INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

EEN-112
Electrical Science

Unit-3: A.C. Fundamentals

Dr. Dheeraj K Khatod

Department of Electrical Engineering
Contents
• AC fundamentals
• Concept of phasor, impedance and admittance
• Mesh and nodal analysis of AC networks
• Network theorems in AC networks
• Active and reactive power in AC circuits
• Power factor correction
• Resonance in AC series circuits.

2
AC Fundamentals

3
Historic Evolution of AC System
• Historically, direct current (DC) sources were the main means of providing
electric power up until the late 1800s. At the end of that century, the battle
of DC versus alternating current (AC) began.
• Both had their advocates among the electrical engineers of the time.
Because AC is more efficient and economical to transmit over long
distances, AC systems ended up the winner.
• AC voltage and current reverse at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values. Circuits driven by AC current or voltage
sources are called AC circuits.
• Out of different waveforms, the sinusoidal example is the most important.
Almost all electrical power supplies involve sinusoidal alternating current
which is derived from sinusoidal alternating voltages

Sinusoidal wave Square wave Triangular wave

4
Terminology of AC Waveform
• Cycle: Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals, is
termed a cycle.
• Period: The duration of one cycle is termed its period.
• Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time
(or position of rotation).
• Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero
value is known as its peak value.
• Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed the
frequency of that quantity.

1 kHz frequency

5
Sinusoids
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine
function. For example,
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
or
2𝜋𝜋
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇

2𝜋𝜋
= 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑇𝑇
where,
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 is the amplitude of the sinusoid
𝜔𝜔 is the angular frequency of the sinusoid in radians/s
𝑇𝑇 is the time period of the sinusoid
𝑓𝑓 is the frequency of the sinusoid in hertz (Hz)

6
Sinusoids (cont.)
• Let us examine the two sinusoids
𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃
where, 𝜃𝜃 is the phase angle of 𝑣𝑣2 with
respect to 𝑣𝑣1 .
– Since the starting point of 𝑣𝑣2 occurs first
in time, 𝑣𝑣2 is said to be leading 𝑣𝑣1 by 𝜃𝜃 or
𝑣𝑣1 is said to be lagging 𝑣𝑣2 by 𝜃𝜃.
– If 𝜃𝜃 ≠ 0, then 𝑣𝑣1 and 𝑣𝑣2 are said to be out of phase.
– If 𝜃𝜃 = 0, then 𝑣𝑣1 and 𝑣𝑣2 are said to be in phase. They reach their minima
and maxima at exactly the same time.
– To compare two sinusoids, they must be expressed as either sine waves or
cosine waves with positive amplitudes. Also, they must operate at the same
frequency.

7
Useful Trigonometric Identities
𝜋𝜋
sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± = ± cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
2
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± = ∓ sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 0 ≤ 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ≤
2 2
sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜋𝜋 = − sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜋𝜋 = − cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

sin 2𝐴𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴𝐴 � cos 𝐴𝐴

cos 2𝐴𝐴 = cos 𝐴𝐴 2 − sin 𝐴𝐴 2 = 2 cos 𝐴𝐴 2 − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 𝐴𝐴 2

sin 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐵𝐵 = sin 𝐴𝐴 � cos 𝐵𝐵 ± cos 𝐴𝐴 � sin 𝐵𝐵

cos 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐵𝐵 = cos 𝐴𝐴 � cos 𝐵𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴𝐴 � sin 𝐵𝐵
2 sin 𝐴𝐴 � cos 𝐵𝐵 = sin 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 + sin 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵
2 sin 𝐴𝐴 � sin 𝐵𝐵 = cos 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 − cos 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵
2 cos 𝐴𝐴 � cos 𝐵𝐵 = cos 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 + cos 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵

8
Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
• The RMS or effective value of an alternating current is the DC
current that delivers the same average power to a resistor as
the alternating current.
• Let us consider a sinusoidal current
2𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇
• Its RMS value is given as
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 2
1 1 2𝜋𝜋 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 2
0 0

• The RMS of an alternating waveform can be taken over half a

cycle or over a full cycle.

9
Average Value
• The average of a sinusoidal current over one cycle is zero. The
average over half positive cycle is meaningful when we deal
with rectification of sinusoidal current/voltage.
• Let us consider a sinusoidal current
2𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇
• Its average value over half positive cycle is given as
𝑇𝑇� 𝑇𝑇�
2 2
2 2 2𝜋𝜋 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝜋𝜋
0 0

10
Form Factor and Crest Factor
• Form factor of a periodic wave is the ratio of its RMS
value to its average value over half cycle
• Peak or crest factor of a periodic wave is the ratio of
its peak value to its RMS value
• For a sinusoidal current
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋
– Form factor = = 𝐼𝐼
2
= = 1.11
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 𝑚𝑚 2 2
𝜋𝜋

𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
– Peak factor = = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 2 = 1.414
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2

11
Concept of Phasor, Impedance
and Admittance

12
Concept of Phasor
• The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity
𝑒𝑒 ±𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝜃𝜃 ± 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 , where, 𝑗𝑗 = −1
• Thus, cos 𝜃𝜃 and sin 𝜃𝜃 may be regarded as the real and
imaginary parts, respectively, of 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 as
cos 𝜃𝜃 = Re 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 and sin 𝜃𝜃 = Im 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
where Re and Im stand for the real part of and the imaginary part of
• Extending a similar concept to a sinusoid
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃 = Re 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜃𝜃 𝑗𝑗 = 1∠90°
𝑗𝑗 2 = −1 = 1∠180°
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = Re 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = Re 𝐕𝐕𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
𝑗𝑗 3 = −𝑗𝑗 = 1∠ − 90°
where, 𝐕𝐕 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 ∠𝜃𝜃 = 𝑉𝑉�
• Here, 𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� is the phasor representation of the sinusoid 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)
and suppressed term 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 imparts rotation to the phasor with
respect to time in the complex plane.

