Geological Journal - 2023 - Restrepo

Received: 2 October 2022 Revised: 2 February 2023 Accepted: 18 March 2023
DOI: 10.1002/gj.4743
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Geochemistry and geochronology of Permian plutonic rocks

at the north-western margin of Gondwana
Marcela Restrepo 1 | Camilo Bustamante 1 | Agustín Cardona 2 |

Alejandro Beltrán-Triviño 1 | Victor A. Valencia 3
1
Escuela de Ciencias Aplicadas e Ingeniería,
Universidad EAFIT, Medellín, Colombia The occurrence of Permian magmatic rocks in the Colombian Andes is restricted to a
2
Departamento de Procesos y Energía, few localities. Previous works have focused mainly on explaining its tectonic setting,
Universidad Nacional, Medellín, Colombia
3
whereas petrogenesis has received less attention. This study closes this gap by
School of the Environment, Washington State
University, Pullman, Washington, USA reporting whole-rock geochemistry, zircon U–Pb geochronology, trace elements and
Hf isotopes from massive and mylonitic granitoids along central Colombia to constrain
Correspondence
Marcela Restrepo, Escuela de Ciencias their age, source and petrogenesis. Our results show that the granitoids have a calc-
Aplicadas e Ingeniería, Universidad EAFIT, alkaline character, are rich in light-rare elements (LREEs) and large-ion lithophile elements
Medellín, Colombia.
Email: marest56@eafit.edu.co (LILEs), present negative Nb and Ti anomalies, crystallized between ca. 276–265 Ma and
show variable εHf(i) values ranging from 1.5 to +1.7. Combining our results with pub-
Funding information
Vicerrectoría de Ciencia, Tecnología e lished geochemical, geochronological and isotopic data from this region, we suggest that
n of Universidad EAFIT
Innovacio the Middle Permian granitoids from the Tolima region were formed in a continental mag-
Handling Editor: John S. Armstrong-Altrin matic arc installed at the western margin of Gondwana, where partial melting of the
mantle wedge and further crustal assimilation of the magmas with an old radiogenic and
heterogeneous crust were essential processes for the modification of the source of the
magmas that generated the granitoids. The Middle Permian may have reached the peak
magmatic conditions (ca. 280–270 Ma), according to the recurrence of ages in this time
interval. This period of magmatic activity may have been interrupted by the Triassic
extensional period related to the beginning of the Pangea breakup.
KEYWORDS
Adakite-like granitoids, Northern Andes, Pangea assembly, Permian arc-related magmatism,
petrogenesis, western Gondwana
1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N Two interpretations have been proposed to explain the formation

