paragraph to the next can also account for
unexplained gaps or tight spaces between paragraphs.

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 Kerning & Tracking

Kerning and tracking are two related and frequently confused typographical terms. Both refer
to the adjustment of space between characters of type.

Kerning is the adjustment of space between pairs of letters. Some pairs of letters create
awkward spaces. Kerning adds or subtracts space between letters to create more visually
appealing and readable text.

Tracking is Overall Letterspacing, Tracking differs from kerning in that tracking is the
adjustment of space for groups of letters and entire blocks of text. Use tracking to change the
overall appearance and readability of the text, making it more open and airy or more dense.

(Leading is the space between lines of type. Tracking refers to the distance between letters in
general, while kerning refers to the spatial relationship between a set of two letters. )

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X-Height

Definition: In typography, x-height is the distance

between the baseline of a line of type and tops of the
main body of lower case letters (i.e. excluding ascenders
or descenders). The x-height is a factor in typeface
identification and readability.

Typefaces with very large x-height relative to the total

height of the font have shorter ascenders and descenders
and thus less white space between lines of type. Sans
Serif typefaces typically have large x-heights. In
typefaces with small x-heights, other letter parts such as
ascenders and descenders may become more visually
noticeable.

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Typefaces with large x-heights may appear darker, heavier, crowded, and more difficult to read
at body copy sizes.

If changing to a typeface with a smaller x-height is not an option, open up the lines of type by
adding more leading (line spacing), and not using fully justified alignment.

Also Known As: xheight

Alignment

In typesetting and page layout, alignment or range is the setting of text flow or image placement
relative to a page, column (measure), table cell or tab. The type alignment setting is sometimes
referred to as text alignment, text justification or type justification.

Basic variations

There are five basic typographic alignments: r

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flush left— the text is aligned along the left margin or gutter, also known as ragged right;
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flush right—the text is aligned along the right margin or gutter, also known as ragged left;
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justified— text is aligned along the left margin, and letter- and word-spacing is adjusted so
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that the text falls flush with the right margin, also known as full justification;
centered—text is aligned to neither the left nor right margin; there is an even gap at the end of
each line.

Force justified - Stretches a single line of text to fill a page or column width.

Note that alignment does not change the direction in which text is read; however text direction
may determine the most commonly used alignment for that script.

Flush left

In English and most European languages where words are read left-to-right, text is often aligned
‘flush left’, meaning that the text of a paragraph is aligned on the left-hand side with the right-
hand side ragged. This is the default style of text alignment on the World Wide Web.

Quotations are often indented.

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Flush right

In other languages that read text right-to-left, such as Arabic and Hebrew, text is commonly
aligned ‘flush right’. Additionally, flush-right alignment is used to set off special text in English,
such as attributions to authors of quotes printed in books and magazines, and is often used when
formatting tables of data.

Justified

A common type of text alignment in print media is ‘justification’, where the spaces between
words, and, to a lesser extent, between glyphs or letters, are stretched or compressed to make the
align both the left and right ends of each line of text. When using justification it is customary to
treat the last line of a paragraph separately by simply left or right aligning it, depending on the
language direction. Lines in which the spaces have been stretched beyond their normal width are
called loose lines, while those whose spaces have been compressed are called tight lines.

Some modern typesetting programs offer four justification options: left justify, right justify,
center justify and full justify. These variants specify whether the last line is flushed left, flushed
right, centered or fully justified (spread over the whole column width). In programs that do not
offer this extra functionality, justify is equal to left justify.
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Centered
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Text can also be ‘centered’, or symmetrically aligned along an axis in the middle of a column.
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This is often used for the title of a work, and for poems and songs. As with flush-right alignment,
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centered text is often used to present data in tables. Centered text is considered less readable for a
body of text made up of multiple lines because the ragged starting edges make it difficult for the
reader to track from one line to the next.

Force-Justified

For a special effect, use the “Force justify” alignment option to stretch a single line of text—a
headline, for instance—to fill a page or column width. If you want the spacing to be more evenly
distributed, create non breaking spaces so that the line of text would be treated as one long word.

