This article was downloaded by: [McMaster University]

On: 10 May 2013, At: 05:09

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Drying Technology: An International Journal

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ldrt20

Freeze-Drying Characteristics of Tropical Fruits

a a a
Luanda G. Marques , Ana M. Silveira & José T. Freire
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos Drying Center of
Pastes, Suspensions and Seeds, São Carlos-SP, Brazil
Published online: 06 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Luanda G. Marques , Ana M. Silveira & José T. Freire (2006): Freeze-Drying Characteristics of Tropical
Fruits, Drying Technology: An International Journal, 24:4, 457-463

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373930600611919

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Drying Technology, 24: 457–463, 2006
Copyright # 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print/1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373930600611919

Freeze-Drying Characteristics of Tropical Fruits

Luanda G. Marques, Ana M. Silveira, and José T. Freire
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos Drying Center of Pastes,
Suspensions and Seeds, São Carlos-SP, Brazil

The national and international markets of processed

The objective of this work was to experimentally determine
physical properties such as apparent densities, real densities, and
porosity of freeze-dried tropical fruits pulps such as pineapple,
Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and mango, and to carry out
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013
fruits have continually grown due to the improved quality
of the marketed product, the convenience of ready-to-serve
products, and because the availability of seasonal com-

modities has been extended by the processing, which acts

nutritional analysis of vitamin C, calcium, and phosphorus in the
freeze-dried and in natura pulps. The freeze-dried pulps presented
low apparent density and elevated values of true density and
porosity. Based on the nutritional analysis performed in the in
natura and freeze-dried pulps the preservation of product quality
was verified.
Keywords Tropical fruits; Freeze drying; Physical properties;
Nutritional analysis
INTRODUCTION
Most fruits and vegetables contain more than 80%
water, and within fruit species, the water level varies widely
depending on environmental factors. In general, water is
distributed uniformly through the edible portion excepting
of the skin, which usually contains less water than the
tissue it encloses.[1]
Nowadays, Brazil is third in the ranking of fruit-produc-
ing countries, with 37.6 million tons obtained in the last
crop harvest from a cultivated area of more than 2 million
hectares.
Foodstuffs in general, and particularly fruits, are perish-
able products, and the post-harvest losses in Brazil have
reached numbers greater than 30%, rising more than the
increase in production for the same period. These losses
are due to selection of inadequate cultivar, unsuitable
post-harvest techniques, improper transportation con-
ditions, conditioning and storage, and conservation of
raw materials before in natura commercialization or
processing.
Correspondence: José T. Freire, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, Drying Center
of Pastes, Suspensions and Seeds, P.O. Box 676, São Carlos-SP,
13565-905 Brazil; Fax: þ551633518266; E-mail: freire@power.
ufscar.br
as a preservation technique. Among the processed pro-
ducts, dehydrated fruits and pulps have received special
attention because they are easily obtained, retain the char-
acteristics of natural products, present reduced transpor-
tation cost, and have an appropriate moisture level to
prevent growth of the molds, which cause deterioration
in fresh fruits.
Fruits are rich in beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C), nutrients that are heat sensitive
and thus greatly reduced during conventional drying
methods.[1]
During drying, apart from increased solids concen-
tration due to water removal, some individual components
also undergo changes. Partial inversion of sucrose occurs in
fruits that contain large amounts of this substance, parti-
cularly if the acid content is also high. These changes
may result in more hygroscopic dried fruits with altered
taste, texture, and appearance.[2] Drying also induces
changes in the pectic substances due to the structural modi-
fication of the cell wall, which are also related to textural
changes in dehydrated products.[3] Condensation of the
reducing sugar with nitrogen compounds (Maillard reac-
tion) imparts a brown coloring and a ‘‘caramel’’ flavor to
the product.[1–3] The difference in the flavor between fresh
and dried fruits is partially due to the loss of some volatile
components during water removal.
Based on this context, it has been verified that for heat-
sensitive materials, such as fruits and vegetables, the effect
of the drying process on product quality, particularly in the
retention of nutrients, color, and texture, is a critical factor
in the selection of a drying method. The dehydration
techniques commonly employed to preserve fruits and
vegetables are solar drying, heated air drying, microwave
drying, osmotic dehydration, foam-mat, spray-drying,
freeze-drying, and fluidized-bed drying.[2] Table 1 presents