13
Concept of Phasor (cont.)

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃

= Im 𝐕𝐕𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
Projection of phasor 𝐕𝐕 on
imaginary axis results 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 .

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃

= Re 𝐕𝐕𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
Projection of phasor 𝐕𝐕 on
real axis results 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 .

Thus, phasor representation

supports both sine and
cosine functions.

14
Concept of Phasor (cont.)
• A phasor is not equal to the time-domain representation of a sinusoid rather
it is a mathematical equivalent of a sinusoid with the time dependence
dropped. Thus, the phasor for a sinusoid is a snapshot of the corresponding
rotating vector at a particular instant of time.
• A phasor rotates about the origin with an angular speed 𝜔𝜔. By convention,
the direction of phasor rotation is taken counterclockwise
• The magnitude of a phasor represents the peak or RMS value of the
sinusoid.
• The projection of a phasor on the vertical or horizontal axis gives the value
of the sinusoid at that instant. Thus, the phasors can be used to represent
both sine and cosine waves.
• It is more convenient to work with phasors than sine and cosine waves.
• Phasor analysis applies in manipulating two or more sinusoidal signals only
if they are of the same frequency. Thus, all phasors must have the same
angular speed.

15
RMS Value or Peak Value in
Phasors
−1⁄ −1
• For a sinusoidal wave, its RMS or effective value is 2 2 = 2 =
0.7071 times its maximum value.
• The measuring instruments register only RMS quantity for all types
of alternating voltage and current waves.
• Furthermore, the RMS value also specifies the ‘rating’ of an electric
machine for a varying duty cycle
• Consequently, it is much more convenient to make the length of the
phasors represent RMS rather than maximum values. If the phasors
were drawn to represent to scale the RMS instead of the maximum
values of the voltages, the shape of the diagram would remain
unaltered and the phase relationships between the various
quantities would remain unaffected.
• Hence, in all phasor diagrams, the lengths of the phasors, for
convenience, represent the RMS values. This is the usual practice.
16
Phasor Transformation
• Transformation of a sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor (or frequency)
domain and vice versa can be expressed as
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃 𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉∠𝜃𝜃
⟺
Time domain representation Phasor domain representation
or
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜃𝜃 𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉∠𝜃𝜃
⟺
Time domain representation Phasor domain representation
When dealing with multiple sinusoids simultaneously, all sinusoids must be expressed as either sine
waves or cosine waves with positive amplitudes before transforming them to phasors.

• A phasor can be represented either in polar form or rectangular form as

𝑉𝑉
� ∠𝜃𝜃 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑉𝑉� = =
Polar form Rectangular form
– 𝑉𝑉 is the rms value and 𝜃𝜃 is the angle of phasor 𝑉𝑉� or 𝐕𝐕,
– 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are the real and imaginary components, respectively, of the phasor 𝑉𝑉� or 𝐕𝐕,
𝑏𝑏
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1
𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝐈𝐈
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐈𝐈
� � 𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ⟺ ⟺ 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔
Phasor domain �
Time domain
Time domain Phasor domain

17
Operations with Phasors
• Consider two phasors, 𝑉𝑉�1 = 𝑉𝑉1 ∠𝜃𝜃1 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 and 𝑉𝑉�2 = 𝑉𝑉2 ∠𝜃𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏2
– Addition
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉�1 + 𝑉𝑉�2 = 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏2
– Subtraction
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉�1 − 𝑉𝑉�2 = 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑏𝑏2
– Multiplication
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉�1 � 𝑉𝑉�2 = 𝑉𝑉1 � 𝑉𝑉2 ∠ 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2
– Division Addition of phasors
𝑉𝑉�1 𝑉𝑉1
𝑉𝑉� = = ∠ 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2
𝑉𝑉�2 𝑉𝑉2
– Reciprocal
1 1
𝑉𝑉� = = ∠ −𝜃𝜃1
𝑉𝑉�1 𝑉𝑉1
– Square Root
𝜃𝜃1
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉�1 = 𝑉𝑉1 ∠
2
– Complex Conjugate
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉�1∗ = 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑏𝑏1 = 𝑉𝑉1 ∠ −𝜃𝜃1 Subtraction of phasors

18
Phasor Diagram
• The phasor diagram is a sketch in the complex plane showing
the relationships of the phasor voltages and phasor currents
throughout a specific circuit.
• Let us examine the two sinusoids
𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡) = 3 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 40°
𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) = 4 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 20°
• Phasors of above two sinusoids can be given as
𝐕𝐕𝟏𝟏 or 𝑉𝑉�1 = 3∠40°
𝐕𝐕𝟐𝟐 or 𝑉𝑉�2 = 4∠ − 20°