Special character tab alignment

Tab alignment may be relative to specified character such as a decimal point as shown it the
example:

375.87
23.678
389.3

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Layout
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Unit – II
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 Page Layout

Page layout is the process of placing and arranging and rearranging text and graphics on the
page to produce documents such as newsletters, brochures, books, etc. With print media,
elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics
for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind
embossing.

Page layout refers to the actual document page and its composition. The primary software
programs for desktop publishing are called page layout applications.

Since the advent of personal computing, page layout skills have expanded to electronic media as
well as print media. The electronic page is better known as a graphical user interface (GUI) when
interactive elements are included.

A page layout may be designed in a rough paper and pencil sketch before producing, or produced
during the design process to the final form. Both design and production may be achieved using
hand tools or page layout software. u r
In desktop publishing, a good page layout is about more than just applying the principles of
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graphic design or creating cutting-edge design. A workable page layout is one that delivers the
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intended message to its primary audience. A workable page layout focuses on the practical
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aspects of the document such as method of distribution, visibility, and handling.

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Build the page layout around the main message.

All elements of the page layout including images, fonts, and colors must be appropriate to the
message the piece is designed to convey. If you can’t identify or haven’t been told the main
message of the project you may have trouble creating an appropriate serious, playful, formal, or
casual page layout that delivers the message effectively.

All elements of the page layout including images, fonts, and colors must be appropriate to the
message the piece is designed to convey. If you can’t identify or haven’t been told the main
message of the project you may have trouble creating an appropriate serious, playful, formal, or
casual page layout that delivers the message effectively.

 Use an image or illustration that supports the message. It may be obvious but a photo
of a phone booth may not be appropriate to an ad for a cell phone service unless the
accompanying headline or other text somehow makes a verbal connection (such as, the
old vs. new way of communicating by phone) so that the visual supports the verbal
message and intent of the ad.

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A coupon or coupon border with little clip art scissors conveys the idea of money-savings but
that might not be appropriate for an upscale store. In an employee newsletter aimed at improving
the working environment and recognizing employee achievements, candid photographs of people
at work or at company functions are a better fit than studio portraits of the board of directors.

 Use fonts that are appropriate to the message. If the message is “we’re a fun place for
kids” use fonts that are fun and friendly. However, casual or playful fonts may not be the
best choice for an invitation to a formal dinner or a rental application.

 Choose colors based on the message not your personal preferences. If a company has
corporate colors they want to use, use them. And make sure any additional colors don’t
clash with those colors. A muted color scheme may fit a serious message and corporate
image better than bright primary colors. Consider the purpose of the piece, the audience,
and what the piece is meant to convey when choosing colors.

Choose a page layout size that fits the intended or expected use.

Choose a standard tri-fold format for a brochure, tabloid size for a newsletter, or an oversized
postcard size for a direct mail piece only after considering the recipient, budget, need for
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portability or filing, and postal regulations. Let the audience and use not your available templates
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or desire to do something different dictate the size of the layout.

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Choose a standard tri-fold format for a brochure, tabloid size for a newsletter, or an oversized
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postcard size for a direct mail piece only after considering the recipient, budget, the need for
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portability or filing, and postal regulations. Let the audience and use not your available templates
or desire to do something different dictate the size of the layout.

 Make brochures and handouts a size that is easy to hold, file, or place in a binder.
 For larger documents likely to be filed make them foldable to filing size.
 When folded, keep identifying information to the outside.
 For material going out by mail, keep postal regulations in mind. Paper weight,
dimensions, and thickness all affect mailing costs and envelope size.
 Material that is likely to be faxed, scanned, or photocopied needs to be a standard paper
size to accommodate typical fax machines, scanners, and photocopiers.

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Plan a page layout around how a piece is seen and handled.

Think about the visibility and use of a piece when arranging page elements. Does the title,
headline, label, or key visual need to be visible, readable, or recognizable from a distance, from a
magazine rack, on a shelf, in a binder?

Think about the visibility and use of a piece when arranging page elements. Does the title,
headline, label, or key visual need to be visible, readable, or recognizable from a distance, from a
magazine rack, on a shelf, in a binder, or from different angles?
For folded items and self-mailers consider what the recipient sees first before opening the piece.
Put elements on the outer panels that identify what the piece is about, what will be inside such as
a company name or logo, newsletter name, or an enticing (but appropriate) headline or visual.

