1

Power Electronics
Induction Motor Drives

Contact: Dr. Eduard Muljadi

 2

Induction Motor
Operated in Variable Speed

References:
1) A.E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr., Stephen D. Umans, Electric Machinery, Sixth Edition, McGraw Hill
2) Ned Mohan, T. Undeland, W.P. Robbins, Power Electronics (Converters, Applications and Design),
Published by John Wiley and Sons.
3) T.A. Lipo, Introduction to Electric Machine Design, IEEE Press, Wiley,
 3

Equivalent Circuits Based Calculations

at variable speed at constant V/Hz
 4
• We can derive the variable speed operation by
modifying the 60Hz equivalent circuit shown in
Figure a.
• If we divided all the parameters and the
voltage source by ωe , we get another
equivalent circuit shown in Figure b.
• We practically get the same currents at all
branches of the circuit and calculations for
torque and power can be simplified.
• We can even have the same plot for the
calculated currents, torque and power.
• Note: the slip in Figure a is now replaced by
slip-frequency ωe , in Figure b.
 5
Input Data Example:

V1 = 230/sqrt(3); % per-phase voltage in volts

Nph = 3; % number of phase ( 3-phase)
poles = 4; % number of poles (even number)
fe = 60; % frequency in Hz

R1 = 0.095; % stator resistance (ohms)

X1 = 0.680; % stator leakage reactance (ohms)
X2 = 0.672; % rotor leakage reactance (ohms)
Xm = 18.7; % magnetizing reactance (ohms)
R2 = 0.1; % rotor winding resistance (ohms)

%Calculate the synchronous speed

omegas = 4*pi*fe/poles; % mechanical radian/sec
ns = 120*fe/poles; % in rpm (rotations per minute)

%Calculate the synchronous frequency

omegae = omegas*poles/2 % electrical radian/sec
 6

% Calculate stator Thevenin equivalent (in ohms) from a-b

Z1eq = j*Xm*(R1+j*X1)/(R1 + j*(X1+Xm));
R1eq = real(Z1eq);
X1eq = imag(Z1eq);

% Calculate Thevenin voltage (in volt)

V1eq = (V1*j*Xm/(R1 + j*(X1+Xm)));

% Calculate the rotor current (I2) at rated slip (s_rtd) in A.

s_rtd = 0.02;
I2_rtd = (V1eq/(Z1eq + j*X2 + R2/s_rtd));
I2 = abs(I2_rtd);

% Calculate the Internal torque (in N.m)

Tmech_rtd = Nph*I2^2*R2/(s_rtd*omegas)

% Calculate the rotational speed (rated speed in rpm)

n_rtd = ns*(1-s_rtd)
 7
• Lets examine Figure b further.
• We can replace the reactance X with its inductance
L (constant) as shown in Figure c.
• Figure c is very revealing, that we can actually
operate at “nearly” constant flux at all frequencies
provided that we supply the induction machine
with constant V/Hz (Vs/ωe = constant) – achievable
via Variable Frequency Drives (VFD).
• Note, however, R1 does not scale with ωe. The
influence of R1 especially noticeable in low-
frequencies operation, because R1/ωe.is not
negligible in the low-frequency range.
• A compensation in the lower-frequency range is
often implemented in the VFD operation to ensure
rated flux operation.
 8
This type of control is known as constant volts per hertz.
 5.13.3 Line Frequency Control 9

• At low frequencies, the voltage drop across R1 /ω (Fig. 5.15) is comparable to the
terminal voltage V1, and therefore (Φp ∞ V/f ) is no longer valid.
• To maintain the same air gap flux density, the ratio V/f is increased for lower frequencies.
• The required variation of the supply voltage with frequency is shown in Fig. 5.32. In Fig.
5.31 the machine voltage will change if the input voltage to the inverter Vi is changed;

Figure 5.32 Required variation in

voltage with change in frequency to
maintain constant air gap flux Black Line
density in the low frequency region Red Line V/f = constant
V/f = constant + Vboost in the low frequencies

Vboost

• Vi can be changed by changing the firing angle of the controlled rectifier.