457
 Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013

Methods Materials
Solar Fruits and vegetables,
flowers, aromatic herbs,
and medicinal plants
Hot Air Grains and seeds,
fruits, and vegetables
and wood
Spray-Drying Liquid foods, chemicals,
and pharmaceuticals
Foam-Mat Liquid foods,
semi-liquids, and
thermo-sensitive foods
Microwave Fruits and vegetables
TABLE 1
Main types of dryers used in the fruits drying
Characteristics Advantages
Utilization of solar light Low operating costs,
low drying temperature,
and elevated product
quality
Contact of hot air with Inexpensive process,
humid material, simple method, and
convection being the control of operating
principal phenomenon conditions
Atomization of feeding Low operating cost,
liquid and contact large-scale production,
of drops with hot air and reduced drying time
Feeding liquid Reduced drying time,
is transformed into foam, instantaneous
which enters into rehydration, and low
contact with hot air drying temperatures
Heat is generated inside the Uniform heating of interior
Disadvantages References
Volumetric and cellular [22,23]
shrinkage, enzymatic and
chemical degradation,
long drying time
Aromatic and nutritional [22,24]
degradation, shrinkage,
and loss of rehydration
potential
High temperature, [22,25]
thermal degradation,
and formation of
agglomerations
during drying
Non-enzymatic darkening, [22,26]
loss of aromatic
components, and foam
stability problems
High installation and [14,27]