 For magazines sold on magazine racks, place the nameplate at the top so it is easily seen.
 For signs or posters make text and visuals large enough to be seen from a distance.
 For packaging, use colors and placement of text and visuals that help identify the package
from the front, side, or back.
 For forms, letters, reports, booklets, and handouts leave adequate margins for note-taking
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and binding or fastening with clips.

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 For resumes, letterhead, memos, or forms likely to be faxed, scanned, or photocopied

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choose visuals and fonts that reproduce well in black and white.
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Avoid hairline rules and light colors that disappear at low resolution or photos and dark blocks of
color that fax or photocopy poorly.

Different Components of Page Layout

Grids versus templates

Grids and templates are page layout design patterns used in advertising campaigns and multiple
page publications.

 A grid is a set of guidelines, visible in the design process and invisible to the end-
user/audience, for aligning and repeating elements on a page. A page layout may or may
not stay within those guidelines, depending on how much repetition or variety the design
style in the series calls for. Grids are meant to be flexible. Using a grid to layout elements
on the page may require just as much or more graphic design skill than that which was
required to design the grid.
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  In contrast, a template is more rigid. A template involves repeated elements mostly
visible to the end-user/audience. Using a template to layout elements usually involves
less graphic design skill than that which was required to design the template. Templates
are used for minimal modification of background elements and frequent modification (or
swapping) of foreground content.

Most desktop publishing software allows for grids in the form of a page filled with automatic
dots placed at a specified equal horizontal and vertical distance apart. Automatic margins and
booklet spine (gutter) lines maybe specified for global use throughout the document. Multiple
additional horizontal and vertical lines may be placed at any point on the page. Invisible to the
end-user/audience shapes may be placed on the page as guidelines for page layout and print
processing as well. Software templates are achieved by duplicating a template data file, or with
master page features in a multiple page document. Master pages may include both grid elements
and template elements such as header and footer elements, automatic page numbering, and
automatic table of contents features.

Pagination
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Pagination is the system by which the information on a newspaper, bookpage, manuscript, or
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otherwise handwritten or printed document are laid out. In a strict sense of the word, it can mean
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the consecutive numbering to indicate the proper order of the pages, which was rarely found in
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documents pre-dating 1500, and only became common practice circa 1550, when it replaced
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foliation, which numbered only the front sides of folios.

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Recto and verso

The recto is the right-hand page and the verso the left-hand page (“verso” can also mean to turn
over in the mind) of a folded sheet or bound item, such as a book, broadsheet, or pamphlet. These
are terms of art in the binding, printing, and publishing industries, and can be applied more
broadly to any field where physical documents are exchanged.

The term recto-verso describes two-sided printing. It is the norm for books, but was an
important advantage of the printing-press over the much older Asian woodblock printing
method, which printed by rubbing from behind the page being printed, and so could only print on
one side of a piece of paper.

The distinction between recto and verso can be convenient in the annotation of scholarly books,
particularly in bilingual edition translations.

A religious scripture that makes use of the recto and verso distinction is the Ginza Rba of
Mandaeism, in which two separate narratives cover the opposite-facing pages.

The “recto” and “verso” terms can also be employed for the front and back of a one-sheet
artwork, particularly in drawing. A recto-verso drawing is a sheet with drawings on both sides,

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for example in a sketchbook—although usually in these cases there is no obvious primary side.
Some works are planned to exploit being on two sides of the same piece of paper, but usually the
works are not intended to be considered together. Paper was relatively expensive in the past;
indeed good drawing paper still is much more expensive than normal paper.

Margin

In typography, a margin is the white space that surrounds the content of a page. The margin
helps to define where a line of text begins and ends. When a page is justified the text is spread
out to be flush with the left and right margins. The standard margin in most word processing
programs is 1 inch.

Margins

Margins are the imaginary vertical demarcations for text or tabular columns. Overall or primary
margins are established by the line length function or the cumulative total of secondary margins
(tab or text columns).