 10

Impact
of R1/ω
at low
I1 XlsL1 I’2 XL’ freq (ω)
lr 2

R___
1 R’2
V1/ω E1 Lm ______
ω sω

At higher operating frequencies (close to 60Hz) the size of

R1/ω is almost the same, and the voltage drop is negligible,
but at low frequencies (close to 0Hz), the size of R1/ω is not
negligible, thus, the V1/ω need a boost to compensate this
voltage drop.
 11
• Lets examine Figure c further.
• Since R1 does not scale with ωe , we can use a
voltage compensation implemented in the VFD
operation to ensure rated flux operation.
• This procedure is shown in Figure d.
• What we can do, we can find out the “rated flux”
by finding the Em = km fm_rated from 60Hz operation
(use rated voltage Vs and rated slip given in the
name plate data).
• Once we found (Em /60Hz)rated , we can scale
operation, and use this number (Em /60Hz)rated for
all frequencies below 60Hz.
• Then, we can walk back to find the actual values of
(Vs / ωe )calculated , that must be programmed to
operate the VFD.
Induction-machine torque-slip curve showing braking, motor, and motor regions. 12
13
 14
Matlab Program: VS_IM_family_of_curves.m
• This program shows the characteristic of induction machine for a wide range of slips
• It is a self contained program with an input file:
• An Excel spreadsheet file
• The input data is accessible at the sheet level
• One Excel spreadsheet may have several input files in several sheets
• Detail example of input file is listed inside the VS_IM_family_of_curves.m
Computed electromechanical torque for the 100-HP motor 15

900

• Negative torque values indicate a generating mode operation

800

• The slip is negative in this generating mode. 700

• The operating speed is computed as 600

• Actual rpm = synchronous_rpm x (1 – slip) 500

Tmech (N.m)
• Synchronous rpm = 120 freq/poles 400

• Actual generating rpm > synchronous rpm 300

• The allowable operating slip range is very small ~ 0% to 2% 200

• Each curve (different color) indicates the operation is at a 100

specific frequency (e.g. 15Hz). 0

15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

• Within one operating frequency (e.g.), the slip is varied and the rpm

torque is computed at each slip.

• The steep slope starting at zero slip to say ~ 2% is the allowable
range, the higher slips have excessive losses and the motor will
be overloaded (may burn the stator winding).
Computed mechanical power, and electrical power for the 100-HP motor 16
5 5
10 10
3 3.5

3
2.5

2.5
2

2
Pmech (watt)

Pelect (watt)
1.5

1.5

1
1

0.5
0.5

15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz 15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

rpm rpm

Comparing the two curves (left and right), the mechanical power and electrical output power:
• In the low slip range (< 2% slip – steep slope region) the two curves is very similar indicating normal
operation, normal currents, normal losses; thus, there is no overload
• In the high slip range (> 2% - closer to the peaks), the Pmech >> Pelect indicating high losses, overloads
• Beyond the peak, the operation is unstable or also called run-away condition
 Computed per-phase voltage and line voltages for the 100-HP motor 17
450
800

400
700

350
600

300
500
250

ms (V)
VLn(V)

400
200

r
VLL
300
150

100 200

50 100
15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz
15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz
0
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm rpm

• The voltage shown in the curves above is the voltage measured at the terminal
• In a wye-connected windings, the per-phase voltage is the voltage between the line and the star-point
• The line-voltage is the voltage between the lines.
• The airgap voltage (Em) varies with the frequency to maintain constant flux operation, V/Hz is constant as the slip
and/or frequency constant. Although the Em/freq is constant, the Vln/freq is not (Vdrop varies with currents).
 Computed airgap voltage Em and per phase voltage VLn for the 100-HP motor 18

450

400

350

300

Em eq -. and VLn -- (volt)

250

200

150

r
100

50
15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm

• The voltage shown in the curves above is the voltage measured at the terminal VLn (dashed line) and the
corresponding per phase air-gap voltage Em.
• The airgap voltage (Em) varies with the frequency to maintain constant flux operation, V/Hz is constant as the slip
and/or frequency constant. Although the Em/freq is constant, the VLn/freq is not (Vdrop across X1 and R1 varies
with currents as the slip changes). This is how voltage boost is implemented to counter the Vdrop.
 19
Computed current curves for the 100-HP motor
700

600

500

400

I1 (A)
300

200

100

15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm

• The family of curves for different frequencies is shown above

• Note, the allowable operation is < 2% (or whatever your rated slip is) and the machine above has a rated current
of ~ 110 amps. As you can see here, operation in higher slips causes an overload conditions that will causes
excessive copper loss, will eventually heat and burn your stator winding, short circuit will follow.
 Computed Copper and Iron Losses for the 100-HP motor 20
4
10
8 3000

7
2500

2000
5
Pcu (watt)

Pfe (watt)
4 1500

3
1000

500
1

15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz 15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm rpm

• The copper loss Pcu varies as I2 R (square of the currents)

• Iron losses varies with the magnetic flux density (Em/Hz) in the stator lamination and the operating frequency
regardless of the operating slip and frequency.
 Computed efficiency for the 100-HP motor 21

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

Efficiency (p.u.)
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm

• We should consider the narrow range of slips where the efficiency remains high, the higher slips operation is not
acceptable overloads operation due to too much losses.
 22

The results plotted in the next pages are based on Rated

Flux (Em/Hz constant) operation, and the motor is operated
based on reference power to maximize wave energy
conversion.
Golden search optimization is used to find the solution.
Here, we use the reference power as the cube function of
the rotational speed.

