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Kemal H. Karpat - 45-59
Kemal H. Karpat - 45-59
Kemal H. Karpat - 45-59
1308-1332)
Year
Rumi , Miladi
or or General Director Assistant to the
Hicri Mali A. D of Statistics General Director
1310 1308 1892 Nuri Bey
1311 1309 1393 Fethi Bey
3 T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N
1312 1310 1894 Fethi Bey OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N :
1313 1311 1895 Fethi Franko Bey
1314 1312 1896 Fethi Franko Bey A N O V E R V I E W ,
1315 1313 1897 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi
1316 1314 1898 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1317 1315 1899 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1318 1316 1900 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1319 1317 1091 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1320 1318 1902 Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1321 1319 1903 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1322 1320 1904 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1323 1321 1905 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1324 1322 1906 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey
1325 1323 1907 Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey Introduction sources d e a l i n g w i t h the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of
1326 1324 1908 Mehmet Behiç Bey the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans there is a s t o u n d i n g
1327 1325 1909 Mehmet Behiç Bey U n t i l the census o f 1881/82, d e s p i t e occasional a l l u s i o n s v a r i a t i o n . T h e f i g u r e s g i v e n f o r the p r o p o r t i o n of Bulgar-
1328 :
1326 1910 Mehmet Behiç Bey
to ethnic g r o u p s (as i n t h e 1831 census), O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l ians i n the E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s r a n g e f r o m 24 to 39 percent;
1329 1327 1911 Mehmet Behiç Bey
1330 1328 1912 Mehmet Behiç Bey statistics classified t h e p o p u l a t i o n o n l y a c c o r d i n g t o r e l i - of Greeks, f r o m 9 to 16 p e r c e n t ; of T u r k s , f r o m 11 to 24
1331 1329 1913 Mehmet Behiç Bey g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n — e x c e p t f o r a f e w e t h n i c categories i n - percent; a n d so o n , despite considerabl e a g r e e m e nt about
1332 1330 1914 Mehmet Behiç Bey c l u d e d i n s o m e of the p r o v i n c i a l sahinmes, c h i e f l y after 1868. the total size (10 to 14 m i l l i o n ) of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n
1333 1331 1915 Despite the absence of a n y actual c o u n t of e t h n i c g r o u p s , the Balkans. Table 3 . 1 , w h i c h c o m p a r e s the f i g u r e s g i v e n by
1334 1332 1915
Europeans divided and subdivided t h e ' n o n - M u s l i m Ravenstein a n d b y K i e p e r t a n d B i a n c o n i , s h o w s t h e effect
Source: Salnames of H. 1310-1334 (1892/93—1915/16). It is interesting to observe the effort made by these officials to disseminate informa- p o p u l a t i o n , c h i e f l y the C h r i s t i a n s , i n accordance w i t h t h e i r of the use o f biased a n d p u r p o s e l y false i n f o r m a t i o n about
Notes: It should be noted that for fifteen out of the twenty-three years for which tion about statistics. Mehmet Behiç Bey, who served first as assistant director and then n a t i o n a l interests a n d subjective preferences . H o w e v e r , aft- the size of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e Balkans.
precise information is available, the director was a non-Muslim, and for eleven of those as general director and came to be a good statistician in his own right, produced er 1868 p r o v i n c i a l y e a r b o o k s (vilayet salnamcleri), a l t h o u g h Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s dis-
years, he was foreign also. Fethi Bey apparently was Jewish. Migirdig Sinabyan Efendi several works. One of his publications giving demographic, economic, financial, and
was an Armenian who had served as assistant director of trade from 1892 until he other data for the Ottoman state in 1310 (1894) begins with a general introduction issued s o m e w h a t i r r e g u l a r l y , b e g a n to p r o v i d e , a l o n g w i t h t r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the A s i a n p r o v i n c e s
assumed the statistics post in 1897 and who after 1902 returned to the trade ministry discussing the meaning and importance of statistics; see IUKTY 9075, Yevmiye Kalibi general p o p u l a t i o n statistics f o r the i n d i v i d u a l p r o v i n c e s , are f e w e r t h a n f o r the Balkans. T h e y are g e n e r a l l y i n agree-
as assistant minister (the statistical office was placed under the jurisdiction of the trade Mehmet Behiq Tarafindan Tanzim Olunan Istatistik Defteri. solid data o n the e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s . ment that M u s l i m s constituted an o v e r w h e l m i n g majority
ministry in 1910). Rober (Robert) Efendi was apparently an American.
This n e w source o f d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n w a s used i n A s i a , a l t h o u g h there is s o m e d i s a g r e e m e n t as to the exact
p r o p e r l y o n l y b y the serious a n d i m p a r t i a l E u r o p e a n schol- ratio of M u s l i m s to C h r i s t i a n s , especially i n areas subject to
ars a n d s t a t e s m e n ; t h e o t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to r e l y o n f a u l t y — p o l i t i c a l claims.''