Establishing margins requires careful consideration. The amount of white space surrounding
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printed material effects both appearance and the readability of the page. Plenty of marginal space
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indicates luxury or formality; small margins indicate commercialism.

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Type area in relation to paper area may vary greatly according to the nature of the project. A
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telephone directory page, will utilize more than 90% of the paper for type extremities, because
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the inexpensive paper contributes nothing to the appearance and it has no value to the user.

A luxury book in which carefully selected stock plays an important part in the design and beauty
might use as little as 25% of the area for type, leaving 75% for margin.

Two facing pages of a book are considered as a unit; the inside (back) margins are always
smaller than the outside (foredge) margins. In bookwork, make the inside margin, the narrowest,
the top (head) margin a little wider, the outside (foredge) still wider and the foot/tail margin
widest of all.

Margins in good quality bookwork today are based on

the standards set by early scribes and printers. The text
matter is positioned high up on the page and well into
the back margin, providing generous foot and foredge
margins. Book and magazines are established
differently than are single-page ones.

Two pages next to each other when a book is opened

54 | P a g e
must appear to belong together. The geometrical method is one particular method in determining
margins for a book. This method calls for a square format. Short running headlines and folios at
the foot of the page are ignored as they contribute very little to the mass of the text matter.

The following diagrams are three distinct apportionments of type area to paper area for book
pages. The first is the most common, using 64 percent of the paper area for type. The width and
depth of the type would be 80 percent of the page dimensions.

The second diagram is for a classic book page, using 50 percent of the area for type, or 71
percent of the width and depth.

The final diagram represents a book in the luxury class, using 25

percent for type, half width and depth. The main case against literal
application of proportional margin systems, divine, geometric or
otherwise, is that we have become accustomed to a fuller page.
Whether advertising design, where type is run to within a hair’s
breadth of any trim edge, or paper backs, where the margins are
minimal are the cause, we cannot say.
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Today, the use of classical margins appears almost an affectation in a

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book intended for a broad readership. All we can offer is the re-
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commendation that the margin be proportioned in a pleasing balance

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and that differences in height and breadth be obvious.

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Classic Margins

For the most typical hardbound trade books today in the 150 mm by
230 mm size range, a back margin of 4 picas is minimum. This
margin is determined first and the others evolved from it. The top
margin can be the same width because when the book is bound, the
back margin appears narrower. Rather than skimp on the foredge
and foot margins the designer may consider reducing the body type
size to meet the publisher’s page limit.
Deluxe Margins

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Column

In typography, a column is one or more vertical blocks of text positioned on a page, separated by
margins and/or rules. Columns are most commonly used to break up large bodies of text that
cannot fit in a single block of text on a page. Additionally, columns are used to improve page
composition and readability. Newspapers very frequently use complex multi-column layouts to
break up different stories and longer bodies of texts within a story. Column can also more
generally refer to the vertical delineations created by a typographic grid system which type and
Image may be positioned.

For best legibility, typographic manuals suggest that columns should contain roughly 60
characters per line. One formula suggests multiplying the point size of the font by 2 to reach how
wide a column should be in picas. Following these guidelines usually results in multiple narrow
columns being favored over a single wide column. Historically, books containing predominantly
text generally have around 40 lines per column. However, this rule of thumb does not apply to
more complex text that contains multiple images or illustrations, footnotes, running heads, folios,
and captions.

Column contrast refers to the overall color or grayness established by the column, and can be
adjusted in a number of ways. One way is to adjust the relationship between the width and height
of the column. Another way is to make adjustments to the typeface, from choosing a specific
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font, to adjusting weight, style, size and leading. Column contrast can be used to establish
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hierarchy, to balance the page composition, and to visually activate areas of the page.
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Pull Quote
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A pull quote (also known as a lift-out quote or a call-out) is a quotation or edited excerpt from
an article that is placed in a larger typeface on the same page, serving to lead readers into an
article and to highlight a key topic. The term is principally used in journalism and publishing.
Some publications choose not to align the pull quote with the columns on a page; in that case, it
cuts into two or more columns to reduce the linearity of a page. Placement of a pull quote on a
page is usually defined in a publication’s own style manual.