of the Permian rocks: (i) a collisional event related to the agglutination
The Late Palaeozoic geological record of the Northern Andes includes of the Pangea supercontinent and the Ouachita-Alleghanian-Variscan
rocks correlated to the final stages of the Pangea assembly (Cochrane orogen, which produced collisional plutonism that caused partial melt-
et al., 2014; Paul et al., 2018; Rodríguez-García et al., 2019; ing of the continental crust and a regional metamorphic event that
Spikings & Paul, 2019; van der Lelij et al., 2016, 2019; Viscarret affected Permian intrusive bodies (Vinasco, 2019; Vinasco et al., 2006).
et al., 2009). In Colombia, Permian rocks have been reported in the (ii) A continental arc related to the subduction of the Panthalassa oce-
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the Serranía de San Lucas and the Cen- anic crust at the western Gondwana margin outside the nucleus of the
tral Cordillera, including granitoids, mylonites, migmatites and gneisses Laurentia–Gondwana Ouachita-Alleghanian-Variscan orogens, which is
(Figure 1). The magmatic activity was mostly felsic in composition and part of a broader magmatic province that extends from the South East-
lasted for about ca. 40 m.y. (ca. 293–253 Ma) (Rodríguez-García ern Cordillera of Perú to allochthonous Mexican terranes
et al., 2019; Spikings & Paul, 2019 and references therein). (Cardona et al., 2010; Piraquive et al., 2021; Spikings & Paul, 2019).
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RESTREPO ET AL. 2819
F I G U R E 1 Permian magmatic and metamorphic rocks of Colombia. Zircon U–Pb ages from previous works and this study are included to
show Permian rocks' spatial and temporal distribution. Permian plutonic rocks distribution and fault trends are taken from Go mez et al. (2015) and
Paris et al. (2000). SNSM: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; SLR: San Lucas Range; SM: Santander Massif; WC: Western Cordillera; CC: Central
Cordillera; EC: Eastern Cordillera. O.F: Oca Fault; s.B.F.S: Santa Marta-Bucaramaga Fault system. G.F: Garrapatas Fault; r.F.S: Romeral Fault
System; O.P.F: Otú-Pericos Fault; E.S.F.S.: Espíritu Santo Fault System; a.G.F.S: Algeciras Fault System.
The growing geochronological and geochemical database from these we focus on the petrogenesis and implications in the Permian arc evo-
recent works has mainly positioned the magmatic rocks into regional lution in the Northern Andes, combining geochronology with geochem-
geotectonic models. Our research differs from other studies because istry. U–Pb geochronology is fundamental in studying arc-related
2820 RESTREPO ET AL.
plutonic rocks not only because it helps determine the crystallization opening and closure tectonics (Avellaneda-Jiménez et al., 2020;
age of individual zircons (Harley & Kelly, 2007) but by the information, Bustamante et al., 2010; Bustamante et al., 2011, 2012; Bustamante
it can provide about the variations in the volumes of magmatism et al., 2016, 2017; Bustamante et al., 2021; Cochrane et al., 2014;
through time in continental magmatic arcs (Paterson & Ducea, 2015). Duque-Trujillo et al., 2019; Jaramillo et al., 2017; Zapata et al., 2019).
On the other hand, the combination of whole-rock geochemistry with Finally, the Eastern Cordillera contains a Precambrian–Palaeozoic
Hafnium (Hf) isotopes in zircons are key to unravelling the relative metamorphic basement covered by Palaeozoic to Cenozoic marine
contributions of juvenile (directly mantle-derived) crust and recycled and siliciclastic sedimentary sequences and intruded by Cretaceous
continental crust (Scherer et al., 2007). gabbroic dikes and sills (Cortés et al., 2006; Mora et al., 2009;
In this study, we report whole-rock geochemistry, U–Pb, Hf Sarmiento-Rojas, 2019; Vásquez et al., 2010).
isotopes and trace elements in zircons from the Permian rocks of the
Central Cordillera of Colombia. These data were combined with
recently reported geochemical and U–Pb data, which allowed us to 2.1 | Permian record in Colombia
constrain the age, source and petrogenesis of the Permian magmatism
of the western margin of Gondwana. Furthermore, our results provide The Permian sedimentary record (Luisa Formation) is exposed along the
further insights into the tectonic configuration of the final stages of western segment of the Upper Magdalena Valley (Figure 1) (Cediel
the Pangea assembly and shed light on the evolution of the Permian et al., 1981; Mojica & Herrera, 1986). It is overlain by fossiliferous cal-
arc-related magmatism. careous rocks of Late Triassic age, included in the Payandé Formation
(Mojica, 1980). This formation is characterized by the intercalation of
red mudstones, siltstones, feldspathic sandstones and polymictic con-
2 | G EO LO GI C A L S ET TI N G glomerates and breccias formed in a continental high-energy fluvial
environment (Cediel et al., 1981; Mojica & Herrera, 1986).
As a result of the closure of the Rheic Ocean between ca. 358–280 Ma, Permian magmatic and metamorphic rocks in Colombia are limited
Laurussia and Gondwana were sutured and formed the supercontinent to a few localities in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the Serranía de
Pangea. This suture produced the Ouachita-Alleghanian-Variscan San Lucas and the Central Cordillera (Figure 1). In the Sierra Nevada de
collisional orogen, which extended over 10,000 km from Middle Santa Marta, El Encanto Orthogneiss and the north-eastern segment of
America to Eastern Europe (Nance & Linnemann, 2008). Meanwhile, the Inner Santa Marta Metamorphic Belt include a series of non-
the Terra Australis accretionary orogen was active along the Pacific deformed granitoids, mylonitized granitoids, mylonites, protomylonites
margin of Gondwana (Cawood, 2005), which was the manifestation and orthogneisses that yields crystallization ages from ca. 288 to
of a subduction zone that extended throughout the continental 264 Ma (Cardona et al., 2010; Piraquive et al., 2021). In the Serranía de
margins of Australia, Antarctica, New Zealand, South Africa and San Lucas, the Nechí Gneiss is composed of gneisses, migmatites and
South America (Cawood & Buchan, 2007). quartz–feldspar granofels (Rodríguez et al., 2014). According to
The formation of the Gondwanide orogeny marked the end of Restrepo et al. (2011), the unit has a Permian crystallization age of
the Terra Australis orogen during the Permian and the Triassic 277.3 ± 3 Ma and a Triassic metamorphic age of 236.4 ± 6.6 Ma.
(ca. 300–230 Ma) along the Pan-Pacific Gondwana margin. The latter At the northern segment of the Central Cordillera, the Abejorral
involved stepping out into the plate boundary position in eastern and Rio Verde granitic gneisses lithodemic units comprise gneisses of
Australia and Antarctica. In contrast, in South America, the plate bound- plagioclase, K-feldspar, quartz, biotite, muscovite, cordierite and silli-
ary remained relatively fixed with younger units superimposed directly manite; they are classified as S-type granitoids and have U–Pb zircon
on pre-existing tectonic elements (Cawood, 2005) and changes like a ages spanning between ca. 290 and 275 Ma (Vinasco et al., 2006). At
drastic reduction in plate velocities and an almost complete pause in the central segment of the Central Cordillera, Permian rocks have
continental drift (Riel et al., 2018; Vilas & Valencio, 1978), producing been reported in the Tierradentro gneisses and amphibolites unit and
heat accumulation and large volumes of magmas (e.g., Kay et al., 1989), in the Cajamarca Complex (Bustamante et al., 2017; Cochrane
as well as geographically extensive extension along with western South et al., 2014; Paul et al., 2018).
America (e.g., Charrier et al., 2007; Spikings et al., 2015, 2016). The Tierradentro gneisses and amphibolites unit is a discontinu-
The Colombian Andes consist of three major mountain ranges, ous sequence of ortho- and paragneisses, amphibolites, granulites,
the Western, Central and Eastern Cordilleras, separated by the Cauca quartzites and marbles in the northern segment of the Tolima region