19
Phasor Relationships for Circuit
Elements
• Resistor
– In time-domain
• If the current, 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 is flowing through a resistor 𝑅𝑅, the voltage
across it is given by Ohm’s law as
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 = 2𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 where, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼
• In a resistor, the voltage and current are in phase.
– In phasor-domain
• If the current, 𝐈𝐈 or 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙 is flowing through a resistor 𝑅𝑅, the voltage across it is given
by Ohm’s law as
𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉∠𝜙𝜙

Voltage-current relations Voltage and current waveforms Phasor diagram

for the resistor for the resistor for the resistor

20
Phasor Relationships for Circuit
Elements (cont.)
• Inductor
– In time-domain
• If the current, 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 is flowing through an inductor 𝐿𝐿, the voltage across it is
given as
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿 � = 2𝜔𝜔 � 𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 + 90° = 2𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 + 90° where, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜔𝜔 � 𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• In an inductor, the voltage leads the current by 90° or the current lags the voltage by 90°.
– In phasor-domain
• If the current, 𝐈𝐈 or 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙 is flowing through an inductor 𝐿𝐿, the voltage across it is given as
𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 � 𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉∠ 𝜙𝜙 + 90° where, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔 � 𝐿𝐿
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 is inductive reactance in ohm.

Voltage-current relations for Voltage and current waveforms Phasor diagram for
the inductor for the inductor the inductor

21
Phasor Relationships for Circuit
Elements (cont.)
• Capacitor
– In time-domain
• If the voltage, 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 is applied across a capacitor 𝐶𝐶, the current through it is
given as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶 � = 2𝜔𝜔 � 𝐶𝐶 � 𝑉𝑉 � cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 + 90° = 2𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙 + 90° where, 𝐼𝐼 = 𝜔𝜔 � 𝐶𝐶 � 𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• In a capacitor, the voltage legs the current by 90° or the current leads the voltage by 90°.
– In phasor-domain
• If the voltage, 𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉∠𝜙𝜙 is applied across a capacitor 𝐶𝐶, the current through it is given as
1 1
𝐈𝐈 or 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔 � 𝐶𝐶 � 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑗𝑗 � 𝑉𝑉∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼∠ 𝜙𝜙 + 90° where, 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 is capacitive
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔 � 𝐶𝐶 reactance in ohm.

Voltage-current relations Voltage and current waveforms Phasor diagram for

for the capacitor for the capacitor the capacitor

22
Impedance and Admittance
• The impedance 𝑍𝑍̅ of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of the phasor
voltage 𝑉𝑉� across it to the phasor current 𝐼𝐼 ̅ through it as
𝑉𝑉�
𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑍𝑍∠𝜃𝜃 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =
𝐼𝐼 ̅
– 𝑍𝑍 is the magnitude and 𝜃𝜃 is the angle of impedance 𝑍𝑍̅
– 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑋𝑋 are the real and imaginary components, respectively, of impedance 𝑍𝑍.̅
𝑅𝑅 represents the resistance and 𝑋𝑋 represents the reactance.
– 𝑅𝑅, 𝑋𝑋, 𝑍𝑍 and 𝑍𝑍̅ are measured in ohms (Ω)
• The admittance 𝑌𝑌� of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of the phasor
current 𝐼𝐼 ̅ through it to the phasor voltage 𝑉𝑉� across it as
𝑉𝑉� 1
𝑌𝑌� = 𝑌𝑌∠𝜃𝜃 = 𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = =
𝐼𝐼 ̅ 𝑍𝑍
– 𝑌𝑌 is the magnitude and 𝜃𝜃 is the angle of impedance 𝑌𝑌�
�
– 𝐺𝐺 and 𝐵𝐵 are the real and imaginary components, respectively, of impedance 𝑌𝑌.
𝐺𝐺 represents the conductance and 𝐵𝐵 represents the susceptance.
– 𝐺𝐺, 𝐵𝐵, 𝑌𝑌 and 𝑌𝑌� are measured in siemens (S) or mhos (Ω−1 )

23
Impedance and Admittance (cont.)
• Both impedance 𝑍𝑍 and admittance 𝑌𝑌 are the reciprocal of each other.
• Although the impedance and admittance are the ratio of two phasors, they
are complex quantities not phasors, because they do not correspond to a
sinusoidally varying quantity. Thus, both impedance and admittance are
part of the frequency domain and not of the time domain
• Admittance 𝑌𝑌 to impedance 𝑍𝑍 conversion
1 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑅𝑅 −𝑋𝑋
𝐺𝐺 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = = ⇒ 𝐺𝐺 = 2 and 𝐵𝐵 = 2
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋 2 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑋𝑋 2 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑋𝑋 2
Element Impedance, 𝑍𝑍 Admittance, 𝑌𝑌
1 1
Resistor, 𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅∠0° 𝑌𝑌� = = ∠0°
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
1 −𝑗𝑗 1
Inductor, 𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ∠90° 𝑌𝑌� = = = ∠ − 90°
𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
1 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
Capacitor, 𝐶𝐶 𝑍𝑍̅ = = = −𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ∠ − 90° 𝑌𝑌� = 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ∠90°
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑗𝑗

24
Kirchhoff’s Law
• As per Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the algebraic sum of the voltages is
equal to zero for any closed path in an electrical network.
• Let 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑣𝑣2 𝑡𝑡 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑣𝑁𝑁 (𝑡𝑡) be the voltages around a closed loop. Thus,
application of KVL in the time domain results
𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑣𝑁𝑁 (𝑡𝑡) = 0
• If the voltages are sinusoidal, they can be represented by phasors. Then,
above equation becomes
𝑉𝑉�1 + 𝑉𝑉�2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑉�𝑁𝑁 = 0
• Thus, KVL can be applied directly to the phasors. The sum of the phasor
voltages equals zero for any closed path.
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) can be shown to hold for phasor currents by a
similar argument. Thus, The sum of the phasor currents equals zero at any
node of the circuit.
• Since both KVL and KCL hold in the frequency domain, the sinusoidal steady
state analysis of any AC circuit can be performed on its frequency domain
equivalent.

