Phonological and Grammatical Level

Introduction

Stylistics is the study of how language is used to create meaning and effect. It can be applied to any type of text, from
literature to advertising to everyday conversation. Stylisticians examine all levels of language, from phonology (the sound
system) to grammar (the rules of sentence structure) to lexis (the vocabulary).

Phonological Level

The phonological level of stylistics examines the way that writers use sound to create effects. This can include using:

 Alliteration: the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words (e.g., "Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers.")
 Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds within words (e.g., "Hear the mellow wedding bells.")
 Onomatopoeia: the use of words that sound like what they mean (e.g., "The fizz of the soda.")
 Rhyme: the repetition of identical or similar sounds at the end of words (e.g., "Roses are red, violets are blue.")

Writers can use phonological devices to create a variety of effects, such as:

 Emphasis: by repeating certain sounds, writers can draw attention to particular words or phrases.
 Euphony: by using pleasant-sounding sounds, writers can create a sense of harmony and beauty.
 Cacophony: by using harsh-sounding sounds, writers can create a sense of discord or unease.

Grammatical Level

The grammatical level of stylistics examines the way that writers use sentence structure to create effects. This can
include using:

 Different sentence types: Writers can use a variety of sentence types, such as simple sentences, compound
sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences, to create different effects.
 Verb tenses: Writers can use different verb tenses to indicate when an action is taking place, whether it is
habitual or one-time, and whether it is real or hypothetical.
 Sentence length: Writers can use short sentences to create a sense of urgency or excitement, and long sentences
to create a sense of complexity or sophistication.
 Sentence structure: Writers can use different sentence structures, such as inversion and parallelism, to create
different effects.

Example: Consider the following passage from Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart":

True! --nervous --very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad? The disease had
sharpened my senses --not destroyed --not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute. I heard all things in the
heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in hell. How, then, am I mad? Hearken! and observe how healthily --how
calmly I can tell you the whole story.

This passage is full of phonological and grammatical devices that Poe uses to create a sense of suspense and unease. For
example, Poe uses alliteration in the phrase "nervous - very, very dreadfully nervous." He also uses assonance in the
phrase "heaven and in the earth." These devices create a sense of rhythm and repetition that contributes to the overall
effect of the passage.
Poe also uses a variety of grammatical devices in this passage. For example, he uses short, choppy sentences to create a
sense of urgency. He also uses the present tense to make the events of the story seem more immediate. And he uses
exclamation points to emphasize the narrator's emotional state.

Conclusion

The phonological level and the grammatical level of stylistics are both concerned with the way that language is used to
create meaning and effect. However, they focus on different aspects of language. The phonological level of stylistics
examines the way that writers use sound to create effects. This can include using alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia,
and rhyme. The grammatical level of stylistics examines the way that writers use sentence structure to create effects.
This can include using different sentence types, verb tenses, sentence length, and sentence structure.

Characteristic Phonological Level Grammatical Level

Focus Sound Sentence Structure
Examples Alliteration, assonance, Different sentence types, verb tenses,
onomatopoeia, rhyme sentence length, sentence structure
Effects created Emphasis, euphony, cacophony Emphasis, clarity, complexity, rhythm

One way to think about the difference between the phonological and grammatical levels of stylistics is that the
phonological level is concerned with the surface form of language, while the grammatical level is concerned with the
underlying structure of language.

The phonological level is more immediately perceptible to the reader or listener, as it is the level at which we experience
the sound of language. The grammatical level, on the other hand, is less immediately perceptible, as it is the level at
which we understand the meaning and relationships between words in a sentence.

Writers can use both the phonological and grammatical levels of language to create different effects and to achieve their
desired communicative goals.

Stylisticians examine all levels of language to understand how writers create meaning and effect. The phonological and
grammatical levels are just two of the many levels that can be analyzed. By understanding how writers use language at
these levels, we can better appreciate the art of writing.

Semantic level and Graphological Levels

Semantic Level

The semantic level of stylistics examines the way that writers use meaning to create effects. This can include using:

 Connotation: the emotional or associative meaning of a word or phrase.

 Denotation: the literal meaning of a word or phrase.
 Ambiguity: the use of words or phrases that have multiple meanings.
 Figurative language: the use of language in a non-literal way, such as through similes, metaphors, and
personification.

Writers can use semantic devices to create a variety of effects, such as:
  Emphasis: by using words with strong connotations, writers can draw attention to particular ideas or concepts.
 Imagery: by using words that evoke vivid images in the reader's mind, writers can create a sense of realism or
atmosphere.
 Humor: by using words in unexpected or incongruous ways, writers can create a sense of humor.
 Irony: by using words to mean the opposite of what they literally say, writers can create a sense of irony.