458
food by the interaction of
its chemical constituents
and energy
Osmotic Fruits and vegetables, Immersion of material
Dehydration meat, and fish in hypertonic solution
occasioning simultaneous
diffusion of water
and solute
Spouted Bed Blood, vegetable extract Suspensions and paste
vegetal, banana, adhered to inert particles
tomato, and Barbados or pieces of fruit,
cherry puree which enter into
contact with hot air
Freeze Drying Fruits and vegetables, Freezing water removal
yogurt, and mushrooms from material by
sublimation
of material, good quality
flavor and coloration,
and reduced drying time
Good quality. coloration,
flavor, and texture; reten-
tion of nutrients and cost
reduction
Low installation and
operating costs, similar
quality to spray
drying, and good
sensorial quality
Undesirable shrinkage,
good nutritional quality,
texture, flavor, and color,
and product with high
porosity
operating costs, low
porosity, and poor
rehydration
Product with elevated [28,29]
water activity and
utilization of other
preservation methods.
freezing, pasteurization,
and drying
Difficult scale-up, [30,31]
accumulation of material
in bed and particle
adherence problems, and
interruption of spout due
to elevated sugar content
High operating cost, [32,33]
long drying time,
and high vacuum
level
 FREEZE-DRYING CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL FRUITS
the main characteristics and advantages and disadvantages
of the dryers used for fruits and vegetables.
Among the techniques presented in Table 1, freeze dry-
ing is the best method for obtaining a high-quality dried
product (for heat sensitive materials). Consequently, it
has mainly been employed in the dehydration of materials
with high commercial value such as mushrooms,[4] carrot,
capsicum,[5] and strawberries.[6,7]
Thus, the purpose of this work was to investigate and
optimize nutritional and structural qualities of freeze-dried
tropical fruit pulps. During freeze drying of pineapple,
Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and mango, the structur-
al properties such as apparent and real densities and
porosity were determined, and nutritional analysis of
vitamin C, calcium, and phosphorus in freeze-dried and
in natura pulps was carried out.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The selected fruits (fresh pineapple, Barbados cherry,
guava, papaya, and mango) were purchased from a local
market in the city of São Carlos-SP, Brazil. The seeds in
guava and papaya were removed. The cores of pineapple,
Barbados cherry, and mango samples were also removed.
The pulps were crushed and placed in a circular tray with
a diameter of 125 mm and a height of 5 mm and frozen
in liquid N2.
After freezing, the samples were dehydrated in a labora-
tory freeze dryer (Edwards, model L4KR, Crawley,
England). Experiments were performed with the total
pressure and temperature inside the vacuum chamber equal
to 1.3
10 1 mbar and 30C. One thermocouple probe
was used to control and monitor product temperature near
to the tray bottom during drying. The sublimation heat
was supplied by a heating plate through the tray and the
frozen product. The product final temperature during sec-
ondary drying was about 38C. Average freeze drying time
was approximately 12 h for each fruit.
The freeze-dried pulps were weighed and their physical
and nutritional properties were determined.
Determination of Physical Properties
Apparent and real densities and porosity of freeze-dried
samples were determined from definitions presented in
Table 2.
The mass of material was measured during drying using
an electronic balance with 107 kg of accuracy. The appar-
ent volume was determined from the geometric characteris-
tics of samples.
The volume of dried solid was measured using a gas
pycnometer (model Ultrapycnometer 1000, Quantachrome
Instruments, Boynton Beach, USA). In this volume
measurement, all open and closed pores are excluded.
Thus, before starting each measurement, the dried samples
459
TABLE 2
Mathematical equations for physical properties
Properties References
m md þ ml
qap ¼ ¼ ð1Þ [21]
Vap Vd þ Vl þ Va
m md þ ml
qr ¼ ¼ ð2Þ [22]
V Vd þ Vl
md ml
Vd ¼ Vl ¼ ð3Þ
qd ql
qd q
qr ¼ ð1 þ Xdb Þ  where c ¼ d ð4Þ
1 þ c  Xd:b: q1
qap
e¼1 ð5Þ [21]
qr
were ground to remove the internal pores. Because the
agglomeration of wet samples formed a sticky paste,[8]
the real density of the pulps at initial and intermediate
moisture contents was not determined experimentally.
The behavior of real density was expressed as a function
of moisture content on the basis of Eq. (4)[9] in Table 2.
Determination of Nutritional Properties
The ascorbic acid content was determined using 2.6
dichlorophenolindophenol titration.[10] Approximately
10 g of freeze-dried and in natura pulps were incinerated
for organic matter destruction, without appreciable decom-
position of mineral constituents. Dry ashing at 550C was
used to prepare the homogenized samples for calcium
and phosphorus analysis. Calcium content was obtained
by EDTA (0.1 M) titration and phosphorus content by
colorimetry using ammonium molybdate solution and
potassium phosphate (K2H2PO4) standard solution.[11]
Moisture content of samples was determined gravimetri-
cally by the oven-drying method at (105  3)C for 24 h.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Structural Properties
Figure 1 shows typical results of apparent density as a
function of moisture content with the respective standard
errors for pineapple, Barbados cherry, guava, papaya,
and mango pulps. Experimental values ranged between
the density of water at high moisture contents and the den-
sity of the completely dry pulp at low moisture contents.
It was observed experimentally that the macroscopic
volume of tropical fruits pulps was practically unchanged
during freeze drying, which is in accordance with the infor-
mation reported by Achanta and Okos[12] concerning neg-
ligible shrinkage during the process. Thus, the reduction of
the apparent density in the freeze-dried materials in Fig. 1
 460 MARQUES, SILVEIRA, AND FREIRE
FIG. 1. Apparent density in function of moisture in dry base for pine-
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013
apple, Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and mango pulps.
is caused by water removal since volume of material can be
considered constant during dehydration. Although the
micro-structural changes in material were not analyzed in
the present work, it is necessary to point out that the
apparent density is also affected by the loss of cellular
structure, which facilitates migration of water in
material.[13]
Krokida and Maroulis[14] investigated the influence of
different drying methods, including freeze drying, convec-
tive drying, osmotic dehydration, microwave, and vacuum
drying, on the structural properties of fruits and vegetables
such as banana, apple, carrot, and potato. The authors
verified that the apparent density of the studied materials
was greatly affected by dehydration process. Freeze-dried
materials presented the lowest values of apparent density,
corroborating the results obtained in this work.
It can be verified from Table 3 that for the studied fruit
pulps, the apparent density decreases linearly with moisture
content (dry basis) during freeze drying. The linear relation-
ship was defined based on the correlation coefficient, R2.
In Fig. 2, it can be observed that real density increases dur-
ing the freeze drying process. The minimum and maximum
TABLE 3
Equations for apparent density determined experimentally
Pulps Equations
Pineapple qap ¼ 181:7 þ 181:7  Xd:b:
Barbados cherry qap ¼ 65:9 þ 65:9  Xd:b:
Guava qap ¼ 109:6 þ 109:6  Xd:b:
Mango qap ¼ 137:8 þ 137:8  Xd:b:
Papaya qap ¼ 131:5 þ 131:5  Xd:b:
FIG. 2. Real density in function of moisture in dry base for pineapple,
Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and mango pulps.
standard errors obtained were 0.80 and 44.87, respectively.
With moisture removal, most of the constituents of the
remaining solids, with the exception of fat, which is contained
in small quantities in the studied pulps, have a solid density
higher than 1000 kg=m3 (fat 900–970 kg=m3, carbohydrates
1500–1600 kg=m3, proteins 1250 kg=m3, mean value).[15]
Consequently, the overall solid density tends to increase as
the moisture is removed.
In Fig. 3 it is possible to note that the porosity for all
freeze-dried pulps is approximately 0.89  0.01. This elev-
ated value of porosity may be attributed to the cellular
issues systems from which foods such as fruits are formed,
which is considered a peculiar porous system,[15] and
because porosity is a property that changes as a result of
ð6Þ
ð7Þ
ð8Þ
ð9Þ
FIG. 3. Porosity in function of moisture in dry base for pineapple,
ð10Þ Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and mango pulps.
 FREEZE-DRYING CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL FRUITS 461