25
Analysis of AC Circuits
• Application of KVL and KCL in the frequency domain makes it easy to do
many things, such as impedance combination, source transformation, star-
delta transformation, nodal and mesh analyses, and network theorems.
Thus
– The impedances, 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖 , 𝑖𝑖 = 1 to 𝑁𝑁, connected in series can be replaced by an
equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 provided the current, voltage, and power of the
source must be the same before and after the replacement
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
1 1
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖 or =�
𝑖𝑖=1
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖=1
𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖
– Similarly, the admittances, 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 , 𝑖𝑖 = 1 to 𝑁𝑁, connected in parallel can be replaced
by an equivalent admittance 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 provided the current, voltage, and power of the
source must be the same before and after the replacement
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
1 1
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 or =�
𝑖𝑖=1
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖=1
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖

26
Analysis of AC Circuits (cont.)
• To analyze a circuit with series and parallel combinations of
complex impedances/admittances, the following steps are
taken
– Step 1: Replace the time description of the voltage source with the
corresponding phasor.
– Step 2: Replace inductances and capacitances with their complex
impedances.
– Step 3: Use complex arithmetic to analyze the circuit.
Time-domain to
frequency-domain

10 2 sin 1000𝑡𝑡

100 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10∠ − 180°; 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 0.1∠ − 90°;

𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + = 50 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
100 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 0.1∠ − 180°; 𝐼𝐼 = 0.1414∠ − 135°;

27
Source Transformation
• Source transformation in the frequency domain
involves transforming a voltage source in series with
an impedance to a current source in parallel with an
impedance, or vice versa.

28
Voltage and Current Division
Voltage Division Current Division
𝑉𝑉 𝑍𝑍1⋅ 𝑍𝑍2
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍1 ∥ 𝑍𝑍2 = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍1 𝑉𝑉 𝑍𝑍2
𝑉𝑉1 = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍1 = 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼1 = = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍2 𝑉𝑉 𝑍𝑍1
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍2 = 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼2 = = 𝐼𝐼 ⋅
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2

29
Star (Y)–Delta (Δ) Transformation
– Y–Δ conversion
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 � 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 � 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 � 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 � 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 +
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 � 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 � 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 � 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 � 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 +
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 � 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 � 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 � 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 � 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 + 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 +
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏

– Δ–Y conversion • For balanced Y connection

𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 = 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = 𝑍𝑍𝑌𝑌 (say)
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎 = • For balanced Δ connection
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑍𝑍△ (say)
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 � 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 – Y–Δ conversion
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 =
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍△ = 3𝑍𝑍𝑌𝑌
– Δ–Y conversion
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐 = 𝑍𝑍△
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑍𝑍𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍𝑌𝑌 =
3

30
Mesh and Nodal Analysis of AC
Networks

31
Mesh and Nodal Analysis
• Since both KVL and KCL are applicable to frequency domain
equivalent of a circuit, nodal and mesh methods of analysis are
also equally applicable to such equivalent circuit.
• Mesh analysis
– Consider a circuit with two meshes
10 2cos 103 𝑡𝑡 V
• Applying KVL for Mesh-1:
3 � 𝐼𝐼1̅ + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 � 𝐼𝐼1̅ − 𝐼𝐼2̅ − 10∠0°= 0
• Similarly applying KVL for Mesh-2:
𝑗𝑗𝑗 � 𝐼𝐼2̅ − 𝐼𝐼1̅ + −𝑗𝑗𝑗 � 𝐼𝐼2̅ + 2𝐼𝐼2̅ = 0
Time-domain to
• Solving above equations results, frequency-domain

𝐼𝐼1̅ = 1.24∠29.7° A
𝐼𝐼2̅ = 2.77∠56.3° A
• Corresponding currents in time-domain
𝑖𝑖1 𝑡𝑡 = 1.24 2 cos 103 𝑡𝑡 + 29.7° A
𝑖𝑖2 𝑡𝑡 = 2.77 2 cos 103 𝑡𝑡 + 56.3° A