o f t e n w h o l l y f i c t i t i o u s — d a t a . T h u s , f o r o b v i o u s reasons, The p r o b l e m of n a t i o n a l i t y i n the O t t o m a n state acquired
the p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d b v those w h o i g n o r e d a n e w d i m e n s i o n after 1878 as the n e w i n d e p e n d e n t or
O t t o m a n statistics v a r i e d g r e a t l y f r o m the f i g u r e s g i v e n b y a u t o n o m o u s states i n the Balkans—Serbia, B u l g a r i a , M o n -
the m o r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s r e p o r t e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , E. G . tenegro, R o m a n i a , a n d G r e e c e — s o u g h t to a c q u i r e i a d d i t i o n -
Ravenstein, despite hi s o u t s p o k e n s v m p a t h v f o r the C h r i s - al t e r r i t o r i e s , to w h i c h t h e y c l a i m e d to h a v e h i s t o r i c a l
tians, used statistics f r o m several sources, s o m e o f w h i c h r i g h t s . These states h a d e m e r g e d d e s p i t e the M u s l i m pre-
relied o n O t t o m a n d a t a , to s h o w t h a t the M u s l i m s i n the p o n d e r a n c e i n areas such as D o b r u c a a n d t h e sancaks of
Balkans ( e x c l u d i n g Bosnia) c o n s t i t u t e d a b o u t 43 p e r c e n t of eastern Bulgaria . O t h e r C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s , f o r e x a m p l e , the
(he t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n ; F. B i a n c o n i , u s i n g sources of i n -
1
A r m e n i a n s , e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e success o f t h e B a l k a n
f o r m a t i o n t h a t are h i g h l y suspect a n d f i g u r e s t h a t w e r e Christians i n achieving statehood, sought their o w n inde-
a p p a r e n t l y i m a g i n a r y , placed t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n at a pendence, again i g n o r i n g the w i s h e s o f the o v e r w h e l m i n g
mere 16 p e r c e n t . T h e r e p o r t p r e p a r e d b v H e i n r i c h K i e p e r t
2
M u s l i m m a j o r i t y . Some M u s l i m s — e . g . , the K u r d s ( w h o i n -
for the use of Russian delegates at the I s t a n b u l conferenc e habited m o r e or less the same areas as those c l a i m e d bv the
i n 1876 r e l i e d m a i n l y o n Slavic sources a n d o n B i a n c o n i ' s A r m e n i a n s ) , the A l b a n i a n s i n the Balkans, a n d the A r a b s i n
false statistics a n d o v e r e s t i m a t e d the Slavic p o p u l a t i o n to Syria—began also to advance d e m a n d s for a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
the d e t r i m e n t o f all o t h e r g r o u p s . A m o n g the t h i r t v - t h r e e
3
a u t o n o m y . T h e r i s i n g f e e l i n g of n a t i o n a l consciousnes s
1. "Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe Overrun formation, the figures of other "authorities," and i r i s interesting to
bv Turks, " The Geographical Magazine 3 (1876): 260. see in this article what in general were the sources that Kiepert
2. Ethnographic el statistique de la Tunpiie d'Europe ct de la Grece drew upon and, especially, the manner in which he treated Bianco-
(Paris, 1877), pp. 50 ff. ni as a great authority on the Ottoman population.
3. See Das Aiisland, no. 20 (20 May 1878): 393-116. It was com- 4. See Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of
mon practice for "authorities" on Ottoman population simply to Anatolia at the End oi the Empire (New York: New York University
copy, without regard for the authenticity or accuracy of the i n - Press, 1983).
44 45
T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N 47
46 OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
Greeks 743.900
a
economic a n d d e m o g r a p h i c r e v o l u t i o n ; a n d i n the
t h a t t h e G r e e k s s t i l l n u m b e r e d 1,729,65 7 ( u n a d j u s t e d i n the B r i t i s h Publi c R e c o r d s . O f f i c e .
16
(See also C h a p t e r 4.)
f i g u r e s ) , o r r o u g h l y a b o u t 9 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n nineteenth c e n t u r y the B u l g a r i a n m i d d l e classes, b e n e f i t -
Table 3.3. Greek P o p u l a t i o n i n the O t t o m a n State i n 1878 W i t h the s i g n i n g of the B e r l i n treaty i n 1878, w h i c h oc-
of t h e O t t o m a n state. A t t h a t t i m e m o s t o f t h e G r e e k ' ting f r o m t h e i r p r o x i m i t y to the O t t o m a n capital a n d f r o m
( A c c o r d i n g to S y n v e t ) c u r r e d after t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the
p o p u l a t i o n (that is, o v e r 50 percent) was c o n c e n t r a t ed i n the r e f o r m s i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t (these
M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , the B u l g a r i a ns w e r e o f f i c i a l l y recog-
Thrace the vilayets o f E d i r n e , A y d i n ( I z m i r ) , T r a b z o n , C a n i k (Sam- include a v a r i e t y of measures c o n c e r n i n g l a n d t e n u r e ) , de-
728.747 n i z e d as h a v i n g n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y i n the a u t o n o m o u s
Macedonia 587,860 s u n ) , K a r e s i , a n d I s t a n b u l , w h i c h w e r e t h e m o s t prosper- veloped r a p i d l y a n d a c q u i r e d considerable e c o n o m i c p o w -
Epirus B u l g a r i a n p r i n c i p a l i t y a n d i n eastern R u m e l i a (the latter
617.892 ous a n d c o m m e r c i a l l y active p r o v i n c e s (see the statistical er, w h i l e the peasants secured, d i r e c t l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y , c o n -
Tessaly 247,776 w a s a n n e x e d i n 1885 i n o u t r i g h t v i o l a t i o n of t h e t r e a t y ) .