Widows and orphans

In typesetting, widow refers to the final line of a paragraph that falls at the top the following
page of text, separated from the remainder of the paragraph on the previous page. The term can
also be used to refer simply to an uncomfortably short (e.g. a single word or two very short
words) final line of a paragraph.

A related term, orphan, refers to the first line of a paragraph appearing on its own at the bottom
of a page with the remaining portion of the paragraph appearing on the following page; in other
words the first line of the paragraph has been “left behind” by the remaining portion of text.

56 | P a g e
Note that a widow, by the second
definition above, can also fall at the
bottom of a page, in the sense that the
page ends on a very short line at the end
of a paragraph.

One easy way to remember the

difference between an orphan and a
widow is to remember that orphans
“have no past, but a future”, while
widows “have a past but no future” just
as an orphan or widow in life. Widows
are considered sloppy typography and
should be avoided. Some techniques for
eliminating widows include:

 Forcing a page break early, producing a shorter page;

 Adjusting the leading, the space between lines of text (although such carding or
feathering is usually frowned upon); r
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 Adjusting the spacing between words to produce ‘tighter’ or ‘looser’ paragraphs;

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 Adjusting the page’s margins;

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 Subtle scaling of the page, though too much non-uniform scaling can visibly distort the
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letters;
Gutter Space

When typographers talk about gutters, they are not referring to to channels or troughs on roofs
used to direct water. However, they are referring to a similar concept. Typographic gutters are
the white spaces between two pages of a book, or more generally, between columns of text. They
are a type of margin, and arranging gutters properly is a crucial element of typography.

Poorly spaced gutters can make text difficult to follow or read. In the case of gutters between the
pages of a book, badly designed gutters can actually obscure some of the text. In this instance, if
the gutters are not made wide enough to allow for the binding of the book, the text will run into
the seam of the binding, rendering it difficult or impossible to read. Gutters which are less
closely spaced can still pose problems, and arranging gutters is actually a fine art.

Much like rain gutters, typography gutters are designed to control and direct something, in this
case, the attention of the reader. A solid block of text without a break can be extremely difficult
to read and comprehend. As a result, typography integrates the use of gutters, margins, and other
white spaces to make the surface visually interesting. The breaks provided by white space help to
direct the eye, keeping the reader on task. When a reader sees columns of text with gutters, his or

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her training suggests that the columns should be read individually.

A newspaper provides an excellent example of gutters and margins. When you look at the front
page of a newspaper, you will notice that the text is broken up into an assortment of columns,
clearly separated by white space. These white spaces are the gutters, and they inform the eye that
the pieces of text should be read independently and sequentially. Each column is a story, and
each gutter is like a chapter divider. They also provide a rest for the eye, allowing the reader to
focus and absorb the material. Imagine receiving a newspaper with a front page which took the
form of a solid block of text with no interruption!

Gutters are slightly different than margins. The term “margin” is used to refer to any sort of
white space, typographically, usually on the edge or margin of printed material. Margins are
important, because they break up images and text on the page. Gutters are usually used
specifically to talk about the space between columns of text. That space could also be considered
a margin, so it could be said that gutters are margins, but not all margins are gutters.

Drop Cap

A decorative capital letter at the beginning of a paragraph that hangs below the top line of the
paragraph and occupies space of more than one line. A large initial capital or versal embedded
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into the text. Traditionally the first capital letter of a paragraph set in a larger point size and
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aligned with the top of the first line. As such, this method is used to indicate the start of a new
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section of text, such as a chapter.

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Initial caps - those oversized, sometimes ornate letters used to introduce paragraphs in books,
newsletters, and ads - do serve a purpose. What? You thought they were just there for
decoration? Initial caps, by their size or design attract the eye of the reader. They signal the start
of a story or a change in focus. In long articles or predominantly text publications they provide a
visual break.

There are three basic types of initial caps:

Raised: Raised caps are the simplest type of initial caps to create. Simply
change the first letter to a larger type size. Don’t change the leading for that
character or you could end up with a gap between the first and second lines.