32
Mesh and Nodal Analysis (cont.)
• Node analysis
– Consider a circuit with three nodes with
one node as a reference node.
• Applying KCL to Node-1:
20∠0° − 𝑉𝑉�1 𝑉𝑉�1 𝑉𝑉�1 − 𝑉𝑉�2
= +
10 −𝑗𝑗𝑗.5 𝑗𝑗𝑗
• Similarly applying KCL to Node-2:
Time-domain to
𝑉𝑉�1 − 𝑉𝑉�2 𝑉𝑉�2 frequency-domain
̅
+ 2𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 =
𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗𝑗
• Also
𝑉𝑉�
̅𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 1
−𝑗𝑗𝑗.5
• Solving above equations results,
𝑉𝑉�1 = 18.97∠18.43° V
𝑉𝑉�2 = 13.91∠198.3° V
• Corresponding currents in time-domain
𝑖𝑖1 𝑡𝑡 = 18.97 2 cos 4𝑡𝑡 + 18.43° V
𝑖𝑖2 𝑡𝑡 = 13.91 2 cos 4𝑡𝑡 + 198.3° V

33
Mesh and Nodal Analysis (cont.)
• The concepts of supermesh and supernode are
applicable to AC circuits
– When a current source exists between two meshes, a
supermesh is formed by joining such two meshes. The
common current source and any elements connected in
series with it is not considered in supermesh.
– If the voltage source is connected between two nonreference
nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node
or supernode. A supernode encloses a voltage source
connected between two nonreference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it.

34
Network Theorems in AC
Networks

35
Superposition Theorem
• Considering a circuit with two sources (20∠90° V
voltage source and 5∠0° A current source)
– Let the current supplied by voltage source be
𝐼𝐼0̅ = 𝐼𝐼′̅ 0 + 𝐼𝐼′′̅ 0
where, 𝐼𝐼′̅ 0 and 𝐼𝐼′′̅ 0 are the contributions due to the voltage
source and the current source, respectively.
– Set the current source to zero (open circuit) and solve
the circuit to obtain 𝐼𝐼′̅ 0
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐼𝐼′̅ 0 = = −2.353 +𝑗𝑗𝑗.353
4 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 8 + 𝑗𝑗10 ∥ −𝑗𝑗2
– Set the voltage source to zero (short circuit) and solve
the circuit to obtain 𝐼𝐼′′̅ 0 using mesh analysis
𝐼𝐼′′̅ 0 = −2.647 +𝑗𝑗1.176
– The net current supplied by voltage source is
𝐼𝐼0̅ = −2.353 +𝑗𝑗𝑗.353−2.647 +𝑗𝑗𝑗.176
𝐼𝐼0̅ = −5 +𝑗𝑗3.529 = 6.12∠144.78° A
• Dependent sources are never removed from the circuit while applying
superposition theorem.

36
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

𝐕𝐕Th = 𝐙𝐙Th 𝐈𝐈N

𝐙𝐙Th = 𝐙𝐙N

Thevenin Equivalent Norton Equivalent

• 𝐕𝐕Th is the open-circuit phasor voltage
across the terminals
• 𝐙𝐙Th is the input or equivalent impedance
at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
• 𝐈𝐈N is the short-circuit phasor current
through the terminals
• 𝐙𝐙N is the input or equivalent impedance at
the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

• If the circuit contains a dependent source, it is never removed from the

circuit. To find Thevenin or Norton impedance in presence of a dependent
source, apply a voltage or current source across terminals and find the ratio
of terminal voltage to the current. This ratio is the desired impedance as in
case of DC networks.

37
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
(cont.)
• Consider the given circuit to find the Thevenin
equivalent across terminals a and b

– To determine the Thevenin voltage 𝐕𝐕Th , calculate

the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a and
b
𝐕𝐕Th = − 28.936 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗.55 = 37.95∠220.31° V

– To determine the Thevenin impedance 𝐙𝐙Th , set the

source to zero and calculate the impedance seen
across the terminals a and b
𝐙𝐙Th = 8 ∥ −𝑗𝑗6 + 4 ∥ 𝑗𝑗12 = 6.48 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.64 Ω

– Thevenin equivalent is represented by a voltage source of

37.95∠220.31° V in series with 6.48 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.64 Ω impedance

38
Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems
(cont.)
• Consider the given circuit to find the Norton
equivalent across terminals a and b

– To determine the Norton current 𝐈𝐈N , remove

20 + 𝑗𝑗15 Ω impedance from the circuit, short-
circuit the terminals a and b, and calculate the
short-circuit current through terminals a and b
• By mesh analysis,
𝐈𝐈N = 3 + 𝑗𝑗8 = 8.544∠69.44° A

– To determine the Norton impedance 𝐙𝐙N , set all the

sources to zero and calculate the impedance seen
across the terminals a and b
𝐙𝐙N = 5 Ω

– Norton equivalent is represented by a current source of

8.544∠69.44° A in parallel with 5 Ω impedance

39
Active and Reactive Power in AC
Circuits

40
Power in a Resistor
• Let us consider the instantaneous values of voltage and current for a
resistor
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 and 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
where, 𝑅𝑅 is the resistance of the resistor.
• At any instant, the value of the power (in watt) is given by the product
of the voltage and the current at that instant as
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin2 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � 1 − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 V = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝐼𝐼
• The instantaneous power to the resistor is also sinusoidal, but it is displaced from
the horizontal axis. It has a frequency double that of the component voltage and
current waves. Further, it is positive at all times, i.e. the energy flows continually in
the direction from the source to the load, where it is converted to heat.
• The average power over one cycle is
2𝜋𝜋�
𝜔𝜔
𝜔𝜔 2
𝑉𝑉 2 𝑝𝑝
𝑃𝑃 = � 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑅𝑅 =
2𝜋𝜋 𝑅𝑅
0
• The average power represents the power
absorbed/consumed in the resistor, it is also
called the real (or active) power, measured in
units of watts (W)
41
Power in an Inductor
• Let us consider the instantaneous values of voltage and current for an
inductor
𝜋𝜋
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + and 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
2 𝑿𝑿𝑳𝑳
where, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 is the reactance of the inductor.
• The instantaneous power is
𝜋𝜋
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 � 𝐼𝐼
2
• The instantaneous power to the inductor is sinusoidal with a frequency double that
of voltage and current waves. Half of the time the power is positive showing that
energy is delivered to the inductor and stored in the magnetic field. For the other
half of the time, power is negative, showing that the inductor returns energy to the
source.
• The average power over one 𝑝𝑝