and Magdalena valleys. The Western Cordillera comprises Cretaceous, (Acosta et al., 2002; Bustamante et al., 2017). Vesga and Barrero
allochthonous ultramafic, mafic rocks and marine sediments formed in (1978) reported a K–Ar hornblende age of 1360 ± 270 Ma, suggesting
mez
an intra-oceanic plateau and arc-related setting (Hincapié-Go a Proterozoic age for this unit; however, Bustamante et al. (2017),
mez et al., 2011). The Central
et al., 2018; Kerr et al., 1997; Villago according to U–Pb geochronological analyses performed in two
Cordillera includes a Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic metamorphic base- orthogneisses and one amphibolite sample, suggest that the protoliths
ment intruded by Jurassic to Palaeogene arc-related plutonic bodies of these samples crystallized between 271 and 234 Ma, and are in
and Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary and high P/T metamorphic rocks turn, intruded by the Ibagué Batholith (Acosta et al., 2002;
related to preserving subduction/accretion complex and back-arc Bustamante et al., 2017). These results challenge the high errors of
F I G U R E 2 Geological map of the studied area showing sample location. (a) Northern Tolima region (Anzoátegui). (b) Central Tolima region
(Rovira). (c) Southern Tolima region (Planadas).
the Precambrian K–Ar age, which may be related to low-K contents or The Cajamarca Complex includes low-to medium-grade metamor-
excess argon. However, this feature cannot be evaluated due to the phic rocks like pelitic schists, quartzites, marbles, amphibolites
multi-crystal and total argon degassing associated with this method. (Maya & González, 1995) and S-type granites with U–Pb zircon
crystallization ages ranging from ca. 278 to 255 Ma (Cochrane jawbreaker and a pan separated the heavy mineral fraction from the
et al., 2014). The age of metamorphism of the different units included 400–63 microns fraction. Hand-picking of zircon grains from the
within this complex varies from Mid-to Late Triassic (ca. 240–230 Ma; heavy mineral concentrates was randomly performed in each sample.
Cochrane et al., 2014; Restrepo et al., 2011; Vinasco et al., 2006) and Fifty-six zircon grains were mounted in an epoxy pill, polished and
Jurassic (ca. 157–146 Ma; Blanco-Quintero et al., 2014). carbon-coated at ETH Zurich facilities. Zircon cathodoluminescence
Continuous outcrops of Permian rocks have been recognized in (CL) imagery was used to evaluate the magmatic zonation, metamor-
the Central Cordillera and the Upper Magdalena Valley. Along the east- phic origin, rims and inherited cores. For this purpose, we used a JEOL
ern flank of the Cordillera is exposed the Ortega Granite, an intrusive JSM-6390LA scanning electron microscope (SEM) at the Institute for
massif consisting of quartz monzodiorites, monzonites, tonalites, grano- Geochemistry and Petrology at ETH Zurich. Zircon U–Pb geochronol-
diorites, monzogranites and syenogranites with U–Pb zircon crystalliza- ogy was performed through laser ablation inductively coupled mass
tion ages from ca. 294 to 263 Ma (Rodríguez-García et al., 2019). The spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at ETH Zurich and laser ablation spots
La Plata Granite is composed of non-deformed granitoids, migmatites (19 microns) were selected in both cores and rims when it was possi-
and granitic rocks with folded, stromatic and nebulitic structures in the ble. In situ U–Pb geochronology was conducted by laser ablation
Magdalena Valley. It is intruded by Jurassic magmatic rocks and cov- inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the
ered by Cenozoic pyroclastic rocks (Rodríguez et al., 2017); according Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology, ETH Zurich, using a 193 nm
to U–Pb zircon analyses reported by Rodríguez et al. (2017) and Leal- Resolution (S155) ArF excimer laser coupled to an Element SF ICPMS
Mejía et al. (2019), this plutonic body yields crystallization ages that (Guillong et al., 2014; von Quadt et al., 2016).
range from ca. 280 to 268 Ma. For samples CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A, CLM6B and R1, zircons
In this contribution, we will present new exposures of Permian were extracted at Zirchron LLC, Tucson, AZ. Each sample received
rocks that are included within the Tierradentro gneisses and amphibo- was unpacked and pressure washed with water to remove any debris
lites, Ortega and La Plata granites. and foreign material. Sample rock fragments were placed in the sam-
ple chamber of an Electro Pulse Disaggregator (EPD, Marx generator),
then electrical pulses were applied at 1 Hz repetition and discharges
3 | ANALYTICAL METHODS of 250 kV for 15 minutes. The sample material passed through the
350-micron disposable stainless steel mesh sieve was collected in a
3.1 | Fieldwork and sampling plastic bag. The material sized >350 μ is then processed by following
traditional methods using the Wilfley water table, Frantz paramag-
Samples collected in the studied zone (Tolima region, Central Cordil- netic separator and one-step (3.32 gr/cc) heavy liquid MEI separa-
lera) have been included as part of the Tierradentro gneisses and tions. Then, two hundred three zircon grains were mounted in epoxy
amphibolites and the Ibagué Batholith (Figure 2). However, as pre- resin discs and polished.
sented here, the new petrographic, geochemical and geochronological U–Pb ages were measured at the radiogenic Lab at WSU using an
analyses from granitoids presented in this study can be considered an Analyte G2 193 excimer laser ablation system coupled with a Thermo-
extension of the Ortega and La Plata granites (see results section). Finnigan Element 2 single-collector, inductively coupled plasma mass
Fieldwork was carried out near the municipalities of Anzoátegui, spectrometer. The laser parameters were 25 μm in diameter spot size,
Rovira and Planadas (Figure 2). A total of twelve samples were col- 10HZ repetition rate and 4.5.0 J/cm2. For the U–Pb measurement, we
lected, including eight samples from massive granitoids, three myloni- mostly followed the method of Chang et al. (2006), except for using the
tic granitoids and volcanic rock. One of the mylonitic granitoids was 193 nm laser system instead of the 213 nm laser. Before each analysis, a
previously dated by Bustamante et al. (2017) (sample CI12). Petro- 10-second blank measurement of the He and Ar carrier gasses (Laser off)
graphic analysis was carried out mainly in thin sections observed is followed by 250 scans across masses 202Hg, 204Pb + Hg, 206Pb, 207Pb,
under a polarized light microscope to describe textural and mineral Pb, 232Th, 235U and 238U during 30 second laser ablation period. Ana-
208
features and select samples for geochemical, geochronological and lyses of zircon unknowns, standards and quality control zircon grains were
isotopic analyses (Table 1). First, thin sections were prepared by cut- interspersed with external calibration standards, typically with ten
ting rock slivers using a diamond saw. Then, the rock was ground until unknowns bracketed by multiple analyses of two different zircon stan-
it reached a standard thickness of 30 microns using progressively finer dards (Plešovice and FC-1). Zircon 91,500 (1065 Ma; Wiedenbeck
abrasive grit. et al., 1995) and Fish Canyon Tuff zircons (27.5 Ma Lanphere &
Baadsgaard, 2001) were used as quality control standards. Data were pro-
cessed offline using the Iolite software (Paton et al., 2011). Common Pb
3.2 | Zircon U–Pb geochronology and trace correction was performed using the 207Pb method (Williams, 1998). Plots
elements were calculated using Isoplot 4.16 (Ludwig, 2012).
Statistical analyses of zircon data were performed using IsoplotR
Zircons separation from samples E4 and GG08 followed standard pro- (Vermeesch, 2018). Only zircons with concordance higher than 90%
cedures (e.g., Mange & Maurer, 1992) and was performed at EAFIT were accepted and plotted. Errors reported for all ages are two
University facilities. The samples were crushed with a conventional sigmas.
TABLE 1 Location and methods applied to samples from the Tolima region.
Latitude N d Longitude W Petrographic Whole-rock Zircon U–Pb Zircon trace Lu-Hf