a p p e n d i c e s , 1.8 a n d 14). trol of m u c h of the l a n d . T h e p r o g r e s s i v e measures i n t r o - 1 5
the W a r of 1877-1878
Ottoman m e m o r a n d u m p r e p a r e d f o r the B e r l i n C o n g r e s s
Bulgarian Seroian Greek Statistics Before the War After the War e d the registers of the B u l g a r i a n Exarchate ( c o u n t i n g f i v e
u S
The A r m e n i a n s i n the O t t o m a n state w e r e at the h e a d of
Ethnic Groups Statistics Statistics (excluding Kosova) people per h o u s e ) a n d also t h e t o t a l f i g u r e s g i v e n b y t h e the millet b e a r i n g t h e i r n a m e a n d e n j o y e d a p r i v i l e g e d sta-
Turks 210.000 to 220.000 80,000 to 90,000
Turks (including many Russian T e p l o v t o e s t i m a t e t h a t B u l g a r i a n s w e r e i n the tus t h a t w a s e n h a n c e d after 1821 w h e n t h e y b e g a n to re-
Pomaks 20,000 to 25,000 20,000 to 24.000
non-Turkish Muslims) ? 499,204 231.400 634.017 Muslims • Tatars 5.000 to 10.000 5.000 to 8.000 majority i n a p r o p o r t i o n of 2:1.60 i n the kazas of V i d i n , place the Greeks i n the g o v e r n m e n t ' s o p i n i o n as t h e m o s t
Bulgarians 1.181,336 57,600 332.162 Circassians 6,000 to 10,000 Tjrnovo, Ni§, a n d Sofia b u t w e r e i n the m i n o r i t y i n R u § c u k , reliable C h r i s t i a n g r o u p i n the state. T h e socio-economi c
Greeks 228,700 201.140 652.797 Gypsies 24.000 to 25.000 15.000 to 16.000 d e v e l o p m e n t of the A r m e n i a n s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
Varna, Tulca, I s l i m i y e , a n d P h i l i p p o p o l i s ; these areas (ex-
2 0
; L I B R A F, 7 j
52 OTTOMAN POPULATION,
53
E RELIGIOUS A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
büıty for the six eastern p r o v i n c e s . The n e w treatv, s i g n ed A r m e n i a n s . T r o t t e r w a s to t a k e a n a c t i v e p a r t i n im-
after the Congress of B e r l i n , i n c l u d e d a p r o v i s i o n (art. 61) p l e m e n t i n g the r e f o r m s there a n d , as a n a n t i c i p a t e d div- ly T u r k s . " T h e p a t r i a r c h gave t h e p o p u l a t i o n of A d a n a as
2
jttee u r g e d t h a t t h e r e f o r m s " s h o u l d i n c o m m o n Jus-
c a l l i n g for r e f o r m i n the A r m e n i a n - i n h a b i t e d p r o v i n c e s . i d e n d thereof, s e c u r i n g the f r i e n d s h i p of the A r m e n i a n s for com c o n s i s t i n g of o n l y 86,000 M u s l i m s , as a g a i n s t 134,000
extende d to the n u m e r o u s N e s t o r i a n s " ( i n h a b i t a n t s
b e
M e a n w h i l e , the B r i t i s h i n d u c e d the s u l t a n to p r o m i s e to B r i t a i n . T h u s , i n a d i s p a t c h to the M a r q u i s of Salisbury, he C h r i s t i a n s ; o n the o t h e r h a n d , C a p t a i n Casper, the f o r m e r
tire e central a n d s o u t h e r n p a r t s of the area), a l t h o u g h
n ) l
carry o u t u n s p e c i f i e d r e f o r m s , w h i c h w e r e to be agreed advocated c h a n g i n g the title of his o w n office to "Consulate B r i t i s h v i c e - c o u n s u l i n A d a n a , n u m b e r e d t h e M u s l i m s at
, f these N e s t o r i a n s also w e r e n o m a d s .
0
2 6
This parti-
u p o n at a later d a t e , a n d t h e y t h e m s e l v e s p r o m i s e d to of T u r k i s h A r m e n i a - a n d K u r d i s t a n " as a concession to 327,980 a n d the C h r i s t i a n s at 3 3 , 7 8 0 . 30
a t t i t u d e a p p e a r e d to be s u c h a flagrant v i o l a t i o n of the
oppose by a r m s f u t u r e e n c r o a c h m e n t s of Russia u p o n O t t o - A r m e n i a n s e n t i m e n t . H o w e v e r , o n the q u e s t i o n of popula- The B r i t i s h officers i n charge of p o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e
ciples of fairness t h a t M a j o r T r o t t e r felt called u p o n t o
m a n t e r r i t o r y . I n exchange f o r her p r o m i s e of p r o t e c t i o n , t i o n , T r o t t e r rejected A r m e n i a n claims: so u p s e t b y these i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s t h a t t h e y p e r s u a d e d
pr
'jnt out to A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n t h a t t h e e f f o r t to l a y
Britain received the i s l a n d of C y p r u s ; hence the O t t o m a n - A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n to ask the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h to ex-
I cannot h o w e v e r a d m i t the accuracy of the statistics ^ess o n A r m e n i a n claims m i g h t " p r o p a g a t e the false n o -
British a g r e e m e n t o n the r e f o r m s i n eastern A n a t o l i a is p l a i n his m e t h o d of c a l c u l a t i o n , a n d the p a t r i a r c h t h e n h a d
s h o w n i n the i n c l o s u r e w h i c h are the same, I 5
that H e r M a j e s t y ' s g o v e r n m e n t is o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
n
called the C y p r u s C o n v e n t i o n . A s a r e s u l t of these m a n - u n d e r s t a n d , as those s u b m i t t e d to the C o n g r e s s of to change his o r i g i n a l f i g u r e s . It w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t f or
velfare of the C h r i s t i a n subjects of t h e Porte to the exclu-
i p u l a t i o n s , the B r i t i sh f o u n d themselves b u r d e n e d w i t h the B e r l i n . W i t h o u t e n t e r i n g i n t o details, I m a y state that, Sivas C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n areas o u t s i d e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
sion of the M u s l i m s . " 2 /
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of seeing t h a t the desired changes w e r e car- , a c c o r d i n g to o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s the relative n u m b e r of borders of the p r o v i n c e h a d b e e n c o u n t e d b u t that M u s l i m s
Trotter a n d W i l s o n , w h o a p p a r e n t l y w e r e t r a i n e d m sta-
ried o u t — a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that w a s seen as necessary. T h e male C h r i s t i a n s a n d M o s l e m s i n the p r o v i n c e s of i n some areas w i t h i n the vilayet h a d n o t ; f u r t h e r m o r e , the
E r z u r o u m a n d V a n are as f o l l o w s : E r z u r o u m ; M o s l e m s tistics, c a r t o g r a p h y , a n d e c o n o m i c s , t r i e d to devise the best
d i s m a n t l i n g of the O t t o m a n territories i n E u r o pe w a s p r o o f figures d i d n o t i n c l u d e K u r d s a n d Circassians, b u t l i s t e d as
197,768, n o n - M o s l e m s 55,043, V a n ; M o s l e m s 126,208, possible m e t h o d ' f o r r e a c h i n g r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e s of t h e
that Palmerston's p o l i c y , i n i t i a t e d i n 1841, of m a i n t a i n i n g M u s l i m s o n l y t h e T u r k s . I n e x p l a n a t i o n Nerces w r o t e t h a t
3 1
regularly c h a l l e n g e d . C l a y t o n w r o t e to A m b a s s a d o r G o -
d a t i n g r e f o r m s i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s . A s the enforce- the figures s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n C a t h o l i c p a t r i a r c h ,
A l t h o u g h the chief r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the p r e p a r a t i o n of schen i n I s t a n b u l that the p a t r i a r c h h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
m e n t of the r e f o r m s d e p e n d e d first a n d f o r e m o s t u p o n A n t o i n e Pierre I X H a s s o u n of Cilicia , because he i n f l a t e d
reliable p o p u l a t i o n estimates fel l u p o n T r o t t e r a n d Colonel p o p u l a t i o n of V a n c o n s i s t e d of 252,500 A r m e n i a n s a n d
accurate i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t d e m o g r a p h i c a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c the n u m b e r of the Catholics to the d e t r i m e n t of o t h e r s .