TABLE 4 Lozano et al.[16] explained that there are two types of

Equations for porosity determined experimentally pores in biological materials such as fruits, externally con-
Pulps Equations nected pores and locked-up pores. According to these
authors, the internal porosity of fruits is affected by the
Pineapple e ¼ 0:86  0:18  Xd:b: (11) behavior of their biological tissues during drying. These
Barbados cherry e ¼ 0:95  0:066  Xd:b: (12) tissues can contain an enormous amount of air in the inter-
Guava e ¼ 0:92  0:11  Xd:b: (13) cellular space and this air may be excluded by moisture sub-
limation, or by the possibility of air occlusion in the voids.
Mango e ¼ 0:90  0:13  Xd:b: (14)
Papaya e ¼ 0:91  0:14  Xd:b: (15) Nutritional Analysis
Experimental results concerning to the nutritional
analysis in the in natura and freeze-dried pulps are pre-
changes in the overall dimensions, shape, and density of the sented in Table 6.
materials and internal cell collapse as reported by Lozano A significant loss of moisture of nearly 70% was
et al.[16,17] According to Achanta and Okos,[12] the high observed in the pulps. However, the values of residual
porosity in freeze-dried products may also be explained moisture content for Barbados cherry (21.44% w.b.) and
by the low temperatures employed below the glass- guava (15.99% w.b.) due to their hygroscopic characteris-
transition temperature, causing the material to remain in tics after drying were relatively high when compared with
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013

the glassy state with negligible shrinkage during drying the other pulps. The elevated residual moisture can be
process. explained by structural changes in the soluble carbohy-
The collapse of the studied fruits was not observed in drates (sugars) with a high level of amorphousness, which
this work. However, Krokida and Maroulis[14] reported makes the product highly hygroscopic and sensitive to
the collapse of apple, banana, potato, and carrot after physical, chemical, and microbiologic changes. The
freeze drying and attributed the phenomenon to the glassy glassy-rubbery physical state, in which molecular networks
to rubberized transition and the melting of ice, which are found, affects the water retention in foods significantly.
plasticized the matrix, thus causing a reduction in porosity. This physical state depends on the technological treatments
Figure 3 also displays how the porosity characteristics are and methods employed in operations such as dehydration
influenced by the structure and individual characteristics of and freezing, which lead to variations in the isotherms of
fruits. A linear increase in porosity with moisture removal is freeze-dried products.[19]
verified from Fig. 3 and Table 4 for all freeze-dried pulps. Vitamin C is relatively unstable to heat, oxygen, and
Zogzas et al.[18] also found an increase in internal porosity light. The retention of this nutrient can be used as a quality
during convective drying of apples as water was removed. index of dried products because if vitamin C content is well
Marousis et al.[13] and Zogzas et al.[18] attributed this to retained, the other nutrients are also generally preserved.[20]
the stresses induced by drying that lead to the splitting After drying, reductions of about 16 and 1.6% were
and rupture of cells, thus producing a more open structure. observed in the vitamin C and phosphorus contents,
In Fig. 3 it can also be verified that the freeze-dried pulps respectively, for most of the pulps. The maximum loss of
presented elevated values of porosity as a result of the neg- vitamin C (80%) occurred in the freeze-dried guava. The
ligible shrinkage during process. These results are in accord- ascorbic acid content contained in the freeze-dried pine-
ance with those obtained in the literature, shown in Table 5, apple, Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and mango charac-
which state that porosity of freeze-dried products is higher terizes these products as an valuable source of vitamin C.
in comparison to conventional drying methods. In Brazil, the recommended daily intake (RDI) for adults
is 60 mg.[21] Significant loss of Vitamin C also did not occur
in freeze-dried carrots according to Lin et al.[20]
TABLE 5 Calcium content for all five studied pulps was quite
Values of porosity for some fruits under different drying variable, due to the different stages of ripeness in the fruits
methods [14] analyzed and experimental errors, but the obtained results
indicate that this nutrient was not significantly affected by
Drying methods freeze drying.
Air Freeze- Osmotic Table 7 gives the values of nutritional composition
Materials drying drying Microwave dehydration found in the literature for the studied pulps. It was verified
that the experimental data of moisture content correspond-
Apple 0.3–0.5 0.8 0.6 0.2–0.4 ing to the pulps in natura, Table 6, were close to values
Banana 0.2 0.84–0.9 0.25 0.15 cited in the literature. However, there are significant differ-
Blueberries 0.15 0.70 0.21 — ences between the experimental data and literature values
 462 MARQUES, SILVEIRA, AND FREIRE