Sample Lithology m’ s” d m’ s” analysis geochemistry geochronology elements isotopes
Northern Tolima region (Anzoátegui)
E4 Mylonitic 4 400 8.66” 74 590 50.32” X
granitoid
GG08 Mylonitic 4 400 19.42” 75 00 2.15” X X X
granitoid
CI12a Quartz- 4 400 09” 74 590 48” X X X X
feldspathic
gneiss
Central Tolima region (Rovira)
R1 Granitoid 4 130 20.21” 75 110 45.64” X
0
A-5 Quartz monzonite 4 11 46.18” 75 140 11.15” X
A-6 Granite 4 110 42.86” 75 140 6.07” X
0
C-01 Granodiorite 4 19 29.74” 75 120 10.98” X
Southern Tolima region (Planadas)
CLM4A Granodiorite 3 150 39.88” 75 360 51.18” X X X X X
0 0
CLM4B Andesite 3 15 39.88” 75 36 51.18” X
CLM5 Diorite 3 100 53.59” 75 390 42.11” X X X X X
0 0
CLM6A Diorite 3 10 44.97” 75 40 23.03” X X X X X
CLM6B Diorite 3 100 44.97” 75 400 23.03” X X X
a
Petrographic, geochronological and isotopic data from sample CI12 are taken from Bustamante et al. (2017) X Analysis applied in each sample.
176
3.3 | Hf isotopes a Hf/177Hf of 0.282676 ± 26 (2SD) and five analyses of the
91,500 zircon (S-MC-ICPMS 176
Hf/177Hf = 0.282306 ± 8, Blichert-
176
In situ analysis of zircon, Hf isotope signatures were performed in four Toft, 2008) and yielded a Hf/177Hf of 0.282309 ± 33 (2SD).
samples (CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A, CLM6B). Following analyses for Analyses of these quality control zircons agree well with published
U–Pb age, the Lu-Hf isotope composition of zircon crystals was deter- S-MC-ICPMS isotope compositions of purified Hf from these
mined at the Radiogenic Isotope and Geochronology Lab (RIGL) at zircons, attesting to the accuracy of the interference correction
Washington State University. Analyses were conducted using a methods employed.
Thermo Finnigan Neptune mass spectrometer coupled to an Analyte Internal 2-sigma precision was typical 1.1 εHf. Analyses with
G2 193nm excimer laser, using a spot size of 35 μm, a laser fluence of less than 25 ratios and/or internal 2-sigma uncertainty over two εHf
5.5 J/cm2 and a repetition rate of 10 Hz. This study used the same units were discarded and not presented here. Present-day εHf values
instrument configuration, operating parameters and data reduction were calculated using the CHUR parameters reported by Bouvier
methods outlined by Fisher, Vervoort, and DuFrane (2014), except et al. (2008). Laser εHf values are reported with 2SE uncertainty.
that U–Pb ages were not simultaneously determined. In this “dedi-
cated Hf” method, the output from the ablation cell was mixed with
N2 gas and delivered directly to the Neptune MC-ICPMS. In addition, 3.4 | Whole-rock geochemistry
to reduce inter-laboratory bias, the Plešovice zircon standard
(176Hf/177Hf = 0.282482 ± 13, Sláma et al., 2008) was regularly ana- X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spec-
lysed between sample blocks and used to correct the measured trometry (ICP-MS) at ALS Minerals determined major oxides and trace
176
Hf/177Hf of unknowns. Given the potentially large range of (Lu + Yb)/ elements concentrations. Eight samples (GG08, CI12, CLM4A, CLM5,
Hf in zircon samples, accurate correction for the isobaric interference of CLM6A, A-5, A-6, C-01) were crushed using a jaw crusher and pow-
176 176 176
Yb and Lu on Hf is imperative. Therefore, it should be assessed ered using a tungsten carbide ring mill. The powdered samples (0.2 g)
using quality control zircons interspersed with samples (Fisher, were weighed into a graphite crucible and mixed with 1.5 g LiBO2
Vervoort, & Hanchar, 2014). Throughout this session, four analyses flux. The crucibles were heated in a furnace to 1050 C for 15 minutes
of the FC-1 zircon (S-MC-ICPMS 176
Hf/177Hf = 0.282184 ± 16, and the resulting melt was dissolved in 5% HNO3. Calibration stan-
176 177
Woodhead & Hergt, 2005) and yielded a Hf/ Hf of 0.282191 ± 28 dards and reagent blanks were added to the sample sequence. Sample
(2SD), three analyses of the Temora-2 zircon (S-MC-ICPMS solutions were aspirated into an ICP emission spectrograph (Jarrel Ash
176
Hf/177Hf = 0.282686 ± 8, Woodhead & Hergt, 2005) and yielded Atom Comb 975) to determine major oxides and certain trace
F I G U R E 3 Field photographs. (a) Outcrop north of the Tolima region shows the contact relationship between Permian (left) and Triassic rocks
(right). (b) Hand specimen of mylonitic granitoid (sample GG08). (c) Hand specimen of mylonitic granitoid (sample E4). (d) Outcrop at the north of
the municipality of Planadas showing sample CLM4B (andesite dike) intruding sample CLM4A (granitoid). (e) Hand specimen of sample CLM5
(diorite). (f) Hand specimen of sample CLM6 (diorite).
elements (Ba, Nb, Ni, Sr, Sc, Y and Zr). In contrast, the sample (Figure 2) and is characterized by an intense deformation defined by
solutions are aspirated into an ICP-MS (Perkin-Elmer Elan 6000) to augens of quartz and feldspar enveloped by chloritized mafic minerals
determine the trace elements, including rare earth elements. All geo- (amphibole and biotite). These deformational characteristics are
chemical analyses were handled and processed using GCDKit 5.0 shared by the mafic dikes that intrude on the mylonitic granitoids
(Janoušek et al., 2006). (Figure 3). Under the microscope; the rocks are fine-to medium-sized
The whole-rock geochemical data obtained was compared with grained with granonematoblastic texture where hornblende crystals
information published for other Permian plutons of Colombia, includ- define a preferred orientation (sample GG08) and are composed of
ing in Vinasco et al. (2006), Cochrane et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. plagioclase (46%; An38), hornblende (31%), quartz (8%), K-feldspar
(2014), Rodríguez et al. (2017), Leal-Mejía et al. (2019) and Rodríguez- (5%), biotite (10%), which is entirely replaced by chlorite and opaque
García et al. (2019). minerals and zircon as the accessory phases (Figure 4a).
The second groups of granitoids are massive outcrops to the cen-
ter and south of the Tolima region, within the municipality of Rovira
4 | RESULTS and Planadas, respectively (Figure 2). These rocks are phaneritic, hypi-
diomorphic and fine to medium-grained plutonic rocks (samples
4.1 | Sampling and petrography CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A, CLM6B); the granitoids are constituted by
plagioclase (43–63%; An29-34), quartz (8–14%), K-feldspar (4–25%),
The studied granitoids are distributed along the eastern flank of the biotite (10–19%), hornblende (3–13%) and pyroxenes (2–18% of
Central Cordillera. Field observations let us separate these rocks into enstatite in sample CLM5 and augite in sample CLM6B) Typical
mylonitic and massive granitoids. The first group outcrops to the accessory minerals are zircon, apatite and opaque minerals. Chlorite,
north of the Tolima region, near the municipality of Anzoátegui epidote, sericite and calcite are common secondary minerals.
F I G U R E 4 Photomicrographs of samples from the Tolima region. Crossed-polarized light: (a) Sample GG08 (myloniticgranitoid), where aligned
hornblende crystals along with elongated equigranular quartz are defining a mylonitic foliation of a Permian granitoid, whereas in (b) the sample
CLM4A (granodiorite) is showing the typical microtextural characteristic of a Permian undeformed granite. The latter is intruded by (c) an andesite
dike with resorbed quartz phenocryst (Sample CLM4B); (d) Sample CLM5 (diorite) shows kinked plagioclase crystals and undulose extinction of
quartz; (e) and (f) Samples CLM6A and CLM6B (diorite), respectively showing different degrees of alteration from a Permian granitoid of the
Planadas region. Qtz = quartz, Bt = biotite, Ser = sericite, Pl = plagioclase, Hbl = hornblende.
In addition, microstructures like undulatory extinction in quartz, bent 4.2 | Zircon U–Pb ages and Hf isotopes
plagioclase (deformed twins) and myrmekites are present in all samples
(Figure 4b,d–f). Sample CLM4B is a felsic volcanic rock found as a dike U–Pb zircon analyses were obtained from five granitoids (samples
intruding sample CLM4A (Figure 3d). It has a porphyritic texture with CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A, CLM6B, R1) and two mylonitic granitoids
phenocrysts of quartz with embayed texture and hornblende. The (samples E4, GG08). The resulting U–Pb data are listed in Table S1. CL
matrix is microcrystalline, composed of quartz, plagioclase, hornblende images of representative zircons and weighted average diagrams are
and secondary minerals such as chlorite and epidote (Figure 4c). shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. Hf isotope compositions of
F I G U R E 5 Cathodoluminescence
(CL) images of representative zircon
grains from samples (a) CLM4A,
(b) CLM5, (c) CLM6A, (d) CLM6B,
(e) E4 and (f) GG08.
zircons from samples CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A and CLM6B are pro- (Figure 5a). Th/U ratios vary from 0.2 to 0.8. Thirty zircon grains
206
vided in Table S2. and Figure 7. have Pb/238U ages (concordance better than 95%) ranging from
Zircon grains from CLM4A (granodiorite) are 120–260 μm in ca. 269 Ma to ca. 263 Ma and provide a weight average age of
length and 60–140 μm in width. These grains are subhedral, elon- 266.8 ± 0.2 Ma (MSWD = 1.1; Figure 6a), interpreted as the crys-
gated and present oscillatory zoning, as shown in the CL images tallization age. Twenty of the dated zircons have an initial
FIGURE 6 Zircon U–Pb weighted average age and Concordia diagrams for samples CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A, CLM6B, R1, E4 and GG08.
176
Hf/177Hf between 0.282602 and 0.282651 and εHf(i) ranging Zircons grains from CLM6A (diorite) are 120–250 μm in length and
from 0.6 to +1.2 (Figure 7). 70–120 μm in width. CL images show stubby subhedral and anhedral
Zircons from CLM5 (diorite) are 150–320 μm in length and 100– grains that exhibit oscillatory or patchy zoning; there are also unzoned
200 μm in width. CL images show stubby subhedral grains; some exhibit grains (Figure 5c). Th/U ratios from the analysed zircons vary from 0.2
oscillatory or patchy zoning; a few grains are unzoned (Figure 5b). Th/U to 1.1. Thirty-four zircons yield concordant U–Pb ages (concordance
206
ratios range from 0.4 to 0.9. Thirty-eight analyses yield Pb/238U ages better than 95%) ranging from ca. 275 Ma to ca. 268 Ma and define a
(concordance better than 95%) from ca. 268 Ma to ca. 262 Ma weight average age of 272.9 ± 0.2 Ma (MSWD =1.7; Figure 6c), which
and define a weight average age of 265.9 ± 0.2 Ma (MSWD = 1.1; represent the crystallization age. One zircon yields a Neoproterozoic
Figure 6b), considered as the crystallization age. Twenty of the dated zir- age of 594.2 ± 7.8 Ma, interpreted as a xenocrystic zircon. Eighteen
176
cons present initial Hf/177Hf ratios between 0.282602 and 0.282651 zircons have initial 176
Hf/177Hf ratios ranging from 0.282589 to
and εHf(i) values ranging from 1.5 to +0.9 (Figure 7). 0.282657 and εHf(i) values ranging from 0.9 to +1.6 (Figure 7).
F I G U R E 7 Initial εHf versus