𝑷𝑷𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 𝒌𝒌𝒑𝒑 ω𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒎

 23
Matlab Program: VS_InductionMotor.m
• The main program is the VS_InductionMotor.m
• This program uses:
• The same input file as the other program (VS_IM_family_of_curves.m)
• Uses Golden Search Program
• function [x_st,f_st,iter] = GoldenSection(CalcT,xx,x0,s,eps)
• GoldenSection will use CalcT function to compute torque
• This program compute the operating point for a Variable Speed operation at rated flux.
• From the operating point Torque, slip (or speed); we can find a look up table:
• input = speed feedback ; output = operating frequency to give the desired Tref
 24

Computed the electromagnetic torque and the rms current of the 100-HP motor
200 120

180

100
160

140
80

120
Tmech (N.m)

100 60

I1 (A)
80

40
60

40
20

20

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm rpm
Comparison Load Torque (TLoad = kLoad ωm2) vs Electromechanical Torque 25

For the 100-HP motor

200 900

180
800

160
700

140
600
Tload (N.m)

120

em (N.m)
500
Tmech (N.m)

(N.m)
100

TTmech
400
80

300
60

40 200

20 100
15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm rpm
 26
𝑷𝑷𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 𝒌𝒌𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 ω𝟑𝟑𝒎𝒎
5
10
3

𝑷𝑷𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑷𝑷𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍

2.5

Pmech (watt)
1.5

0.5

15 Hz 30 Hz 45 Hz 60 Hz

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
rpm
 27
Computed the per-phase voltage and the line voltage for the 100-HP motor

300 500

450

250
400

350
200

300

ms (V)
Em eq (V)

150 250

r
r

VLL
200

100
150

100
50

50

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

rpm rpm
 28
Computed shaft power and the electrical power for the 100-HP motor

4
10
8

Pelect,Pshaft in watt
4

P red
0 elect
P black
shaft

-1
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Speed in rpm
Computed efficiency for the 100-HP motor 29

0.95

0.9

0.85

0.8

Efficiency in per unit

0.75

0.7

0.65

0.6

0.55

0.5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Speed in rpm
 30
14-4-4 INDUCTION MOTOR CAPABILITY: BELOW AND ABOVE THE RATED SPEED
 31
14-4-4 INDUCTION MOTOR CAPABILITY: BELOW AND ABOVE THE RATED SPEED
 32
14-4-4 INDUCTION MOTOR CAPABILITY:
BELOW AND ABOVE THE RATED SPEED
Induction Motor Drive Capability Curves • Mainly two regions
Induction Motor Drive Capability Curves • Mainly two regions
Induction Motor Drive Capability Curves • Mainly two regions
 Generator Mode of Operation

• Rotor speeds exceed the synchronous speed

Regenerative Braking Mode to Slow Down

• Machine is made to go into the generator mode

 14-6 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY CONVERTER CLASSIFICATIONS 38

Based on the discussion in the previous section, the variable-frequency

converters, which act as an interface between the utility power system
and the induction motor, must satisfy the following basic requirements:

1. Ability to adjust the frequency according to the desired output speed

2. Ability to adjust the output voltage so as to maintain a constant air gap

flux in the constant-torque region

3. Ability to supply a rated current on a continuous basis at any frequency

 14-6 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY CONVERTER CLASSIFICATIONS 39

The VF converters can be classified based on the type of rectifier and inverter:

1. Pulse-width-modulated voltage source inverter (PWM-VSI) with a diode rectifier

2. Square-wave voltage source inverter (square-wave VSI) with a thyristor rectifier

3. Current source inverter (CSI) with a thyristor rectifier

 Classification of
Converter Systems

• PWM-VSI is now
most commonly use
PWM-VSI System

• Diode rectifier for

unidirectional power
flow
PWM-VSI System

• Options for recovered

energy during
regenerative braking
 14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 43