TABLE 6
Nutritional values for pulps obtained experimentally
Nutritional value
Pulps Xw.b. (%) Vitamin C (mg=100 g) Phosphorus (mg=100 g) Calcium (mg=100 g)
Pineapple
in natura (84.11  0.01) (41.05  0.02) (13.14  0.01) (11.72  0.01)
Freeze-dried (7.06  0.01) (30.00  0.02) (9.69  0.01) (12.49  0.03)
Barbados Cherry
in natura (93.41  0.01) (657.00  0.60) (12.05  0.01) (8.65  0.02)
Freeze-dried (21.44  0.04) (633.40  2.00) (11.08  0.02) (7.49  0.01)
Guava
in natura (88.49  0.01) (113.62  0.02) (12.31  0.02) (8.32  0.01)
Freeze-dried (15.99  0.01) (33.29  0.12) (12.13  0.02) (7.21  0.01)
Papaya
in natura (89.80  0.01) (87.24  0.02) (9.30  0.01) (13.86  0.02)
Freeze-dried (5.81  0.01) (66.13  0.03) (6.66  0.01) (13.97  0.01)
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013

Mango
in natura (80.83  0.01) (31.79  0.02) (10.86  0.01) (8.89  0.03)
Freeze-dried (7.76  0.01) (19.72  0.01) (10.33  0.03) (7.97  0.02)

TABLE 7
[34]
Nutritional values for pulps
Pulps
Nutritional value Pineapple Barbados Cherry Guava Papaya Mango
Xw.b.(%) 87.00 91.00 86.00 89.00 82.00
Vitamin C (mg=100 g) 15.00 1678.00 184.00 62.00 28.00
Phosphorus (mg=100 g) 7.00 11.00 25.00 5.00 11.00
Calcium (mg=100 g) 7.00 12.00 20.00 24.00 10.00