206
Pb/238U age diagram from
samples CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A
and CLM6B.
Zircons from CLM6B (diorite) are 40–300 μm in length and 30– significant zircon age population, where twenty-eight spots yield Triassic
120 μm in width. These grains are stubby and rounded anhedral- ages between ca. 250 and ca. 200 Ma. According to CL images and spot
subhedral predominantly unzoned, as shown in the CL images ages, some zircons have Permian cores with Triassic rims. The rim ages
(Figure 5d). Th/U ratios vary from 0.2 to 1.0. Thirty-six analyses yield (spots CB1-E4-3, 13, 21, 33, 44, 50) define a Concordia age of 228.6 ±
206
Pb/238U ages (concordance better than 95%) ranging from 0.8 Ma (MSWD = 1.3; n = 6) and present Th/U ratios between 0.05 to
ca. 276 Ma to ca. 267 Ma and provide a weight average age of 0.2. Four spots are significantly older yielding ages of 1078 ± 18 Ma,
273 ± 0.2 Ma (MSWD = 2.5; Figure 6d), interpreted as the crystalliza- 840 ± 14 Ma, 487 ± 15 Ma and 371.7 ± 6.7 Ma, which is related to
tion age. One zircon yields a Neoproterozoic age of 577.9 ± 5.1 Ma, xenocrystic zircons.
representing an inherited zircon. Eighteen zircons have initial Zircons from sample GG08 (mylonitic granitoid) are 75–190 μm long
176
Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282610 to 0.282660 and εHf(i) values that and 30–75 μm wide. CL images show stubby subhedral and anhedral
range from 0.1 to +1.7 (Figure 7). A xenocrystic zircon (No. 15 with crystals; some crystals have oscillatory zoning, xenocrystic cores and signs
176 177
an age of 578 Ma) has an intermediate initial Hf/ Hf (0.282349) of local recrystallization. (Figure 5f). Th/U ratios range from 0.2 to 1.6.
and a lower εHf(i) (2.5) compared with the other zircons (Figure 7). Twenty-eight analyses show a range of 206
Pb/238U ages between
For all the analysed zircons from sample R1 (granitoid), Th/U ratios ca. 373 and ca. 201 Ma, where twenty-two analyses yield concordant
range from 0.2 to 1.1. Fourteen analyses yield 206Pb/238U ages (concor- ages (concordance better than 95%) and six analyses are discordant.
206
dance better than 95%) ranging from ca. 278 Ma to ca. 271 Ma and Eleven analyses yield Pb/238U ages ranging from ca. 276 Ma to
provide a weight average age of 275 ± 0.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.5; ca. 267 Ma, providing a weight average age of 272.4 ± 0.6 Ma
Figure 6e), which is considered to represent the time of crystallization (MSWD = 1.7; Figure 6g), considered the crystallization age. One grain
(Middle Permian). Two spots yield Mesoproterozoic (1033.4 ± 7.5 Ma) yields a Devonian age (373.3 ± 8.2 Ma), considered a xenocrystic zircon
and Neoproterozoic age (930.6 ± 6.4 Ma), related to inherited zircons. and six grains yield Triassic ages between ca. 248 and ca. 201 Ma.
Zircons from sample E4 (mylonitic granitoid) are 52–300 μm in According to morphology and internal structures observed in CL
length and 23–130 μm in width. The grains are stubby and elongated images and Th/U ratios, we consider the analysed zircons as magmatic
subhedral with oscillatory zoning as shown in the CL images (Figure 5e). zircons, which reflect the crystallization ages of the samples (Corfu
206 238
Seventy-eight analyses show a range of Pb/ U ages between et al., 2003; Hoskin & Schaltegger, 2003; Rubatto, 2002).
ca. 1078 and ca. 200 Ma, where seventy-three analyses yield concordant Hydrothermal zircon grains in CL images present spongy texture
U–Pb ages (concordance better than 95%) and five analyses are discor- from fluid and/or hydrothermal mineral inclusions, dissolution textures,
dant. Th/U ratios vary from 0.01 to 1.2. Twenty-eight analyses yield or inclusion-rich rims and embayments (Hoskin & Schaltegger, 2003;
206 238
Pb/ U ages ranging from ca. 278 Ma to ca. 252 Ma, providing a Schaltegger, 2007; Yang et al., 2014). Moreover, compared with mag-
weight average age of 273.8 ± 0.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.9; Figure 6f), which matic zircons, hydrothermal zircon grains have higher abundances of
is considered the crystallization age. This sample also presents another the REE, flatter light-REE patterns, smaller Ce anomalies and significant
F I G U R E 8 (a) Th/U versus Hf plot and chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) diagrams for samples CLM4A, CLM5 and CLM6
(chondrite values of McDonough & Sun, 1995) (b–d).
concentrations of Ca, Al and Fe (Hoskin, 2005; Schaltegger, 2007). On Rubatto, 2002; Figure 8a). Chondrite-normalized zircon REE patterns dis-
the other hand, metamorphic zircon grains are rounded or ovoid play steep positive slopes from La to Lu ([Lu/La]N = 15.6–59,118),
(Hoskin & Schaltegger, 2003). In contrast to the oscillatory zoning in with enrichment in HREE relative to LREE ([Yb/Sm]N = 19.3–189.8) and
magmatic zircons, metamorphic zircons have internal structures with positive Ce and negative Eu anomalies (Ce/Ce* = 1.2–126.2;
no zoning, weak zoning, or zoning patterns as cloudy, patched, or Eu/Eu* = 0.2–0.4; Figure 8b–d), which is a typical trend for zircon crys-
spongy (Wu & Zheng, 2004). Metamorphic zircons are usually charac- tallized from continental arc magmas (Hoskin & Schaltegger, 2003).
terized by Th/U ratios less than 0.1. (Hoskin & Schaltegger, 2003;
Rubatto, 2002; Wu & Zheng, 2004).
Since none of these characteristics were identified on the samples, 4.4 | Whole-rock geochemistry
we discarded a hydrothermal or metamorphic origin for the zircons.
Major and trace elements data were acquired for six massive granitoids
(samples CLM4A, CLM5, CLM6A, A-5, A-6, C-01) and two mylonitic gran-
4.3 | Zircon trace elements itoids (samples GG08, CI12). Analytical results are listed in Table S4.
Although major elements may be affected by the alteration of primary
Trace elements in zircons were performed in three samples south of minerals, the low loss on ignition (<1.9 wt.%) of our samples indicates that
the Tolima region (CLM4A, CLM5 and CLM6). Analytical results are major element mobility was insignificant. However, we also used trace
reported in Table S3. and rare-earth elements in the analysis to strengthen our interpretations.
Zircon grains present Hf concentrations ranging from 7890 to The granitoids are intermediate to felsic rocks with SiO2 contents
11,620 ppm, U vary from 96 to 1234 ppm, Th contents range from varying from 59.6 to 71.6 wt.% (mean = 64.9 wt.%). The composi-
44 to 1735 ppm, Y varies from 349 to 3010 and total REE concentration tional ranges for the other major elements vary between 15.7 and
varies from 295 to 2065 ppm. Th/U ratios range from 0.3 to 1.4, as 19.2 wt. % for Al2O3, 3.3–10.3 wt.% for Na2O, 0.3–5.9 wt.% for CaO,
expected from magmatic-related zircons (Hoskin & Schaltegger, 2003; 0.1–3.7 wt.% for MgO and 0.2–3.4 wt.% for K2O.
F I G U R E 9 Geochemical classification and discrimination diagrams of plutonic igneous samples from the Tolima region. (a) Classification
of plutonic rocks based on the TAS diagram of Middlemost (1994). (b-d) Discrimination diagrams of Frost et al. (2001). Geochemical data
represented in grey circles were compiled from Vinasco et al. (2006), Cochrane et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2017),
Leal-Mejía et al. (2019) and Rodríguez-García et al. (2019).
The mylonitic granitoids show high to moderate SiO2 content, whereas samples GG08, A-5, and A-6 plot in the calcic, alkali-calcic
ranging from 59.3 to 71.0 wt.%, Al2O3 content varies from 15.5 to and alkalic series, respectively (Figure 9c); and the ASI ratios (alumin-
16.9 wt. %, Na2O content from 4.2 to 5.1 wt.%, CaO content from ium saturation index; Al2O3/[CaO + Na2O + K2O] in mol) range
3.0 to 5.5 wt.%, MgO content from 0.8 to 3.6 wt.% and K2O content between 0.8 and 1.4, indicating a metaluminous to peraluminous
from 0.9 to 1.4 wt.%. nature (Figure 9d). This peraluminous character found in samples
According to the TAS diagram, the samples are classified as dio- CLM4A, A-5, A-6 and GG08 could be due to high Al contents pro-
rite, granodiorite, quartz monzonite and granite (Figure 9a). In the dis- duced by the sericitization of plagioclase crystals and the presence of
crimination diagrams of Frost et al. (2001), the majority of samples aluminous biotite. Bivariate diagrams show a decrease in TiO2, Al2O3,
plotted in the magnesian field, except sample A-5, which plot in the MgO, CaO, P2O5, Fe2O3 and Na2O and an increase in K2O relative to
ferroan field (Figure 9b); five samples plot in the calc-alkalic series, SiO2 (Figure 10).
F I G U R E 1 0 Harker variation diagrams. TiO2; Al2O3; MgO; CaO; P2O5; Fe2O3; Na2O; K2O versus SiO2. Geochemical data represented in grey
circles were compiled from Vinasco et al. (2006), Cochrane et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2017), Leal-Mejía et al. (2019)
and Rodríguez-García et al. (2019).
According to the REE, diagram normalized to chondrite from both Spikings & Paul, 2019) and therefore suggests that Permian magma-
granitoids and gneisses (Boynton, 1984; Figure 11a), the samples have tism in the Northern Andes must have a major peak of activity during
moderate to steep REE patterns ([La/Yb]N = 9.3–34.3) and show this time interval. Although the Permian crystalline basement is poorly
enrichment in LREE compared with HREE ((La/Sm)N = 3.4–7.0, exposed in the Northern Andes because it may have been intensively
(Tb/Yb)N = 1.3–2.9), LREE-MREE slope is steep negative ([La/Dy] eroded, covered by thick layers of vegetation, or confused during early
N = 7.6–30.5) and MREE-HREE slope is predominantly flat-shaped geological mapping works with the youngest intrusive rocks of similar
([Dy/Yb]N = 1.1–2.2); the HREE slope pattern for samples A-5, A-6 composition (i.e., Jurassic batholiths); the 40 m.y. of magmatic activity
and GG08 is steep negative and strongly concave-upward; these sam- could also be imaged in its detrital record (Barth et al., 2013). Detrital
ples have lower total REE concentrations (37.6 ppm, 61.2 ppm and zircons from different sedimentary basins along the Middle Magdalena
70.9 ppm, respectively). Eu anomalies vary from slightly negative to Valley and Eastern Cordillera (Bayona et al., 2013; Caballero et al., 2013;
positive (Eu/Eu* = 0.8–1.5). Multi-element diagrams normalized to Horton et al., 2010; Nie et al., 2010; Saylor et al., 2011; Silva et al., 2013)
the primitive mantle (Sun & McDonough, 1989; Figure 11b) show show an increase in the U–Pb zircon ages between ca. 290 and
substantial depletion in Nb, P, Ti and HFSE contents, typical of ca. 260 Ma, which can be related with an increase of the volume of
subduction-related magmatic rocks. Within the tectonic discrimination magma produced in this time interval, probably because of the early
diagrams of Pearce et al. (1984), all the data points plot within the vol- stages of the magmatic arc (Figure 13). A comparison of U–Pb ages
canic arc field (VAG) (Figure 12). obtained in both detrital zircons and in-situ rocks shows a similar distribu-
tion, indicating that the most significant peak of magmatic activity
occurred at ca. 270 Ma. The further decrease from ca. 240 Ma might be
5 | DISCUSSION related to plate reorganizations derived from the Pangea breakup and the
dominance of extensional tectonics (Spikings & Paul, 2019; Vinasco
5.1 | Duration of the Permian arc magmatism et al., 2006) (Figure 14).
Intrusive and mylonitic rocks with similar ages have been reported
Our new U–Pb crystallization ages dataset evidences magmatic activ- along the Central Cordillera and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in
ity between 276 and 265 Ma, which is similar to other magmatic crys- the Tierradentro gneisses and amphibolites (Bustamante et al., 2017),
tallization ages reported in the region (Rodríguez-García et al., 2019; La Plata and Ortega granites (Rodríguez-García et al., 2019) and El
F I G U R E 1 1 (a) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns, according to Boynton (1984) and (b) Multi-element plot normalized to primitive mantle
according to Sun and McDonough (1989). Geochemical data represented in grey patterns were compiled from Vinasco et al. (2006), Cochrane
et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2017), Leal-Mejía et al. (2019) and Rodríguez-García et al. (2019).
F I G U R E 1 3 Histogram of detrital U–Pb zircon ages from