W i l s o n , m a n y o t h e r B r i t i s h officials also l e n t t h e i r efforts to 150,000 M u s l i m s , w h i l e o t h e r A r m e n i a n sources i n V a n i t -
c o n d i t i o n s i n eastern A n a t o l i a , A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n be- The B r i t i sh officers' second source of i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e
the a t t e m p t to collect a l l of the available p o p u l a t i o n data; self s u p p l i e d a list s h o w i n g t h a t t h e actual n u m b e r s of
g a n b y a s k i n g several of the v e r y capable B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s i n the O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s .
a m o n g these w e r e C o n s u l T a y l o r , C a p t a i n E m i l i u s C l a y t o n A r m e n i a n s a n d M u s l i m s w e r e 138,559 a n d 109,640, respec-
m e n ( n o w consuls ) s t a t i o n e d i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s to C h e r m s i d e f o u n d the g o v e r n m e n t statistics " m o s t v a g u e
i n V a n , a n d L i e u t e n a n t C h e r m s i d e , w h o was attached to tively. H e a d d e d t h a t
c o m e to I s t a n b u l to discuss i n p e r s o n " t h e relative n u m e r i - a n d unsatisfactory as are all those i n the possession of t h e
the R e f o r m C o m m i s s i o n b u t s t a t i o n e d i n Sivas. It is to the a l t h o u g h these tables c o m e f r o m a n A r m e n i a n source,
cal p r o p o r t i o n s of the d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s i n h a b i t i n g Asia T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t . . . as, h o w e v e r , the c o n s c r i p t i o n list
credit of these officials that t h e y s o u g h t to d o a careful and the p r o p o r t i o n of M u s s u l m a n s t o A r m e n i a n s is
M i n o r , a n d available m e a n s fo r t e s t i n g the statistics w h i c h a n d an i m p o r t a n t tax are d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m , t h o s e i n t h e
i m p a r t i a l j o b a n d w e r e o f f e n d e d b y devices e m p l o y e d by considerably larger t h a n that g i v e n b y the A r m e n i a n
have been p u t i n b y v a r i o u s p e r s o n s . " Those s u m m o n e d
2 2
mates. H e e n j o y e d the h i g h e s t c o n f i d e n c e o f the g o v e r n - p o p u l a t i o n , that is, the A r m e n i a n s a n d " O s m a n l i s " ers) Patriarc h Nerces p l a c ed the n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n
m e n t b o t h as its r e p r e s e n t a t i ve a n d as a statistician. It w a s ( T u r k s ) , w h i l e the " n o m a d i c K u r d i s h e l e m e n t that lives in E r z u r u m , V a n ( M u ş a n d Siirt i n c l u d e d ) , Sivas, H a r p u t , 29. It is interesting to note that up until as late as 1912 the
he w h o h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d to o b t a i n reliable figures a b o u t the m o u n t a i n s a n d descend s i n t o the p l a i n s i n h a b i t e d by D i y a r b e k i r , a n d H a l e p at 780,000 a n d the n u m b e r of Syrians Armenian Patriarchate listed the Kizilbas, the Zazas, and the
the B u l g a r i a n , G r e e k , a n d M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n s of Thrace C h r i s t i a n s o n l y i n o r d e r to create d i s t u r b a n c e s, s h o u l d not ( i . e . , A s s y r i a n s , or Syriacs) a n d G r e e k s at 251,000 a n d Tchareklis as groups belonging to "other religions," although thev
a n d M a c e d o n i a . I n J u l y of 1879 he w a s n a m e d C o n s u l of be i n c l u d e d i n t h e census b y w h i c h the m a j o r i t y of the .25,000, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f or a total of 1,056,800 C h r i s t i a n s . T h e all were Muslim.
K u r d i s t a n , w h i c h i n c l u d e d the vilayets of E r z u r u m , D i y a r - i n h a b i t a n t s of each v i l l a g e w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d . " " H o w e v - total n u m b e r of M u s l i m s i n these areas, a c c o r d i n g to the 30. HCAP 100 44, p. 158.
b e k i r , H a r p u t , M u ş , a n d V a n — t h e area c l a i m e d b y the p a t r i a r c h , a m o u n t e d to a m e r e 770,000, of w h o m o n l y 31. Ibid., p. 94 (Chermside to Goschen, 9 August 1880).
er, i n the same b r e a t h i n w h i c h it a d v o c a t e d the exclusion of
320,000 w e r e T u r k s , the rest b e i n g K u r d s , Kizilbaş, a n d 32. Ibid., p. 171 (Nerces to Goschen, 10 September 1880); see
n o m a d i c K u r d s f r o m the scope of the i n t e n d e d r e f o r m s , the
T ü r k m e n ; of course, the last t w o g r o u p s w e r e also e t h n i c a l - also ibid., pp. 389-90 (Wilson to Goschen, 23 August 18S0).