• In VSI drives (both PWM and square-wave type), the speed can be controlled
without a speed feedback loop, where there may be a slower acting feedback
loop through the processor controller, as explained in Chapter 12. Figure 14-21
shows such a control.
• The frequency f of the inverter output voltages is controlled by the input speed
reference signal ωref.
• The input command ωref is modified for protection and improved performance,
as will be discussed shortly, and the required control inputs (ωs or f and Vs
signals) to the PWM controller in Fig. 14-21 are calculated.
• The PWM controller can be realized by analog components, as discussed in
Chapter 8 and indicated by Fig. 14-19b. The control signals (e.g. va,control) can
be calculated from the f and Vs signals and by knowing Vd and Vtri
 General-Purpose
Speed Controller

• High dynamic performance

is not the objective here
 14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 45

The following control options are described

14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 46

f2a
Ramp rates

ωs too fast than ωr (e.g.

ωsla ; the load inertia is
ωsl2a
higher than expected)
then io will increase.
14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 47

f2b
Ramp rates

ωs too fast than ωr (e.g.

ωsla ) then io will increase.
The slip compensation will
reduce from ωsla to ωslb
 14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 48

Braking mode: if ωs is reduced too fast than ωm (e.g. the load inertia is
higher than expected) then io may reverses due to negative slip (ωsl < 0).

Diode rectifier cannot

reverse the power back
to the grid (non-
regenerative), but active
rectifier with IGBT can.
14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 49

ωsl
14-7-4 ADJUSTABLE-SPEED CONTROL OF PWM-VSI DRIVES 50

V/Hz Vboost
 51
SUMMARY
1. Induction motors are the workhorse of industry because of their low cost and rugged
construction. When operated directly from the line voltages, an induction motor operates at nearly a
constant speed. By means of power electronic converters, induction motors can be used for
adjustable-speed and servo drive applications. A major application of adjustable-speed induction
motor drives is for improving the energy efficiency in various residential, industrial, and electrical
utility systems.
2. In a three-phase induction motor, the resultant field distribution in the air gap is sinusoidal and
rotates at a synchronous speed ωs = (2π f) 2/p radians per second for a p-pole winding when it is
excited by three-phase voltages and currents at a frequency f.
3. The speed of an induction motor can be controlled by varying the stator frequency f, which
controls the synchronous speed and, hence, the motor speed, since the slips is kept small. The air
gap flux φag is kept constant by Vs in linear proportion to f. This technique allows the induction motor
to deliver its rated torque at speeds up to its rated speed. Beyond the rated speed, the motor torque
capability declines, though the motor can deliver its rated output power up to a certain speed.
 SUMMARY 52

4. For braking in an induction motor to reduce its speed, the stator frequency f is decreased so that
the synchronous speed at which the air gap magnetic field rotates is less than the rotor speed.
5. Switch-mode dc-to-ac inverters, as discussed in Chapter 8, are used to supply adjustable-
frequency, adjustable-magnitude three-phase ac voltages for induction motor speed control. The
harmonics in the inverter output voltages result in harmonics in the motor current, harmonic losses in
the motor, and possibly the motor torque pulsations. Therefore, care must be taken in selecting the
inverter and the inverter switching frequency.
6. The inverters used for the induction motor speed control can be classified as pulse-width-
modulated voltage source inverters, square-wave voltage source inverters, and currents source
inverters. The comparative advantages and disadvantages of these inverters are given in Table 14-2.
7. By means of field-oriented vector control, induction motor drives can be used for servo applications.
 Mathcad, PSCAD, and Matlab 53

1. Mathcad Programs discussed in this chapter:
• Example 4.5_NoThevenin.mcdx
• Example 5.4_WithThevenin.mcdx
• Induction Motor_constant VperHz.mcdx
• Induction Motor_Boost-constant VperHz.mcdx
• Induction Motor-impact of R2.mcdx
• Example 14_1.mcdx, Example 14_2to4.mcdx
• Example 14_5to6.mcdx
• VFD_IM.mcdx
3. Matlab Programs discussed in this chapter:
• VS_IM_family_of_curves.m
• VS_InductionMotor.m and CalcT.m
• IMParameters.xlsx (input file to Matlab prorams)
2. PSCAD Programs discussed in this chapter:
• EX_Motor_Gen_IM_TorqueEqn.pscx
• Ind_Motor_Starting.pscx
• InductionMotorSoftStarter.pscx
• Ind_Motor.pscx
• Ind_Generator.pscx
• EX_Motor_Gen_IM_TorqueEqn.pscx
• Motor_Drive_SVM.pscx
• IM_Simulation_Fitzgerald_Kingsley_U
man.m