sedimentary basins from the Middle Magdalena Valley and the
Eastern Cordillera (blue bars) and 206Pb/238U ages from Permian
intrusive and metamorphic rocks from the Sierra Nevada de Santa
F I G U R E 1 2 Granitoid tectonic discrimination diagram according Marta, the Serranía de San Lucas and the Central Cordillera (red bars).
to Pearce et al. (1984). Fields for syn-collision (syn-COLG), volcanic Data of detrital U–Pb ages compiled from Nie et al. (2010), Horton
arc (VAG), within-plate (WPG) and ocean ridge (ORG) granites are et al. (2010), Saylor et al. (2011), Bayona et al. (2013), Caballero et al.
indicated. Geochemical data represented in grey circles were (2013) and Silva et al. (2013). Data of Permian intrusive and
compiled from Vinasco et al. (2006), Cochrane et al. (2014), Rodríguez metamorphic rocks compiled from Vinasco et al. (2006); Cardona et al.
et al. (2014), Rodríguez et al. (2017), Leal-Mejía et al. (2019) and (2010); Villago mez et al. (2011); Cochrane et al. (2014); Bustamante
Rodríguez-García et al. (2019). et al. (2017); Rodríguez et al. (2017); Paul et al. (2018); Rodríguez-
García et al. (2019); Leal-Mejía et al. (2019); Piraquive et al. (2021).
Encanto orthogneiss (Piraquive et al., 2021). The existence of fragments Feo-Codoecido et al., 1984), to the south of the Cordillera Real in
of Permian magmatism along southern North America and Central Ecuador (Paul et al., 2018), the central Eastern Cordillera of Perú
n
America (Arvizu et al., 2009; Cecil et al., 2019; Ortega-Obrego (Miškovic et al., 2009) and along the Frontal and Domeyko Cordilleras
et al., 2014; Weber et al., 2007), the Paraguaná Península in Venezuela in Northern Chile (Coloma et al., 2017; Oliveros et al., 2020) account
(El Baúl Massif: van der Lelij et al., 2016; Viscarret et al., 2009); the Ser- for a protracted magmatic activity during the Permian at the western
ranía de Perijá and Maracaibo Lake (Dasch, 1982; Espejo et al., 1980; margin of Gondwana in the Americas.
(Healy et al., 2004; Sheppard et al., 2003; Sylvester, 1998). However,