for vitamin C, phosphorus, and calcium contents. Such dis-
crepancies are due to differences in the analyzed fruits
influenced by cultivation area, soil, climatic conditions,
ripeness, and genotype characteristics of the pulps and,
mainly, the differences in the methods and procedures
adopted for nutritional analysis.
CONCLUSIONS
Results from this study allow the conclusions that in the
studied conditions:
 Apparent density of the studied pulps has pre-
sented a linear relationship with moisture content.
At the final stage of dehydration, freeze-dried
pulps presented low values of apparent density,
ranging between 83.9 kg=m3 and 195.5 kg=m3.
 Pineapple, Barbados cherry, guava, papaya, and
mango showed elevated real density, as the carbo-
hydrates present in final product have higher den-
sity than that corresponding to water.
 Freeze-dried pulps presented high values of porosity,
as expected, ranging between 0.84 and 0.93.
 Freeze-dried pineapple, Barbados cherry, guava,
papaya and mango conserved their color, flavor,
and taste.
 Freeze drying of Barbados cherry and guava fruits
resulted in a hygroscopic product, due to the tran-
sition from a crystalline structure of the soluble car-
bohydrates (sugars) present in pulps to a amorphous
structure, causing an softened appearance, but other
product characteristics were maintained.
 Based on the nutritional analysis performed, the
freeze drying of tropical fruits pulps was proven
to provide products with high nutritive value that
may be destined for consumption.
NOMENCLATURE
m Weight (kg)
V Volume (m3)
X Moisture content in dry basis (kg water=kg dry solid)
 FREEZE-DRYING CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL FRUITS
Greek Symbols
c Specific gravity of dry mass
e Porosity
q Density (kg=m3)
Subscripts
a Air
ap Apparent
d Dry
d.b. Dry basis
l Liquid
r Real
s Solid
w Water
w.b. Wet basis
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 05:09 10 May 2013
The authors thank the Brazilian funding agencies FAPESP=
Proc.: 04=04815-0 and CNPq=PRONEX for their financial
support.
REFERENCES
1. McBean, D.M.; Joslyn, M.A.; Nury, F.S. Dehydrated fruit. In Food
Science and Technology-A Series of Monographs, Vol. 2; Hulme,
A.C., Ed.; Academic Press: New York, 1971; 623–652.
2. Torreggiani, D.; Forni, D.; Maestrelli, A.; Quadri, F. Influence of
osmotic dehydration on texture and pectic composition of kiwifruit
slices. In Proceedings of the 11th International Drying Symposium
(IDS’98), Halkidiki, Greece, 19–22 August, 1998; Vol. A, 930–937.
3. Cornwell, C.J.; Wrolstad, R.E. Causes of browning in pear juice
concentrate during storage. Journal of Food Science 1981, 46, 515–518.
4. Fontaine, J.; Ratti, C. Lumped-parameter approach for prediction of
drying kinetics in foods. Journal of Food Process Engineering 1996,
22 (4), 287–305.
5. George, J.P.; Datta, A.K. Development and validation of heat and
mass transfer models for freeze-drying of vegetable slices. Journal of
Food Engineering 2002, 52 (1), 89–93.
6. Shishegarha, F.; Ratti, C. Changes in color and volume of berries dur-
ing freeze-drying. ASAE Annual International Meeting, Toronto,
Canada, July 18–21, 1999.
7. Hammami, C.; Rene, F. Determination of freeze-drying process for
strawberries. Journal of Food Engineering 1997, 32 (2), 298–304.
8. McMinn, W.A.M.; Magee, T.R.A. Physical characteristics of dehy-
drated potates—Part I. Journal of Food Engineering 1997, 33 (1–2),
37–48.
9. Sokhansanj, S.; Lang, W. Prediction of kernel and bulk volume of
wheat and canola during adsorption and desorption. Journal of Agri-
cultural Engineering Research 1996, 63, 129–136.
10. AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis, Association of Official Analyti-
cal Chemistry: Washington, DC, 1995; 16–17.
11. Institute Adolfo Lutz. Chemical and Physical Methods for Analysis of
Foods, Analytic Norms of the Institute Adolfo Lutz, São Paulo-SP,
1976, Vol. 1 (in Portuguese).
12. Achanta, S.; Okos, M.R. Quality changes during drying of food
polymers. In Drying Technology in Agriculture and Food Sciences;