22. HCAP 100/44 (1881). p. 61 (Goschen to Granville, 3 Septem-
33. Ibid., p. 172 (Nerces to Goschen).
ber 1880). 24. FO 424/86, p. 109. 34. Ibid., p. 98 (Wilson to Goschen, 22 September 1880).
23. Ibid. 25. HCAP 100/44 (1881), p. 144. 26. Ibid., p. 145.
35. ibid., p. 94 (Chermside to Goschen, 9 August 1880),
27. Ibid., p. 162.
36. Ibid., p. 123 (Trotter to Goschen. 7 September 1880).
28. Ibid., p. 158.
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914 T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N 55
54
b o t h M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s failed to r e p o r t their exact Table 3.6. A r m e n i a n P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e, 1896 at 651,134. " I f the f a i r l y large total of A r m e n i a n i n -
4
inces. The total n u m b e r of such m i g r a n t s i n the p e r i o d f r o m
n u m b e r s i n o r d e r to a v o i d c o n s c r i p t i o n a n d taxes, a n d tor 18S2 ( A r m e n i a n Patriarchate Figures) habitants i n the p r o v i n c e s of T r a b z o n , H a l e p , a n d A d a n a 1853 to 1878 r e a c h e d an e s t i m a t e d 700,000 to 800,000,
such areas considered that the p o p u l a t i o n figures h a d to be ( i n c l u d i n g K a y s e r i , Kir§ehir, a n d Yozgat) h a d been a d d e d c h a n g i n g the p o p u l a t i o n balance i n t h e Balkans i n the f a v or
Contested Viiayets Asia Europe
raised b v 20 or 25 percent to account for the u n r e g i s t e r e d . to that for the east A n a t o l i a n vilayets, t h e n the g r a n d t o t a l of the M u s l i m s . D u r i n g the last q u a r t e r of the c e n t u r v ,
Van 400.000 Adana (Cilicia) 280,000 Istanbul and for the ten p r o v i n c e s that c o n t a i n e d the b u l k of t h e A r m e - h o w e v e r , M u s l i m s f r o m the Balkans, i n c l u d i n g practically
In some districts, h o w e v e r , the lists are v e r y m u c h m o r e Bitlis 250.000 Aleppo 100.000 vicinity 135.000 n i a n p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d h a v e a m o u n t e d to a b o u t 939,000. all of the Circassians, began e m i g r a t i n g to A n a t o l i a , t h u s
carefully c o m p i l e d t h a n others; i n the c o m p a r a t i v e l y Diyarbekir 150.000 Trabzon 120.000 Edirne 50.000
Bursa 60.000 Other areas The M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of t h e same ten -vilayets n u m b e r e d , setting i n m o t i o n a process of a c c u l t u r a t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n ,
settled districts, such as the sanjaks of K a r p u t , E r z e r u m , Erzurum 280,000 10.000
Mamuretüiaziz 270,000 Aydin (Izmir) 50.000 b y some c o n s e r v a t i ve estimates, o v e r 5 m i l l i o n . and i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h far-reachin g social and p o l i t i c a l
Baiburt, I believe the o f f i c i a l lists to be c o m p a r a t i v e l y Total 195.000
accurate . . . i n districts w h i c h are i n a c h r o n i c state of Sivas 280,000 Ankara. Konya. effects.
Total 1,630,000 & Kastamonu 120,000
r e b e l l i o n a n d s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n c e , the statistics are T h e t o t a l n u m b e r of M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m t h e
m u c h less r e l i a b l e . ' Syria. Musul.
3
I n d i v i d u a l estimates w e r e a t h i r d source of i n f o r m a t i o n ,
e t h n i c g r o u p s u n d e r the p r e s s u r e of v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i s t government derived information about immigrants f r o m
b u t the Britis h officers w e r e careful to accept figures o n l y
GRANO TOTAL 2.660.000 claims based u p o n n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y , the ethno- special registers of i m m i g r a t i o n , b u t a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r
f r o m persons w h o m t h e y k n e w to have s o u n d k n o w l e d g e
l i n g u i s t i c categories d e v i s e d b y t h e O t t o m a n officials still of m i g r a n t s w h o w e n t d i r e c t l y to villages a n d t o w n s w h e r e
of the area a n d its p e o p l e a n d c o n s i d e r e d to be o t h e r w i s e Source: Marcel Léart [Kirkor Zohrap], La Question arménienne à ta lumière des c o n f o r m e d closely to the c o n f e s s i o n a l d i v i s i o n s t h a t h a d t h e i r relatives w e r e already l i v i n g or w h o settled w i t h o u t
t r u s t w o r t h y . T h e i r f o u r t h s o u r c e wa s t h e i r o w n k n o w l e d g e , documents (Paris: A Challamel, 1913), pp. 50-59.
e m e r g e d after t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the classical millet sys- b e i n g r e g i s t e r e d w e r e o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e official c o u n t s .
w h i c h was i n t i m a t e a n d p r o b a b l y q u i t e reliable, of the area,
t e m . The O t t o m a n state s o u g h t to r e m a i n , f o r m a l l y at least, T h a t the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t ' s estimates w e r e l o w can be
its p o p u l a t i o n , its c u s t o m s , a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , its languages . tribes, a n d the e m i g r a t i o n of some A r m e n i a n s a n d Greeks
a M u s l i m state, u n t i l its f i n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n — w h i c h , para- seen f r o m a q u i c k c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r f i g u r e s . O f f i c i a l
The net result of this a r d u o u s team e f f o r t , u n p a r a l l e l e d i n to Russia a n d to o t h e r parts of A n a t o l i a .