this type of granitoids could also be formed in continental arc settings
in different situations: during early stages of arc magmatism (Ducea
et al., 2015); associated with back-arc extension (Collins &
Richards, 2008); or as a result of a progressive increase of metasedi-
mentary components towards the interior of the continent (Collins,
1998; Liew & Hofmann, 1988). For example, in Colombia, Permian
S-type granitoids have been reported in different units (Cochrane
et al., 2014; Leal-Mejía et al., 2019; Vinasco et al., 2006) along with
metaluminous I-type granitoids (Figure 9d; see Rodríguez-García
et al., 2019 and references therein), showing that these different
types of magmatism formed synchronously. Therefore, the coexis-
tence of these two types of granitoids could be explained by varia-
tions in the source composition (i.e., partial melting of mafic lower
crust/lithospheric mantle and crustal metasediments) in variable
proportions within a continuous subduction-related setting (Grosse
et al., 2011; Pankhurst et al., 2000). Hence, a collisional setting is
not required to explain the S-type granitoids (Vinasco et al., 2006);
therefore, different sources are more feasible.
Whole-rock geochemistry of the studied granitoids shows a calc-
alkaline character. In addition, the trace element concentrations show
LREEs and LILEs enrichments and negative Nb and Ti anomalies.
These characteristics of subduction-related magmatic rocks suggest
that these rocks were formed in a continental arc setting. The trace
element discrimination diagram further confirms this interpretation
since all the samples fall into the volcanic arc granite field (VAG;
F I G U R E 1 4 Timeline of the main tectono-magmatic events Figure 12). The latter is also supported by zircon trace elements data
within the north-western margin of Gondwana from 330 Ma to showing high zircon HREE over LREE chondritic-normalized contents
180 Ma. (see Leal-Mejía et al., 2019; Rodríguez García et al., 2022; and distinct positive Ce and negative Eu anomalies, characteristic of
Rodríguez-García et al., 2019; Spikings & Paul, 2019). continental arc rocks with high oxygen fugacity.
According to the discrimination diagrams of Whalen et al. (1987),
most of the granitoids plot in the unfractionated granite field
Additional constraints on the magmatic history could be tracked if (Figure 15a,b). Biotite and hornblende are widespread in the investi-
we consider the inherited zircons with Palaeozoic crystallization ages gated granitoids and Al-rich minerals absent, such as muscovite,
and even Meso-Neoproterozoic ages. The latter suggests that garnet, or cordierite; additionally, the samples are metaluminous to
the Permian intrusives of the Central Cordillera assimilated an older weakly peraluminous and have an A/CNK <1.1 and the P2O5 concen-
continental crust, probably rocks of a Carboniferous magmatic arc, as trations are negatively correlated with SiO2 contents (Figure 10),
suggested in the U–Pb ages reported by Leal-Mejía et al. (2019), which favour an I-type affinity. The latter can be further supported by
Rodríguez-García et al. (2019) and Rodríguez García et al. (2022) the Y versus Rb and Th versus Rb diagrams (Figure 15c,d), where most
(Figure 14). samples lie along with the I-type trend.
The composition of I-type calc-alkaline magmas may be controlled
by processes such as magma mixing, magmatic fractionation from
5.2 | Origin of the magmas and tectonic setting basaltic magma, assimilation of country rocks and the peritectic
entrainment of clinopyroxene, plagioclase and ilmenite (Clemens
The models proposed to explain the tectonic setting of the Permian et al., 2011). In our case, the magma mixing and magmatic fraction-
magmatism of the Northern Andes include (i) a collisional event that ation seem negligible according to the La/Sm versus La and Th/Hf
produced partial melting of the continental crust and a regional meta- versus Th diagrams (Figure 15e,f) and due to the lack of evidence of
morphic event (Vinasco et al., 2006) and (ii) a continental arc which is magma mixing, such as mafic enclaves. Furthermore, fractional crystal-
part of a broader magmatic province that extends along the western lization of mantle-derived basaltic magma is doubtful since the volume
margin of Gondwana (Cardona et al., 2010; Rodríguez-García of mafic rocks in the study area is regarded as a few mafic dikes
et al., 2019; Spikings & Paul, 2019). The generation of S-type granit- (Figures 3d and 4c). Therefore, a combination of processes like the
oids characterizes the first scenario. These rocks are commonly con- assimilation of the country rock and the entrainment of peritectic
sidered products of continental collisions and intraplate orogenies phases due to the partial melting of metasedimentary rocks are the
F I G U R E 1 5 Petrogenetic discrimination diagrams for the massive and mylonitic granitoids from the Tolima region. (a) FeOT/MgO
versus Zr + Nb + Ce + Y; (b) (K2O + Na2O/CaO) versus Zr + Nb + Ce + Y (after Whalen et al., 1987). (c) Y versus Rb; (d) Th versus Rb
(after Chappell, 1999); (e) La versus La/Sm; (f) Th versus Th/Hf; (g) Dy/Yb versus Nb/Ta (Xie et al., 2021). FG: Fractionated felsic granites;
OTG: unfractionated M-, I-and S-type granites; A: A-type granites.
most feasible mechanisms for the origin of the Permian granitoids of (Peacock et al., 1994; Poli & Schmidt, 2002). Chiaradia (2015) also iden-
the Northern Andes. tified that Sr/Y values higher than 20 are related to a thickened crust.
These processes are supported in the variable εHf(i) values rang- This model is explained because Y partitions into garnet and amphibole
ing from 1.5 to +1.7 that reflect the influence of a crustal source in at high pressures (>12 kbar) (Lee et al., 2007). Hence, magma differenti-
the genesis of these rocks. The initial Hf isotopic values suggest a ation at the arc roots would have occurred at elevated pressures.
mantellic source and considerable crustal assimilation of the magmas. We suggest that samples CLM4A, CLM5 and CLM6A could
Similar isotopic signatures were reported for Permian lithologies have been formed from a thick crust at elevated pressures where
located north of the Tolima region (Bustamante et al., 2017; Cochrane garnet and amphibole are stable (Chapman et al., 2015; Profeta
et al., 2014; Figure 7). In addition, Nd-Sr isotopes obtained in granitic et al., 2016), as suggested by the presence of orthopyroxene-bearing
gneisses collected along the western flank of the Central Cordillera by granitoids (sample CLM5) and the common presence of clinopyrox-
Vinasco et al. (2006) suggest a crustal source with a primary contribu- ene mantled by amphibole.
tion of mantle input. Such continental crust with a Gondwana affinity Additionally, a setting where magma differentiation of the melts
may have been heterogeneous as imaged in the older xenocrystic zir- occurred in the stability field of garnet at the base of a thick crust could
cons with Palaeozoic to Proterozoic ages. explain the adakite-like signatures found in samples GG08, A-5 and A-6
Further evidence suggests partial melting and magmatic differen- (Castillo, 2012). Information obtained from Ti-in-zircon (TZircTi; Watson
tiation occurred in a thick crust. Our chemical compositions show that et al., 2006 equation [7]) and zircon saturation thermometers (TZircsat;
Eu anomalies are subtle negative to positive (Eu* from 0.8 to 1.5), sug- Watson & Harrison, 1983 equation [2]) follows these assumptions. TZircTi
gesting that the plagioclase was not an important residual phase in shows an average crystallization temperature for zircon ranging from