Mujumdar, A.S., Ed.; Science Publishers: Enfield, NH, 2000; 133–147.
13. Marousis, S.N.; Karathanos, V.T.; Saravacos, G.D. Effect of physical
structure of starch materials on water diffusivity. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation 1991, 15, 183–195.
463
14. Krokida, M.; Maroulis, Z. Quality changes during of food materials.
In Drying Technology in Agriculture and Food Sciences; Mujumdar,
A.S., Ed.; Science Publishers: Enfield, NH, 2000; 61–106.
15. Karathanos, V.T.; Kanellopoulos, N.K.; Belessiotis, V.G. Develop-
ment of porous structure during air drying of agricultural plant
products. Journal of Food Engineering 1996, 29, 167–183.
16. Lozano, J.E.; Rotstein, E.; Urbician, M.J. Total porosity and open
pore porosity in the drying of fruits. Journal of Food Science 1980,
45, 1403–1407.
17. Lozano, J.E.; Rotstein, E.; Urbician, M.J. Shrinkage, porosity and
bulk density of food stuffs at changing moisture contents. Journal
of Food Science 1983, 48, 1497–1502.
18. Zogzas, N.P.; Maroulis, Z.B.; Marinos-Kouris, D. Densities, shrink-
age and porosity of some vegetables during air drying. Drying
Technology 1994, 12 (3), 1653–1666.
19. Roos, Y.; Karel, M. Applying state diagrams to food processing and
development. Food Technology 1991, 45, 66–70.
20. Lin, T.M.; Durance, T.D.; Scaman, C.H. Characterization of vacuum
microwave, air and freeze-dried carrot slices. Food Research Inter-
national 1998, 31 (2), 111–117.
21. Ministry of Health, http:==e-legis.bvs.br, SVS=MS no33 (accessed
March 2005).
22. Jayaraman, K.S.; Das Gupta, D.K. Drying of fruits and vegetables. In
Handbook of Industrial Drying; Mujumdar, A.S., Ed.; Marcel Dekker:
New York, 1995; 643–689.
23. Mathioulakis, E.; Karathanos, V.T.; Belessiotis, V.G. Simulation of air
movement in a dryer by computational fluid dynamics: Application for
the drying of fruits. Journal of Food Engineering 1998, 36, 183–200.
24. McMinn, W.A.; Magee, T.R.A. Principles, methods and applications of
the convective drying of foodstuffs. Trans IchemE Part C, 1999, 77,
175–193.
25. Al-Hakim, K.; Stapley, A.G.F. Morphology of spray-dried and spray-
freeze-dried whey powders. In Proceedings of the 14th International
Drying Symposium (IDS 2004), São Paulo, Brazil, 22–25 August,
2004; Vol. C; 1720–1726.
26. Abd Karim, A.; Chee Wai, C. Foam mat drying of starfruit (Averrhoa
carambola L.) purée. Stability and air drying characteristics. Food
Chemistry 1999, 64, 337–343.
27. Rodrı́guez, R.; Lombra~ na, J.I.; Aguado, R. Thermal response of a
food model dried under microwave. In Proceedings of the 14th Inter-
national Drying Symposium (IDS 2004), São Paulo, Brazil, 22–25
August, 2004; Vol. C; 1735–1742.
28. Antonio, G.C.; Azoubel, P.M.; Alves, D.G.; El-Aouar, A.A.; Murr, F.E.X.
Osmotic dehydration of papaya (Carica papaya L.): Influence of process
variables. In Proceedings of the 14th International Drying Symposium
(IDS 2004), São Paulo, Brazil, 22–25 August, 2004; Vol. C, 1998–2004.
29. Waliszewski, K.N.; Delgado, J.L.; Garcı́a, M.A. Equilibrium concen-
tration and water and sucrose diffusivity in osmotic dehydration of
pineapple slabs. Drying Technology 2002, 20 (2), 527–538.
30. Medeiros, M.F.D.; Rocha, S.C.S.; Alsina, O.L.S.; Jerônimo, C.E.M.;
Medeiros, U.K.L.; Mata, A.L.M.L. Drying of pulps of tropical fruits
in spouted bed: Effect of composition on dryer performance. Drying
Technology 2002, 20 (4&5), 855–881.
31. Alsina, O.L.S.; Morais, V.L.M.; Lima, L.M.R.; Soares, F.H.L. Studies on
the performance of the spouted bed dryer for dehydration of West Indian
cherry pulp. In Proceedings of the 10th International Drying Symposium
(IDS’96), Krakow, Poland, July 30–August 2, 1996; Vol. A; 867–872.
32. Ratti, C. Hot air and freeze-drying of high-values foods: A review.
Journal of Food Engineering 2001, 49, 311–319.
33. Liapis, A.I.; Pikal, M.J.; Brutini, R. Research and development needs
and opportunities in freeze drying. Drying Technology 1996, 14 (6),
1265–1300.
34. United States Department of Agriculture, www.usda.gov, Nutrient
Database for Standard Reference, Release 18 (accessed March 2005).