cycle is
2𝜋𝜋�
𝜔𝜔
𝜔𝜔
𝑃𝑃 = � 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
2𝜋𝜋
0

42
Power in a Capacitor
• Let us consider the instantaneous values of voltage and current for a
capacitor
𝜋𝜋
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − and 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡
2 𝑿𝑿𝑪𝑪
where, 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 is the reactance of the capacitor.
• The instantaneous power is
𝜋𝜋
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − = −𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 � 𝐼𝐼
2
• The instantaneous power to the capacitor is sinusoidal with a frequency double that
of the component voltage and current waves. Half of the time the power is positive
showing that energy is delivered to the capacitor and stored in the electric field. For
the other half of the time, power is negative, showing that the capacitor returns
energy to the source.
• The average power over one 𝑝𝑝

cycle is
2𝜋𝜋�
𝜔𝜔
𝜔𝜔
𝑃𝑃 = � 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
2𝜋𝜋
0

43
Power in Inductor and Capacitor
• As the average power over a cycle is zero (i.e., no power is dissipated) to an
inductor or a capacitor, these elements are called as reactive elements. The
power oscillates between the source and these elements.
• Since the reactive elements are able to store the energy, these are also
referred to as energy storage elements.
• The peak instantaneous power (or peak rate of energy storage) associated
with the reactive elements is termed as the reactive (or imaginary) power.
• The reactive power for the capacitor carries the opposite sign as that for the
inductor.
• By convention, the reactive power is positive for an inductor and is negative
for a capacitor.

Power in an inductor Power in a capacitor

44
Power in AC Circuits
• Let us consider the instantaneous values of voltage and current for a general AC
circuit
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 and 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝜙𝜙
where, 𝜙𝜙 is the phase difference between voltage and current.
• The instantaneous power is
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 × 2𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙 − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝜙𝜙
• Thus the instantaneous power consists of
two components:
– The first component 𝑉𝑉∙𝐼𝐼∙ cos 𝜙𝜙 contains no
reference to 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 and therefore, remains
constant in value. It depends on phase
difference between voltage and current.
– The second component 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝜙𝜙
contains the term 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 (twice the supply
frequency). Thus, the power undergoes two
cycles of variation for one cycle of the voltage
wave. Further, since its average value over a
complete cycle is zero, this component does
not contribute anything towards the average
value of the power.
45
Power in AC Circuits (cont.)
• Using trigonometrical identity, the instantaneous power can also be given as
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙 1 − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 𝜙𝜙 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙 and
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 𝜙𝜙
𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑃𝑃 1 − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 + 𝑄𝑄 sin 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝
𝑣𝑣
𝑖𝑖

– The first term has an average value of 𝑃𝑃 which

is the real (or active) power, measured in units
of watts (W)
– The second term has an average value of zero.
Its maximum value is 𝑄𝑄 which is the reactive
(or imaginary) power, measured in units of
Volt-Amps Reactive (VAR or VAr) to distinguish
it from the real power.
• The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure.
The wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to average power.
The average power over one cycle is
2𝜋𝜋� 2𝜋𝜋�
𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔
𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔
𝑃𝑃 = � 𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � � cos 𝜙𝜙 − cos 2𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − 𝜙𝜙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
0 0

46
Power in AC Circuits using Phasors
• Since frequency-domain steady state analysis of AC circuits is done using phasors,
the concept of phasors can also be used for computation of power in AC circuits.
• Consider the voltage and current phasors as
𝐕𝐕 or 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉∠0° and 𝐈𝐈 or 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝐼∠ − 𝜙𝜙
• The complex power becomes
𝐒𝐒 or 𝑆𝑆̅ = 𝐕𝐕𝐈𝐈 ∗ or 𝑉𝑉� 𝐼𝐼 ∗̅ = 𝑉𝑉∠0° × 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆∠𝜙𝜙 𝐈𝐈 ∗ is the complex conjugate of 𝐈𝐈
𝐒𝐒 or 𝑆𝑆̅ = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 If 𝐈𝐈 = 𝐼𝐼∠ − 𝜙𝜙, then 𝐈𝐈 ∗ = 𝐼𝐼∠𝜙𝜙