d o x i c a l l y e n o u g h , w a s accelerated b y the rise of e t h n o - B u l g a r i a n statistics, for e x a m p l e , s h o w t h a t i n 1893 a total of
the statistical h i s t o r y of the O t t o m a n state, w as a series of O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics issued after 1881/82 h a d so i m -
l i n g u i s t i c n a t i o n a l i s m a m o n g its M u s l i m subjects. 11,460 e m i g r a n t s f r o m that c o u n t r y a l o n e w e n t to T u r k e y ; 4 2
m i x e d , m o st h a d their o w n special districts a n d regions of Table 3.7. Muslims in European Provinces, 1860-1878 groups of n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m s c o u l d be f o u n d t h e r e . T h e the M u s l i m s there, m a i n l y T u r k s b u t also s o m e large
concentration. g r o u p s of G r e e k - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , e m i g r a t e d a n d settled
situation i n t h e m o u n t a i n o u s areas w a s s o m e w h a t m o r e
The largest M u s l i m g r o u p i n the Balkans w a s the T u r k s A. By Ethic Group a l o n g t h e s o u t h e r n shores of A n a t o l i a . I n a d d i t i o n t h e
complex, b u t t h e r e also t h e n o m a d i c g r o u p s w e r e p r e d o m i -
p r o p e r , w h i c h consisted of the r e m a n e n t s of T u r k i c m i - Ethnic Group Vilayets Number 'O i m m i g r a t i o n total w a s steadily a u g m e n t e d b y t h e constant
nantly of T u r k i s h s t o c k . T h e r e w e r e social d i f f e r e n c e s
grants w h o h a d first c o m e i n t o the t e r r i t o r y as early as the Turks, a small number of Istanbul 57 among the T u r k s , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e i r d i f f e r i n g occupa- i n f l u x of C r i m e a n M u s l i m s , w h o h a d b e g u n to settle i n v e r y
342.200
sixth c e n t u r y . T h e m a j or T u r k i s h s e t t l e m e nt i n the Balkans Crimeans. Çerkeş. Edirne 597.100 39 tions a n d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , a n d t h i s i n d u c e d m a n y E u r o - small n u m b e r s i n central a n d w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a as early as
o c c u r r e d i n the S e l j u k i a n d O t t o m a n p e r i o d s i n the t h i r - Pomaks, and Albanians Tuna 945,600 45 the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
peans to classify t h e sedentary' f o l k , r u r a l a n d u r b a n , as
teenth t h r o u g h the s i x t e e n t h centuries. T h e m a j o r i t y of the Sofia 154.200 23
" O s m a n l i " or " r e a l T u r k s , " w h i l e t h e n o m a d i c a n d s e m i - The d e m o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u re of A n a t o l i a was f u r t h e r
Selanik 264,800 49
Balkan T u r k s wer e S u n n i M u s l i m s , except for the Kizilbaş, nomadic g r o u p s , s u c h as t h e T ü r k m e n , Y ö r ü k , Z e y b e k , c h a n g e d t h r o u g h the s e t t l e m e n t, b o t h v o l u n t a r y a n d i n -
Yanya 430.500 36
of D e l i o r m a n a n d n o r t h e r n D o b r u c a ( m a n y f r o m the latter Çetni, T a h t a c i , Kızılbaş (Shiites), etc., w e r e p l a c ed i n d i f f e r - v o l u n t a r y , of n o m a d i c tribes. I n d e e d , t h r o u g h o u t the
Albanians and Turks Manastir (Kosova) 860,600 56
area b e i n g f o l l o w e r s of Baba Ishak, a social rebel). O n e ent e t h n i c categories, t h e fact t h a t t h e y w e r e of t h e same n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t succeeded i n
(small groups only) Işkodra 141,100 47
g r o u p , the Gagauz, were Christians; they were Seljuki linguistic g r o u p b e i n g e n t i r e l y i g n o r e d . s e t t l i n g large n u m b e r s of K u r d i s h , T u r k i s h , a n d A r a b tribes
Bosnians Bosnia and Herzegovina 520,000 40
T u r k s w h o settled i n the Balkans i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n A n a t o l i a ( n o r t h e r n I r a q b e i n g u n s u i t a b l e for a g r i c u l t u r e ) .
Turks Crete The eastern p a r t of A n a t o l i a h a r b o r e d , i n a d d i t i o n to
a n d c o n v e r t e d to the O r t h o d o x r e l i g i o n b u t m a i n t a i n e d 48,400
Turks, S u n n i a n d Shiite K u r d s b o t h sedentar y a n d n o m a d - These settled tribes w e r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y M u s l i m , a n d
Islands 80.000 50
their T u r k i s h language. T h e y i n h a b i t e d eastern Bulgaria the m a j o r i t y w e r e T u r k i s h .
Total 4.384,500 44.6 ic. The K u r d s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s — t h e smaller
a n d w e r e classified b y the O t t o m a n s as C h r i s t i a n s ; the Thus the political events that triggered the M u s l i m
Zaza a n d the large r K i r m a n j i — a n d also i n t o a S u n n i m a j o r -
Bulgarians c l a i m e d i n c o r r e c t l y that t h e y w e r e o n l y l i n g u i s t i - B. 8y Ethnic Total* e m i g r a t i o n f r o m the Caucasus a n d the Balkans c o m p l e t e d
ity a n d a Shiite m i n o r i t y ; t h e latter w a s d e s c e n d e d p r o b a b l y
cally T u r k i f i e d a n d classified t h e m as B u l g a r i a n s ' T h e M u s - Turks 2,000,000 b o t h the I s l a m i z a t i o n a n d the T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a . T h e
from t h e T u r k i s h Kizilbaş tribes t h a t h a d rebelled against
l i m T u r k s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the p r o v i n c e s of the E d i r n e , Albanians 1,300,000 t w o processes w e r e i n fact c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d w e r e r o o t e d
the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d
T u n a , Selanik, Y a n y a , a n d p a r t of ' M a n a s t i r . Bosnians 600.000
sought r e f u g e i n t h e d o m a i n s of the K u r d i s h l o r d s , w h e r e i n the O t t o m a n c u l t u r e , i d e n t i t y , a n d s p i r i t ; t h e i r c u l m i n a -
Circassians 400,000
The Kosova a n d Işkodra vilayets w e r e i n h a b i t e d largely Others they a c q u i r e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e i r p r o t e c t o r s . T h e Shiite t i o n w a s the s y n t h e s i s e m b o d i e d i n t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n .