the source region. Conversely, hornblende and garnet seem to have 620 C–755 C. TZircsat is slightly low and varies from 754 C to 805 C
been the most important fractionating phases during partial melting (average 784 C). According to Miller et al. (2003), granitoids with zircon
due to the correlation between Dy/Yb and Nb/Ta (Figure 15g; Xie saturation temperatures lower than 800 C emplaced in environments
et al., 2021) and the significant enrichment in LREE when compared with thick crusts. The coincidence of the thick crust characteristics with
with HREE (Figure 11). the time interval of peak magmatic production suggests that the crustal
This scenario is coherent with the high Sr/Y ratios in samples growth was probably controlled by magmatic addition.
CLM4A, CLM5 and CLM6A (39.1–59.4; average 45.3). Such ratios were The geochemical and isotopic data have shown that the samples
initially related to slab-derived melts (Defant & Drummond, 1990). from the Tolima region were formed within a convergent arc-related
However, under normal subduction conditions, the oceanic lithosphere setting originated as a consequence of the subduction of the Pantha-
is mainly subjected to dehydration and does not melt extensively lassa oceanic crust at the western Gondwana margin, where the
F I G U R E 1 6 Schematic diagram (not at scale) showing the processes involved during the formation of the granitoids from the Central
Cordillera of Colombia. The granitoids were formed within a continental arc at the western Gondwana margin between 276 and 265 Ma and
originated by partially melting the mantle wedge in a subduction zone. A heterogeneous Gondwanan crust, composed of a combination of basalts
and metasedimentary rock with Proterozoic to Palaeozoic ages, allowed the assimilation and differentiation of the magmas, as suggested in the
Hf isotopes. At the base of this thick crust, pyroxene, garnet and amphibole were stable, as indicated in the adakite-like signature (i.e., Sr/Y > 39).
The crustal growth was probably the consequence of continuous magmatic addition.
magmas were generated by partial melting of a mantellic source and 2. The samples are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous I-type
were contaminated as they ascended through a heterogeneous thick granitoids with a calc-alkaline character, rich in light-rare elements
continental crust (Figure 16). Additionally, the massive and mylonitic (LREEs) and large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs) and present nega-
granitoids are temporally and compositionally correlated with other tive Nb and Ti anomalies. Zircons from massive granitoids show
Permian rocks in Colombia and rocks found along the Andes. εHf(i) values ranging from 1.5 to +1.7.
Vinasco et al. (2006) and Piraquive et al. (2021) suggest a 3. According to our results and published geochemical, geochrono-
regional metamorphic event at ca. 280–260 Ma coeval with the logical and isotopic data from this region, the samples are part of a
magmatic event due to a collisional setting associated with the continental arc formed due to the subduction of an oceanic crust
agglutination of the Pangea supercontinent. In contrast, Cardona beneath the western margin of Gondwana.
et al. (2010) and Spikings and Paul (2019) suggest a high- 4. The magma originated from partially melting a mantellic source
temperature deformational event at 250 Ma produced by com- affected by crustal assimilation. The magmatic differentiation
pression along the western margin of Pangea. However, Bustamante occurred at the arc roots of a heterogeneous thickened continental
et al. (2017) reported Triassic mafic rocks intruding on Permian felsic crust, as suggested by the common presence of pyroxene, the
rocks and both recorded a mylonitic deformation that may have zircon inheritances, the geochemical characteristics and the Hf
occurred during or after the Triassic. This intrusive relationship is isotopes in zircons.
also registered in sample E4 in both field relationships (Figure 3c)
and the presence of zircon grains characterized by having Permian AUTHOR CONTRIBU TIONS
cores with Triassic rims (Figure 5e). Marcela Restrepo: Writing – original draft, visualization, investigation.
Camilo Bustamante: Writing – review and editing, investigation, pro-
ject administration, funding acquisition. Agustín Cardona: Writing –
6 | C O N CL U S I O N S review and editing, formal analysis, investigation. Alejandro Beltrán-
Triviño: Writing – review and editing, formal analysis. Victor A. Valen-
1. The studied rocks, collected in the Tolima region along the eastern cia: Formal analysis, investigation, writing – review and editing.
flank of the Central Cordillera, are fine- to medium-grained massive
and mylonitic granitoids constituted by plagioclase, quartz, K-feldspar, AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S
biotite, hornblende and pyroxenes, with crystallization ages between This study was funded by the Vicerrectoría de Ciencia, Tecnología
276 and 265 Ma. n of Universidad EAFIT and is part of the project “El
e Innovaci o
supercontinente Pangea y su registro en los Andes de Colombia” (pp. 63–114). Elsevier, Volume 2, Chapter 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/
(Project N 000037). Authors are grateful to Cyril Chelle-Michou B978-0-444-42148-7.50008-3
Bustamante, A., Bustamante, C., Cardona, A., Juliani, C., & Pereira da
and Luisa Fernanda Chavarría for supporting the acquisition of
Silva, S. (2021). Protoliths of the Jambalo blueschist and greenschist in
geochemical, geochronological and isotopic data. This is a contri- the central Colombian Andes and its tectonic implications with the late
n en Mineralogía y Petrolo-
bution to the Semillero de Investigaci o cretaceous Caribbean-South American interaction. Journal of South
gía. Comments from two Anonymous reviewers and associate American Earth Sciences, 107, 102977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jsames.2020.102977
editor, John S. Armstrong-Altrin, helped improve this manuscript's
Bustamante, A., Juliani, C., Essene, E. J., Hall, C. M., & Hyppolito, T. (2012).
quality. Geochemical constraints on blueschist– And amphibolite–facies rocks
of the central cordillera of Colombia: The Andean Barragán region.
P EE R R EV I E W International Geology Review, 54, 1013–1030. https://doi.org/10.
1080/00206814.2011.594226
The peer review history for this article is available at https://www.
Bustamante, A., Juliani, C., Hall, C. M., & Essene, E. J. (2011). 40Ar/39Ar
webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-review/10.1002/gj.4743. ages from blueschists of the Jambalo region, central cordillera of
Colombia: Implications on the styles of accretion in the Northern
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT Andes. Geologica Acta, 9, 351–362. https://doi.org/10.1344/105.
000001697
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Received: 2 October 2022 Revised: 2 February 2023 Accepted: 18 March 2023

Geochemistry and geochronology of Permian plutonic rocks

Marcela Restrepo 1 | Camilo Bustamante 1 | Agustín Cardona 2 |

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N Two interpretations have been proposed to explain the formation

Latitude N d Longitude W Petrographic Whole-rock Zircon U–Pb Zircon trace Lu-Hf

F I G U R E 7 Initial εHf versus

F I G U R E 1 3 Histogram of detrital U–Pb zircon ages from

(Healy et al., 2004; Sheppard et al., 2003; Sylvester, 1998). However,

49(2), 15–43. https://doi.org/10.32685/0120-1425/bol.geol.49.2. Sylvester, P. J. (1998). Post-collisional strongly peraluminous granites.

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