• 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 are the active and reactive power, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼

respectively, and 𝑆𝑆 is the apparent power. 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆 � cos 𝜙𝜙
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐼𝐼 � sin 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑆𝑆 � sin 𝜙𝜙
• The apparent power is so called because it seems 𝑆𝑆 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄 2
apparent that the power should be the voltage- 𝑃𝑃 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄
cos 𝜙𝜙 = sin 𝜙𝜙 = tan 𝜙𝜙 =
current product by analogy with DC resistive 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃
circuits. It is measured in volt-amperes (in VA) to
𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜙𝜙
distinguish it from the active power (measured in
W) and reactive power (measured in Var or VAR).
• Though 𝐒𝐒 or 𝑆𝑆̅ is a product of two phasors, it is a
complex quantity not phasor. 𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜙𝜙
Power triangle

47
Power in AC Circuits using Phasors
(cont.)
• The voltage and current phasors for the given circuit are related as
𝐕𝐕
𝐈𝐈 = or 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐙𝐙 � 𝐈𝐈
𝐙𝐙
• The complex power becomes
𝐒𝐒 = 𝐕𝐕 � 𝐈𝐈∗ = 𝐙𝐙 � 𝐈𝐈 � 𝐈𝐈∗ = 𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝐙𝐙 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝐙𝐙 = 𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
• Thus
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝑋𝑋 𝐙𝐙 = 𝑍𝑍∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Nature of 𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋 𝑄𝑄 Remarks

Inductive 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 Reactive power is positive and lagging

𝜙𝜙
Capacitive 𝑋𝑋 = −𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝑄 = −𝐼𝐼 2 � 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 Reactive power is negative and leading

Positive or 𝜙𝜙 Negative or
lagging reactive leading reactive
𝜙𝜙 power power

Power triangle for inductive load Power triangle for capacitive load

48
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• For maximum average power transfer in AC circuits, the load impedance 𝐙𝐙𝐿𝐿 must be equal to
the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance 𝐙𝐙 𝑇𝑇𝑇 .
• Consider an AC circuit supplying a load (of
impedance 𝐙𝐙𝐿𝐿 ) and its Thevenin equivalent Thevenin
equivalent
– The current in the circuit is
𝐕𝐕𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐕𝐕𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐈𝐈 = =
𝐙𝐙𝐿𝐿 + 𝐙𝐙 𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 )
– The magnitude of current becomes 𝐙𝐙𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝐙𝐙 𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 )2
– With adjustable load impedance, the power delivered to the load is
2 � 𝑅𝑅 =
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑇 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 𝐿𝐿 � 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 )2 𝐿𝐿
– To achieve the maximum power transfer, differentiating 𝑃𝑃 with respect to load resistance, 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 and load
reactance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ; and setting the results equal to zero yields
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0 ⟹ 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 and = 0 ⟹ 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = −𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
• Combining above results leads to the conclusion that for maximum power transfer, load
impedance 𝐙𝐙𝐿𝐿 must be selected so that
𝐙𝐙𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐙𝐙 𝑇𝑇𝑇 ∗

49
49
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
(cont.)
• This technique of transferring maximum power to load is known as
impedance matching and is of considerable importance in electronic
circuits.
• Special cases of maximum average power transfer theorem
– If only load resistance 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 can be varied and load reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 is fixed, the condition of
maximum power transfer is
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 2
– If only load reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 can be varied and load resistance 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 is fixed, the condition of
maximum power transfer is
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = −𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇
– If the load is purely resistive (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 0 ), the condition for maximum power transfer is
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇𝑇
– If both load resistance 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 and load reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 can be varied keeping load angle
𝑋𝑋
(tan−1 𝐿𝐿 ) constant, the condition of maximum power transfer is
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 or 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 or 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇𝑇

50
Power Factor Correction

51
Power Factor
• The voltage and current phasors for the given
circuit are related as
𝐕𝐕
𝐙𝐙 = = 𝑍𝑍∠𝜙𝜙 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐈𝐈

• Thus, the phase difference between voltage and current is same as the angle
of the load impedance. The power factor is the cosine of the phase
difference between voltage and current (or angle of the load impedance)
• The power factor can also be expressed as the ratio of the average power to
the apparent power, thus it is dimensionless.
• By convention, an inductive load is considered to have a lagging power
factor, while a capacitive load is considered to have a leading power factor.
Here, the terms leading power factor or lagging power factor is decided
based on the position (leading or lagging) of the current phasor with
respect to the voltage phasor.

52
Importance of Power Factor
• Let us recall the expression of active power. Considering the
voltage to be constant, the active power can be expressed as 𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜙𝜙

𝑃𝑃 ∝ 𝐼𝐼 � cos 𝜙𝜙
• Thus, if power factor decreases, the current will increase to
supply the same active power and vice-versa. 𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜙𝜙

• Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air conditioners, and

refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as induction motors) are inductive
and operate at a low lagging power factor (less than 0.8).
• Due to low power factor, the current increases, which in turn increases the
losses in transmission lines and transformers (It is an additional cost to a
utility.)
• The utility therefore induces its industrial consumers to improve their
power factor by imposing penalty. Industrial consumers improve the power
factor of their load by installing shunt capacitors which draw compensating
leading current.