Graphological Level

The graphological level of stylistics examines the way that writers use the written form of language to create effects. This
can include using:

 Punctuation: writers can use punctuation marks, such as commas, periods, and exclamation points, to create
different effects.
 Capitalization: writers can use capitalization to emphasize certain words or phrases.
 Italics: writers can use italics to indicate emphasis, contrast, or foreign words.
 Spacing: writers can use spacing to create different effects, such as visual emphasis or separation between ideas.

Writers can use graphological devices to create a variety of effects, such as:

 Emphasis: by using punctuation marks, capitalization, or italics, writers can draw attention to particular words or
phrases.
 Rhythm: by using different punctuation marks and spacing, writers can create a sense of rhythm in their writing.
 Tone: by using different graphological devices, writers can convey different tones, such as formal, informal,
serious, or humorous.

Example Consider the following passage from Shakespeare's play Hamlet:

To be, or not to be, that is the question:

Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,

And by opposing end them? To die, to sleep—

No more; and by a sleep to say we end

The heartache and the thousand natural shocks

That flesh is heir to—'tis a consummation

Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep;

To sleep, perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come,

When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,

Must give us pause: there's the respect

That makes calamity of so long life.

This passage is full of semantic and graphological devices that Shakespeare uses to create a powerful and moving effect.
For example, Shakespeare uses the repetition of the word "to" to create a sense of rhythm and emphasis. He also uses
the question mark at the end of the first line to create suspense and intrigue.

In addition, Shakespeare uses a variety of semantic devices in this passage. For example, he uses the metaphor "a sea of
troubles" to describe the challenges that Hamlet is facing. He also uses the personification "flesh is heir to" to suggest
that the human body is subject to suffering and death.

Conclusion

Stylisticians examine all levels of language to understand how writers create meaning and effect. The semantic and
graphological levels are just two of the many levels that can be analyzed. By understanding how writers use language at
these levels, we can better appreciate the art of writing.

Discourse Level and Lexical Level

Discourse Level

The discourse level of stylistics examines the way that writers use language to organize and structure a text. This can
include using:

 Cohesive devices: words and phrases that connect sentences and paragraphs together, such as conjunctions,
adverbs, and pronouns.
 Thematic structure: the way that the main ideas of a text are presented and developed.
 Information structure: the way that new and old information is presented in a text.
 Turn-taking: the way that speakers or writers take turns communicating with each other.

Writers can use discourse devices to create a variety of effects, such as:

 Cohesion: by using cohesive devices, writers can make their writing easier to read and understand.
 Emphasis: by using certain types of cohesive devices, writers can draw attention to particular ideas or concepts.
 Flow: by using different discourse devices, writers can create a sense of flow and movement in their writing.
 Engagement: by using different discourse devices, writers can engage their readers and keep them interested.
 Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.
 Parallelism: the use of similar grammatical structures in two or more clauses or sentences.
 Ellipsis: the omission of a word or phrase that is understood from the context.
 Forecasting: the use of words or phrases to signal what is coming next in the text.
 Back-referencing: the use of words or phrases to refer back to something that has already been mentioned in the
text.

Lexical Level

The lexical level of stylistics examines the way that writers use vocabulary to create meaning and effect. This can include
using:

 Denotative meaning: the literal meaning of a word or phrase.

 Connotative meaning: the emotional or associative meaning of a word or phrase.
 Register: the level of formality or informality of a word or phrase.
 Collocation: the words that are typically used together.
Writers can use lexical devices to create a variety of effects, such as:

 Synonyms: words with the same or similar meaning.

 Antonyms: words with opposite meanings.
 Hyponyms: words that are more specific than another word.
 Meronyms: words that are parts of a whole.
 Collocations: words that are typically used together.
 Imagery: by using words that evoke vivid images in the reader's mind, writers can create a sense of realism or
atmosphere.
 Tone: by using words with different connotations and registers, writers can convey different tones, such as
formal, informal, serious, or humorous.
 Emphasis: by using certain types of words, such as repetition or exaggeration, writers can draw attention to
particular ideas or concepts.
 Humor: by using words in unexpected or incongruous ways, writers can create a sense of humor.

Example Consider the following passage from Maya Angelou's autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings:

My grandmother lived in a small town called Stamps, Arkansas, and I was born there on April 4, 1928. When I was three,
my parents separated and I went to live with my grandmother. She was a stern but loving woman, and she taught me
many things about life and how to survive in the world.

This passage is full of discourse and lexical devices that Angelou uses to create a vivid and engaging narrative. For
example, she uses cohesive devices such as "and" and "but" to connect her sentences together. She also uses a variety of
lexical devices, such as the metaphor "caged bird" to describe herself and the alliteration in the phrase "stern but loving
woman."

Conclusion

Stylisticians examine all levels of language to understand how writers create meaning and effect. The discourse and
lexical levels are just two of the many levels that can be analyzed. By understanding how writers use language at these
levels, we can better appreciate the art of writing.