Dropped: Dropped caps are probably the most familiar to us. They drop into
a space created within the paragraph. Many word processing and page layout
programs have macros or scripts to automatically create dropped caps.

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 Adjacent: Adjacent caps can be easy to create if your layout includes
extra space adjacent to each column of text. If the adjacent cap is
created independent of the accompanying body text be careful to adjust
placement when repaginating or moving around other columns of text.

Bleed and Borders

Bleed
A page without a border is called a bleed because the ink bleeds through the surrounding white
border into the trim space. An obvious benefit of this technique is that the ad itself becomes
larger. Although most publishers charge extra for bleeds, this cost is often justified by the ads
extra impact. A bleed carries the implication of action, freedom and adventure and tends to make
the ad more lifelike.

In research by Fosdick, nearly half of all high readership ads used bleeds. Conversely, only 14%
of low readership ads used this technique.
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In contrast, borders set up continuity, structure, and formality. Borders can isolate the ad from
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surrounding copy and other ads -forcing you to focus on the ad. However, they tend to make the ad
appear smaller.

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 Advertising Layout

An advertisement layout can be defined as the systematic design of size, color

scheme, graphics, object and text placement to send intended message to the target
audience.

Advertising and sales fliers are common desktop-published documents. Whether designing ads
for clients or for your own business, you can improve the effectiveness of those ads with just a
few time-proven design strategies.

When readers look at your ad what do they see first? Research indicates that readers typically
look at:

1. Visual
2. Caption
3. Headline
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5. Signature (Advertisers name, contact information)
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The illustration on this page is the basic design that follows the classic visual, headline, caption,
copy, signature format. From this basic ad layout, other variations are derived.

Try changing the margins, fonts, leading, size of the initial cap, size of the visual, and placing the
copy in columns to customize the basic format of this ad layout.

1. Visual at the top of the page. If you are using a photo, bleed it to the edge of the page or ad
space for maximum impact.
2. For photos, place a descriptive caption below.
3. Put your headline next.
4. Follow with your main ad copy. Consider a drop cap as a lead-in to help draw the reader
into the copy.
5. Place your contact information (signature) in the lower right corner. That's generally the
last place a reader's eye gravitates to when reading an ad.

Advertising Layout Strategy

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Proportional guideline:
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1. Illustration 65 %
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2. Headline 10 %
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3. Copy 20 %
4. Logo 5%
of space allocation (20%+ white
100 %
space)

Illustration
In most ads, the illustration is used to attract attention. Large, single illustrations attracted the
most attention (advertising recall studies by Starch). Though the headline may be the "stopper",
the illustration is the most critical element in the ad's success. It can also visually communicate
product benefits and concept, and lead the reader into the headline and copy.

Headline
The headline is used to attract attention, arouse interest, and make the ad more attractive and
readable. However, it should not be over 10 words and more than 15 % of the ad's total area.

Copy
Style of typeface used in the headline, subhead and copy will impact the mood and readability of
the ad. Mixed type should be either very similar or very different. Mixing more than two (or
three at most) different typefaces makes an ad busy and confusing.

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Logo
Because we read left to right and top to bottom, the logo or company signature can be
strategically placed in the lower right hand corner of an ad. With this position, the logo is the last
element we see and most likely remember.

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Direct the viewer's eye

from the page's top, down through the center and end at the page's bottom.
The eye sees the illustration first, then we read down from there (David Ogilvy). Headlines
located below the illustration pull 10% more readers (research by Simmons).

Emphasis

The optical center of an ad is in the center and two-thirds up from the bottom. This should be the
ad's focal point.

Proportional use of space

The proportional use of space in an ad is dependent upon the product and market target. Product
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ads that try to communicate an image (perfume, jewelry, etc.) will have a greater proportion of
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illustration and little copy. Conversely, an ad for a technical product will have more copy.
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White Space
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At least 20 % of an ad should be blank (white space). Ample white space helps gain attention,
create contrast, and unify the ad. According to Albert Books, white space is probably the most
underestimated element in advertisements.