84.500
b y A l b a n i a n M u s l i m s , k n o w n also as Skipetars a n d A r n a - K u r d s ' r e l i g i o u s beliefs w e r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h those of the I n d e e d , the T u r k i s h national consciousness, a l t h o u g h
Total 4,384,500
v u t , w h o w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g to Shiite T ü r k m e n . T h e Zaza a n d K i r m a n j i languages w e r e n o t stirred p a r t l y b y a sense of e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , w a s raised m a i n -
r e g i o n , dialect, a n d tribe.' T h e B o ş n a k , t h a t is, the Serbo- Source: Engin Akarli, "Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territo- ly b y the p o w e r f u l forces e m b o d i e d i n the O t t o m a n p o l i t i c a l
w r i t t e n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e K u r d i s h elites o f t e n u s e d Per-
rial, Racial, and Religious Composition" (M.A. thesis, University of
C r o a t i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , i n h a b i t e d a l m o s t exclusively sian as t h e i r l a n g u a g e of w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d m a n y a n d ' c i v i c c u l t u r e . T h e O t t o m a n state h a d created á s t r o n g
Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), p. 82.
Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a . These territories w e r e o c c u p i e d 'Approximate totals. K u r d i s h tribes, especially the Shiites, t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d c u l t u r a l u n i t y a m o n g v a r i o u s M u s l i m e t h n i c g r o u p s subject
by A u s t r i a i n 1878, a n d p a r t s o f t h e m w e r e cede d to M o n - themselves Persian. T h e t o t a l O t t o m a n K u r d i s h p o p u l a - to its i n f l u e n c e i n the areas a d m i n i s t e r e d d i r e c t l y a n d i n t e n -
tenegro, w h i l e the sancak of N o v i b a z a r w a s placed u n d e r a o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h i s c h e c k e r b o a r d became m o r e c o m p l e x as tion, e s t i m a t e d to be a b o u t 1.5 m i l l i o n i n t h e 1880s, a g o o d sively b y the central a u t h o r i t y — t h a t is, R u m i l i a n d A n a t o -
j o i n t O t t o m a n - A u s t r i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( r e s u l t i n g i n a large Circassians a n d o t h e r M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s w e r e settled part of w h i c h w a s n o m a d i c or p a s t o r a l , l i v e d i n t h e area lia. T h u s , the a s s i m i l a t i o n of t h e n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m i m m i -
e m i g r a t i o n f r o m Bosnia to the O t t o m a n state). T h e Bulgar- a r o u n d B e i r u t , a l o n g the H e j a z r a i l r o a d , i n the A l e p p o a n d c o m p r i s i n g w h a t is n o w southeast T u r k e y , I r a q , a n d p a r t of grants i n t o the T u r k i s h m a j o r i t y w a s n o t t r u l y " a s s i m i l a -
i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , that is, the P o m a k s , i n h a b i t e d t h e i r B a g h d a d areas, a n d a l o n g t h e S y r i a n s e a b o a r d . I n that45
Syria. T h e r e w e r e large g r o u p s of e t h n i c T u r k s , b o t h seden- t i o n " i n the o r d i n a r y sense of t h e w o r d : r a t h e r , it w a s a
o r i g i n a l h o m e i n the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s i n the vilayets of area t h e r e w e r e n o n - o r t h o d o x g r o u p s ( t h a t is, n o n - tary' a n d n o m a d i c , l i v i n g i n these areas, i n c l u d i n g t h e h i g h - m e l d i n g of all the v a r i o u s I s l a m i c - O t t o m a n c o m m u n i t i e s ,
E d i r n e a n d Selanik. T h e Caucasus M u s l i m s , k n o w n as C i r - S u n n i s — s o m e t i m e s n o t c o n s i d e r e d g o o d M u s l i m s ) , such as lands of D e r s i m , H a r p u t , a n d D i y a r b e k i r . A s early as the i n c l u d i n g the T u r k s , i n t o a n e w f o r m of p o l i t i c a l a n d social
cassians, w e r e o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y settled i n the Balkans be- the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150,000 D r u z e s w h o i n h a b i t e d the Leba- 1880s a small g r o u p of K u r d i s h leaders r e g a r d e d these areas o r g a n i z a t i o n — t h e n a t i o n a l state. U n d e r this n e w f o r m of
t w e e n 1862 a n d 1878 a n d n e e d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g n o n , the 200,000 N u s a i r i s ( A l a w i t e s ) w h o l i v e d a l o n g the as t h e i r f u t u r e n a t i o n a l h o m e l a n d , w h i c h t h e y t r i e d to se- p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s w e r e able to
the n a t i v e g r o u p s . T h e C r i m e a n s , the m a i n M u s l i m g r o u p of S y r i a n seaboard, a n d t h e 150,000 Y e z i d i s ( f i r e w o r s h i p e r s ) cure against the claims of o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s — p a r t i c u l a r l y m a i n t a i n t h e i r i n h e r i t e d s o c i o - c u l t u r a l characteristics b u t
T u r k i c o r i g i n s t i l l s p e a k i n g a dialect v e r y close to T u r k i s h , f o u n d c h i e f l y i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t s of A l e p p o a n d M o s u l . 4 6
against t h e A r m e n i a n s , w h o r e g a r d e d m o s t of the same were provided w i t h a new national identity and were
were settled i n D o b r u c a a n d parts of eastern a n d n o r t h e r n T h e e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the M u s l i m p o p u l a - area as the t e r r i t o r y of a f u t u r e i n d e p e n d e n t A r m e n i a . A s assured of f u t u r e s u r v i v a l . To p a r a p h r a s e K a r l D e u t s c h , a
Bulgaria. T h e average d i s t r i b u t i o n of M u s l i m s i n the E u r o - t i o n i n A n a t o l i a needs a l e n g t h y a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y , w h i c h I the i m m i g r a t i o n s of the years 1862-1900 increased t h e size n a t i o n is f o r m e d w h e n the o l d f o r m s of association d i s i n t e -
pean p r o v i n c e s i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1864 to 1877, a c c o r d i n g h o p e to c o m p l e t e i n the n e a r f u t u r e . I l i m i t m y s e l f here to a of the T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n i n A n a t o l i a , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of n o n - grate a n d p e o p l e are c o m p e l l e d to i n t e g r a t e i n t o n e w e r a n d
to figures g i v e n b y several of the m o s t reliable sources, is f e w general o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t e n d e d to t h r o w s o m e i n t e r p r e - T u r k i s h e l e m e n t s , b o t h C h r i s t i a n a n d M u s l i m , decreased larger social u n i t s w i t h a n e w p o l i t i c a l a n d social o r i e n t a t i o n
s h o w n i n Table 3 . 7 . 4 4
t i v e l i g h t u p o n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d i n the accordingly. a n d a n e w collective i d e n t i t y . M i g r a t i o n a n d settlement
It is r e l a t i v e l y easy to d e t e r m i n e the e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c clas- appendices. A n a t o l i a h a d b e e n r e l a t i v e l y h o m o g e n e o u s , at p l a y e d a m a j o r role i n c r e a t i n g a large g r o u p o f p e o p l e w i t h
I n the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h century' t h e n o r t h -
sification of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n N o r t h A f r i c a , E g y p t , least i n the i n t e r i o r , u n t i l d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s i m i l a r b a c k g r o u n d s , o u t of w h i c h t h e architects of the
eastern p a r t of A n a t o l i a u n d e r w e n t massive e t h n i c c h a n g e .