53
Power Factor Improvement
• The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage
or current to the original load is known as power factor
correction/improvement.
• Consider an inductive load with power factor cos 𝜃𝜃1 taking active power
𝑃𝑃, and reactive power 𝑄𝑄1 from the supply as Original
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑃𝑃 � tan 𝜃𝜃1 inductive load
• To increase the power factor from cos 𝜃𝜃1 to cos 𝜃𝜃2 without altering the
real power 𝑃𝑃, a capacitor is connected in parallel to the load. The
capacitor supplies some part of reactive power and thus, reduces the
reactive power from supply. The new reactive power from supply is
𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑃 � tan 𝜃𝜃2
• The change in the reactive power is provided by the shunt capacitor Inductive load with
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 𝑄𝑄1 − 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑃 � tan 𝜃𝜃1 − tan 𝜃𝜃2 improved power factor
• The reactive power provided by the shunt
capacitor can also be given as
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = = 𝜔𝜔 � 𝐶𝐶 � 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
• The required capacitance becomes
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃 � tan 𝜃𝜃1 − tan 𝜃𝜃2
𝐶𝐶 = =
𝜔𝜔 � 𝑉𝑉 2 𝜔𝜔 � 𝑉𝑉 2
Power triangle Phasor diagram

54
Resonance in AC Series Circuits

55
Analysis of Series Circuit
• Let us consider a series RLC circuit. The impedance of this
circuit is
2
1
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 2 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 −
𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶
• The angle of the circuit impedance is
1
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 −
𝜙𝜙 = tan−1 = tan−1 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
• Thus, the impedance and its angle are
frequency dependent.
• By varying the supply frequency to this circuit,
a point can be achieved where the reactance of
this circuit becomes zero (or impedance
becomes purely resistive), such a condition is
referred to as resonance and corresponding
frequency is called resonance frequency, 𝑓𝑓r .

56
Resonance in AC Series Circuits
• Below resonance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉
– 𝜙𝜙 is negative, the circuit is capacitive. 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑅𝑅

• At resonance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶

– 𝜙𝜙 is zero, the circuit is resistive.
– Impedance is minimum.
– Current is maximum.
– The inductor voltage and capacitor
voltage can be much more than the
source voltage.
• Above resonance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
– 𝜙𝜙 is positive, the circuit is inductive.

57
Resonance in AC Series Circuits
(cont.)
• Since at resonance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 , the resonance frequency, 𝜔𝜔r or
𝑓𝑓r can be computed as
1 1 1
𝜔𝜔r � 𝐿𝐿 = ⇒ 𝜔𝜔 = or 𝑓𝑓r =
𝜔𝜔r � 𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿 � 𝐶𝐶 2𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐿 � 𝐶𝐶
• Bandwidth (BW): The bandwidth of a circuit is defined as
the frequency range between the half-power points when
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⁄ 2. If 𝜔𝜔1 and 𝜔𝜔2 are half-power points or
frequencies (also referred to as cut-off frequencies),
𝜔𝜔2 − 𝜔𝜔1 is the bandwidth.
• Quality factor (𝑄𝑄0 ): The quality factor is defined as the ratio of the reactive power of either the
capacitor or the inductor to the average power of the resistor at resonance.
– For inductive reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 at resonance – For capacitive reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 at resonance
𝐼𝐼2 � 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝜔r � 𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼2 � 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 1
𝑄𝑄0 = 2 = = 𝑄𝑄0 = 2 = =
𝐼𝐼 � 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼 � 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝜔𝜔r � 𝐶𝐶 � 𝑅𝑅
• The quality factor and cut-off frequencies are related as
2 2
𝜔𝜔r 1 𝜔𝜔r 1
𝜔𝜔1 = − + 𝜔𝜔r 1 + and 𝜔𝜔2 = + 𝜔𝜔r 1 +
2𝑄𝑄0 2𝑄𝑄0 2𝑄𝑄0 2𝑄𝑄0
• Therefore, the quality factor and bandwidth are related as
𝜔𝜔r
BW = 𝜔𝜔2 − 𝜔𝜔1 = Also, 𝜔𝜔r = 𝜔𝜔1 � 𝜔𝜔2
𝑄𝑄0

58
Resonance in AC Series Circuits
(cont.)
• The shape of the resonance curve depends on the
quality factor. The bandwidth becomes narrow
with increase in the quality factor. A circuit is said
to be selective if the response has a sharp peak and
narrow bandwidth and is achieved with a high
quality factor. The quality factor is therefore a
measure of selectivity.
• Also, at resonance
𝑉𝑉
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 and 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑅𝑅
– Voltage across inductor
𝜔𝜔r � 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = = 𝑄𝑄0 � 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅
– Similarly, voltage across capacitor
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = = 𝑄𝑄0 � 𝑉𝑉
𝜔𝜔r �𝐶𝐶�𝑅𝑅

• A resonant circuit is said to be a high-Q circuit

when its quality factor is equal to or greater than
10.

59
Suggested Books
S. Year of
No. Name of Authors / Books / Publishers Publication/
Reprint
1. Rizzoni Giorgio, “Principles and Applications of Electrical 2015
Engineering”, McGraw-Hill Education, 5th Edition.

2. Hayt W.H., Kemmerly J.E., Phillips J.D., and Durbin S.M., 2019
“Engineering Circuit Analysis”, McGraw-Hill Education, 9th Edition.

3. Alexander C.K., and Sadiku M.N.O., “Fundamentals of Electric 2012

Circuits”, McGraw Hill, 5th Edition.

4. Hughes Edward, “Electrical & Electronic Technology”, Pearson 2002

Publishing, 8th Edition.
5. Kothari D.P., and Nagrath I.J., “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata 2022
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 4th Edition.

60
Thanks

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