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Newspaper
A newspaper is a regularly scheduled publication containing news, information, and advertising.
General-interest newspapers typically publish stories on local, national and International political
events and personalities, crime, business, entertainment, society and sports. Most traditional
papers also feature an editorial page containing editorials written by an editor and columns that
express the personal opinions of writers. Other features include display and classified
advertising, comics, and inserts from local merchants.

Newspapers typically meet four criteria:

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 Publicity : Its contents are reasonably accessible to the public.
 Periodicity : It is published at regular intervals.
 Currency : Its information is up to date.
 Universality : It covers a range of topics.

NEWSPAPER LAYOUT

1. The language of Layout and Design

Measurements; the basic elements
2. Laying Out Pages
Prelayout decisions; copyfitting; attracting scanners; segmenting the package;
principles of design
3. Working in Modules
Advantages of modular layout; advertising stacks; working with ads; modular
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open pages; showing relationships; how to disassociate elements; protecting
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copy flow patterns

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4. Using Photographs
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The photo system; editing photos; photo illustration; using two or more
photographs; the picture page; cutlines; photographic ethics; taste in editing;
mainstreaming minorities

5. Understanding Information Graphics

The range of graphics; helping readers understand charts; four kinds of charts; datelines;
seven kinds of maps; diagrams and illustrations; minorities in graphics; creating a style sheet

6. Creating Accurate Information Graphics

Seven common errors

7. Understanding Type
Type design: a brief history; parts of letters; the language of type; type grouping families;
fonts; identifying type

8. Legibility of Type
Legibility considerations; selecting text type

9. Using Type

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 Headline type choices; assuring contrast; working with display type; type can talk;
connotative messages

10. Communicating with Color

Responses to color; understanding color; producing color; creating a color
stylebook; vocabulary of color; a color philosophy; using color in graphics

BEYOND THE BASICS: NEWSPAPER DESIGN

11. The Process of Redesign

Getting others involved; predesign questions; implementation; prototype phase; the results;
the stylebook; education and promotion

12. Designing Sections

The news section; feature section; sports; business; editorial

13. Designing Accessories

Flags; labels; bylines; logos; story logos; icons
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Broadsheet Newspaper
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Broadsheet refers to the most common newspaper format. While measurements vary,
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broadsheets are typically 29.5 inches wide and 23.5 inches long, as opposed to a tabloid, which is
usually 11 X 17 inches.

Broadsheet papers tend to employ a traditional approach to news that emphasizes in-depth
coverage and a sober tone in articles and editorials.

Tabloid

It is a newspaper of small format giving the news in condensed form, usually with illustrated,
often sensational material.

The tabloid paper size is 11 × 17 inches & tabloid extra paper size is 12 x 18 inches.

Letter Size

Letter size is the standard size for letters (thus, the name), newsletters and magazines
(finished/folded size), copy machine paper, and desktop printing papers. The actual dimensions
depend on where you live. A. In North America letter size paper is 8.5 x 11 inches. Outside
North America, A4 paper would be the equivalent of letter size.

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Newsletters are typically printed on tabloid size sheets of paper and then folded in half to create
a letter size publication. Brochures, especially those printed from a desktop printer, often start
out as letter size and are then folded to create a tri-fold brochure. After trimming the actual
dimensions of a letter size publication may be slightly smaller.

Digest Size

If you take a letter size piece of paper and fold it in half that is roughly digest size.

The actual dimensions of a finished digest size publication can vary from 5.5 x 8.25 inches to
some smaller variation depending on the size of the sheet of paper you start with and the amount
of trim. Books, magazines (such as Reader's Digest and TV Guide, and catalogs are often printed
at digest size (although they are generally printed on a larger sheet size that is then cut and folded
to a digest size).

Cut sizes

Definition: Cut sizes are the smaller sizes of paper generally used by quick printers. The two
common cut sizes are 8.5x11 (letter size) or A4 and 11x17 (tabloid) or A3. Most laser printers,
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photocopy machines, fax machines, and small presses are designed for the letter size sheets or
cut sizes no larger than the 11x17 or A3 sizes.
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ISO sheet sizes

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Common sizes of sheets of paper used in the graphic arts and printing industry outside of North
America are ISO Sheet sizes. ISO (International Standards Organization) uses the metric system
and sheets are measured in millimeters. The A0 sheet (841x1189mm) is one square meter and
smaller sizes are A1, A2, A3, and A4. Also Known As: A sizes

Magazine Layout

Magazine: - A periodical containing a collection of articles, stories, pictures, or other features.