the A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a , a n d the s o u t h e r n parts of Syria a n d but it came to p r e s e n t a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x ethno- e m e r g i n g T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l state d r e w t h e necessary m a n -
The o v e r l a n d i m m i g r a t i o n of v a r i o u s Caucasia n g r o u p s af-
I r a q , for i n these areas a n A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m p o p u l a - l i n g u i s t i c p i c t u r e after the M u s l i m i m m i g r a t i o n t o o k place. p o w e r to o p p o s e the c o n t i n u o u s o n s l a u g h t s of E u r o p e f r o m
ter 1853 b e g a n t h e process; a n d after 1878, w h e n t h e n o r t h -
t i o n p r e v a i l e d . H o w e v e r , the t e r r i t o r y i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t The p l a i n s of the e n t i r e area, s t r e t c h i n g f r o m the sea of 1897 to 1922 a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , to a f f i r m t h e i d e n t i t y of their
ern p r o v i n c e s of A r d a h a n , B a t u m , a n d Kars w e r e cede d to
of Syria a n d the h i g h l a n d s of I r a q , w h i c h became the place M a r m a r a to E r z u r u m i n t h e east a n d to the A d a n a - A y i n t a p new nation.
Russia, D a g h i s t a n i s , Ç e ç e n , G e o r g i a n s , Lazes, a n d m a n y
of e n c o u n t e r f o r A r a b i c , T u r k i c , P e r s i a n , a n d K u r d i s h r e g i o n i n the s o u t h , w e r e o r i g i n a l l y i n h a b i t e d b y T u r k s ; T h e c o n t e n t i o n that m i g r a t i o n s p e e d e d u p the-Tslamiza-
other M u s l i m g r o u p s , s o m e of T u r k i s h o r i g i n b u t m o s t l y of
tribes, was a c h e c k e r b o a r d o f v a r y i n g languages a n d social u n t i l the m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n l y a f e w s m a l l t i o n a n d T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a is s u p p o r t e d b y statistical
Caucasian stock, came to settle i n eastern A n a t o l i a . M e a n -
w h i l e large g r o u p s of M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m the Balkans, evidence. A s u m m a r y p u b l i s h e d b y t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n -
45. See my "The Status of Muslims under European Rule: The consisting m a i n l y of e t h n i c T u r k s f r o m Bulgaria a n d eastern m e n t s h o w s that the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n increased f r o m
44. I have relied on the calculation made by Engin Akarli, " O t t o- Eviction of the Circassians from the Caucasus and Their Settlement 19.8 m i l l i o n i n 1875 to 24.5 m i l l i o n i n 1885 a n d to 27.2 m i l -
Rumelia a n d of Circassians, w e r e settled t h r o u g h o u t w e s t -
man Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial, Ra- in Syria," journal of Muslim Minorities 1 (1980). l i o n i n 1895 (see t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a p p e n d i c e s , 1.14). T h i s
ern, central, a n d s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a w h e r e v e r there w a s
cial, and Religious C o m p o s i t i o n " ( M . A . thesis, University of 46. The Ottoman government, in its drive to register the entire available l a n d . Later , n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m s such as Bos- p o p u l a t i o n increase (about 40 percent i n t w e n t y years) was
Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), p. 82; see also Ernest Dottain, "La Tur- population, found that the Yezidis agreed to register only if their
n i a n s , P o m a k s l a n d , i n lesser n u m b e r s , A l b a n i a n s also d u e chiefly to i m m i g r a t i o n a n d the s e t t l e m e n t of tribes and
quie d'Europe d'après le Traité de Berlin," Revue de géographie 3 nationality was specified as " y e z i d i . " The government accepted
(1878): 152; and McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities. (For Ottoman came to settle i n A n a t o l i a , t h e i r heaviest c o n c e n t r a t i o n s was a u g m e n t e d o n l y s l i g h t l y b y an increase i n t h e b i r t h rate
this demand lest the Yezidis become subject to conversion bv some
ligures, see Appendix 1.) b e i n g i n the w e s t . A f t e r the o c c u p a t i o n of Crete b y Greece, (seemingly o n l v about 1 percent a n n u a l l y ) . H e l l e v o n Samo
Christian missionary groups and cause trouble.
58 O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914 59
T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N