Or Printed collection of texts (essays, articles, stories, poems), often illustrated, that is produced
at regular intervals. Magazine brands also engage with their audiences face-to-face by
organizing exhibitions, conferences and other events.

The word ‘magazine’ describes branded, edited content often supported by advertising or
sponsorship and delivered in print or other forms. Traditionally, magazines have been printed
periodicals which are most commonly published weekly, monthly or quarterly.

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Since the advent of personal computing, page layout skills have expanded to electronic media as
well as print media. A page layout may be designed in a rough paper and pencil sketch before
producing, or produced during the design process to the final form. Both design and production
may be achieved using hand tools or page layout software.

Book Page Layout

Page layout is a term used to describe the way in which text and images are situated on a printed
page. As with cover design, a well designed page layout is a critical component of any book.
Unfortunately the importance of creating a good page layout is not realized by many self
published authors as their book becomes an example of bad page layout practices. A bad page
layout may also be the result of using the wrong software to produce your book. For example, a
book produced using Microsoft Works will look quite different than a book whose page layout
was created with PageMaker, Quark, or InDesign.

The term “page layout” is used simply to describe the way text and images are situated on a
page. In order for your book to have a professional look and feel, there are four basic principles
to follow.

Contrast
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In order for your page layout to be visually appealing and to keep the readers interest, you should
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have contrast on your pages. Notice the use of contrast on this page, color, font size, font style,
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and bold headings. Use a contrasting type for headings; keep the headings very different from the
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body type. Don't go overboard, use one type for the body copy and a different one for the
headings. Consider a newspaper and how the headings are larger and bolder.

Alignment

Choose one justification and stick to it. As a rule, center justification will give the page layout a
formal look. It is commonly used for wedding invitations, formal announcements, etc. Left
justification will give your book a more conservative professional look. Full justification within
the layout will give your book a clean orderly look. With full justification, your headings could
be either left, right, or centered on the page.

Repetition

Create a sense of unity throughout your book by adding a few visual elements that you like, then
repeat them throughout your book. Look through some of your favorite books to see what they
have used on the pages; you may get some inspiration. Perhaps a decorative ornament under the

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heading of each chapter, or a decorative drop cap to start each chapter might give your book a
special look.

Proximity

Organize your type properly by grouping text together that relates to each other.

Print Advertising
Print Advertising is a form of advertising that uses physically printed media such as Newspaper
and Magazine to reach consumers, business, and customers and prospects.

Advertisers also use digital media, such as banner ads, mobile ads and advertising is social
media, to reach the same target audience.

Package Design
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Package design is the discipline of creating the container, graphics and visible outer presence of
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a product a consumer buys at retail or might receive in the mail. This container may range from a
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simple bottle and label to an elaborate box or system of boxes and inner packaging.
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Web Banner

A web banner is a typically rectangular advertising placed on a website

either above, below or on the sides of the websites main content and is
linked to the advertisers own website. It includes text, graphics images,
flash and animated text/graphics.

In a common way we can say that web banner is a basic unit of

electronic advertising.

Standard Web Banners:

Size Style Gif Weight
468 X 60 Full Banner 20 KB
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728 X 90 Leaderboard 25 KB
336 X 280 Square 25 KB
300 X 250 Square 25 KB
120 X 600 Skyscraper 25 KB
160 X 600 Skyscraper 25 KB
120 X 240 Small Skyscraper 20 KB
240 X 400 Fat Skyscraper 25 KB
234 X 60 Half Banner 15 KB
180 X 150 Rectangle 15 KB
125 X 125 Square Button 15 KB
120 X 90 Button 10KB
120 X 60 Button 10 KB
88 X 31 Button 10 KB
500 X 350 Pop-up r 30 KB
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550 X 480 Pop-up 30 KB

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300 X 600 Half Page Banner 35 KB

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94 X 15 Blog Button 10 KB
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Note: All measurements are in Pixels.

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